SOC Chapters 7, 8, 9

-The Melting Pot in regards to assimilation, squashing traditions to conform to an overarching identity of 'American' is seen now in the 21st century (60s-70s) as not a good thing. -How different groups arrive largely shapes the dominant group's view of them. -Europeans (came out of own volition: government and religion and ownership) -Native Americans (Subjugated by Europeans, already here: excluded and segregated.) -Africans (Earliest were brought in as slaves, immigrants today still face existing racial prejudice) (Entertainment industry: actresses) -Latinx (Annexed by territorial conquest, not of own volition) -Asians (Largely of own volition: there was a period of anti-Asian sentiment during large amounts of immigration, however, often viewed positively: greater income, wealth, greater education retainment AFFLUENT FAMILIES) -Trend for minority groups not in own volition (Latinx, Africans, Native Americans): high death rate, poverty rate, low access to health care or medical coverage. -Education/HS/C completion has increased in both minority groups and the dominant group, so the gap still persists. -The Two Sides of Racism: -Prejudice (beliefs, feelings, or attitudes about an entire group | broadly applied, subjective, stereotype filled | Stereotype: simplified generalization about a group) -Discrimination (acting on prejudice | maintains social hierarchy by blocking advancements of subordinate groups LaPiere: Claiming prejudices, but not acting that way. Attitudes do not always match actions or behaviors. Chinese graduate student and reservations. Micro Level (Prejudice) -Frustration-Aggression Theory (Frustration precedes aggression: one possible outcome of frustration, leads to...) -Scapegoating (Merton's means and goals: Frustration by lack of advancement (achieving goals) You cannot take it out on an abstract institution, even if it pisses you off, so you take it out/blame it on real targets you substitute in (groups already marginalized)) -Color-Blind Ideology (I don't see race. Race neutrality actually maintains inequality. Denying who someone else is because race is a part of the experience. Your experiences do not mean anything to me. Promoting what the dominant group sees as right or proper.) The Cost of CB: When you invoke CB, you are invoking privilege. Invalidates the experiences of race both positive and negative. Ignores real inequality, prohibits real solutions, and perpetuates racial divisions. Discrimination: Meso Institutionalized racial discrimination (can occur without laws: redlining: segregating different urban or housing areas: lower income and income taxes, less disposable income placed in education, racial profiling) -Side-effect discrimination (criminal justice -> employment sector) -Past-in-present discrimination (government can address it through i.e. integrating school systems) May be illegal today, but has ramifications. Dominant Group and Minority Group Contact: Macro -Policies to manage race and ethnic relations Genocide Subjugation (slavery, segregation) Population transfer Assimilation (can be forced) (language) Pluralism (legal protection often necessary) Can apply to other qualities (i.e. gender and sexuality)

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Chapter 7 -Inequality: a social condition in which ____, ____, and substantial rewards are given to people in some social positions in society but denied to others -Slavery: the ultimate stratification, when an individual or family is bound in servitude as property, bought and sold, and forced to work (EXISTS IN ALL NATIONS) Freedom dividend: powerful positive economic change that comes to communities when slavery is abolished Slavery lens: seeing hidden crime -Culture determines and legitimizes society's system of sorting its members (Stratification) Each society determines what is considered to be valued resources -Micro: Prestige and Influence: 3 Ps accorded to those who have cultural capital and social capital. -Individual qualities or ____ ____ influence these _____. -Meso: Access to Resources: Education and socialization of language (grammar, manners) -Education -> prestigious jobs -> affluent social stratification -Macro: Global economic position of a nation: failing economy -> lack of meso level infrastructure -> lack of opportunities -S-I: -People learn what is expected in their groups with interactions with others. Rewarded for appropriate behavior in social position. -Knowledge of learning values, habits, and appropriate group membership and self-concept provides us with the cultural capital necessary to interact effectively with those in our social position. To symbolically communicate social standing, people often engage in conspicuous consumption, which is the purchase and use of certain products to make a social statement about status. Carrying pricey but eco-friendly water bottles could indicate a person's social standing. Some people buy expensive trendy sneakers even though they will never wear them to jog or play sports. A $17,000 car provides transportation as easily as a $100,000 vehicle, but the luxury car makes a social statement that the less expensive car can't live up to. All these symbols of stratification are worthy of examination by an interactionist. In most communities, people interact primarily with others who share the same social standing. It is precisely because of social stratification that people tend to live, work, and associate with others like themselves, people who share their same income level, educational background, or racial background, and even tastes in food, music, and clothing. -The results of this cultural capital affects likeliness of education. (Families reproduce social class systems) -RCT: Delayed gratification. -One's socioeconomic position is shaped by individual decisions -Past experiences and social position can influence the way one evaluates costs and benefits. (College clubs for admission) -Homelessness: master status seen as disrespectful, cope with either labeling it is bad luck or being different, past/fictional achievements, embrace role -S-F: Inevitable and necessary in society. Elements/considered rewards given to people in various occupations: 1) Value of position (specific training, long hours - must motivate) 2) Preparation requires talent, time, and money (motivate = make sacrifices, give rewards) 3) Unequal distribution of rewards (difference leads to unequal distribution of resources and inequality, stratification is inevitable) This was the dominant theory in the 20th century. -CT: Marx's 4 ways to distribute wealth 1) What each needs, 2) What each wants, 3) What each earns, 4) What each can take (dominant in Capitalism: Haves and Have-Nots) -Critiqued: inequality still exists in a classless society such as China. -Weber's 3 P's. Yes, Class conflicts are inevitable. 1) Property: owning or controlling means of production (wealth) 2) Power: ability to control others (means of production and positions) 3) Prestige: esteem and recognition one receives based on wealth, position, and accomplishments 1 P can be more important and 1 P can give access to the other 2. -Lead to 5 classes than 2: capitalists, managers, small-business owners/petty bourgeoisie, workers, underclass.

-Privileges, opportunities -Ascribed characteristics, capitals

-Inequality: the unequal distribution of ____ ____ and _____ -Stratification: process or system by which individuals and groups of people are arrayed ____ in society (____ study of ____) -The ____ of life is based on ____ ____ to _____. -Some people have more, less, or none. -People with the greatest access to ____ are at the top, everyone else is farther down. -Your position in the hierarchy depends on how much ____ you have. -___ ____ + ____ = social context (determines ___ to ____ (not just ambition or drive) : rich -> richer, upper middle go up a little, lower middle take a hit, and the poor -> poorer : difficult to change) -Tabula rasa: What kind of hospital? Health insurance? Home birth? Race, class, gender of parents AND child? What kind of home is this child going to? -Social Differentiation (large enough society for ___ of ____) Leads to Social Inequality (More ____ jobs = more ___ and ____ to ____ and ____ OR Less ____ jobs = less ____) Which Leads to Social Stratification (____ social inequality. | View that what does exist ____ ____, the existing social order is ____ (If it ___ you.) | Those with fewer ____ will fight for more and those with more fight to ____ ____ ____. (Throwback Notes: Slavery - ultimate stratification -> Castes - ascribed status (more than one level but cannot change) -> Feudalism - Serfs work land -> Capitalism/Post Industrialism - urbanism, income/standard of living/life expectancy increases) -Ideally we would like to think America is a meritocracy (work your way to the top. ambition = ____, the top of the hierarchy is ____.) But we live in a capitalist society. (Ruling status is concentrated and based on money.) -Is it true that the greater the function (for the system) the greater it brings? Not necessarily. (Highest paid versus Most important (police, teachers, agriculture, social workers, nurses)) -So incomes increase during Capitalism. What do our different income measurements indicate? -Mean ? -Median: the exact ____ of the earnings ____ (need at least 3) -The ____ between mean and median is an ____ measurement for our society. -The U.S. Today: Median is much ____ than mean (1% skew statistical average which does not reflect the amount of money Americans actually have.) -The bottom 50% of world's population have the same in total ____ as the 60 richest people in the world. -World's richest 1% have more money than the bottom 99% combined. Measures of Income Inequality: -Income: receipt of money/goods over a ____ ____ ____ (hour, week, month, year) -Wealth: the ___(___) value of ___ a person/family's assets, minus debts -The most commonly owned wealth asset is? (Since the 30s - urban segregation of home ownership : racial homogenous neighborhoods were the easiest to secure or buy loans for : 'riskier ventures' labeled and denied loans : not stated language, but effect of policies (standards of riskiness)) -The wealth difference is much ___ than income difference, but have both ___ in U.S. the past few decades.

-Valued goods, opportunities -Unequally, systematic, inequality -Division, unequal access to resources -Resources -Access -Social structure + culture, access to resources . . . . . . . . -Division of labor -Prestigious, money, access to resources, connections, prestigious, money -Institutionalized, should exist, correct, benefits, resources, maintain status quo . . . . . . . -Limit, Achieved . . . . . . . . . . . -The average -Exact center of the earnings distribution -Difference, inequality -Lower -Wealth . . . . . . . . . -Particular accounting period -Net (complete), all -Larger, grown

Chapter 8 -Minority group elements: 1) Can be distinguished (physical aspects, dress, language, religion) 2) Are excluded from or denied full participation at meso-level (economy, politics, education, religion, health, recreational) 3) Have less access to power and resources and are evaluated less favorably. 4) Are stereotyped, ridiculed, condemned, defamed. This allows justification for unequal treatment. 5) Develop collective identities to insulate themselves from unaccepting world. -These statuses can change over time. Race is not genetically isolated (gradations) and we define race on what is culturally convenient. UN's Declaration of Race and Race Prejudice: 1) All people born free and equal in dignity and rights 2) Racial prejudice impedes personal development 3) Conflicts cost (money and resources) 4) Racism foments internal conflicts -SI: Looking-Glass Self (do we see ourselves as members of the dominant or minority racial group) (Social reality: people's group membership can influence how they see themselves) -1977 US Office of Management: very different groups were combined: federal government created racial groups by naming and providing funding for that group -Jim Crow Laws: Defining blackness, racial economic hierarchy still exists. (Difference in wealth) -Blacks and American Indians (low rates of upward mobility, more downward, even wealthy could fall) -There are many ethnic groups under one racial category. For symbolic interactionists, race and ethnicity provide strong symbols as sources of identity. In fact, some interactionists propose that the symbols of race, not race itself, are what lead to racism. Famed Interactionist Herbert Blumer (1958) suggested that racial prejudice is formed through interactions between members of the dominant group: Without these interactions, individuals in the dominant group would not hold racist views. These interactions contribute to an abstract picture of the subordinate group that allows the dominant group to support its view of the subordinate group, and thus maintains the status quo. An example of this might be an individual whose beliefs about a particular group are based on images conveyed in popular media, and those are unquestionably believed because the individual has never personally met a member of that group. Another way to apply the interactionist perspective is to look at how people define their races and the race of others. As we discussed in relation to the social construction of race, since some people who claim a white identity have a greater amount of skin pigmentation than some people who claim a black identity, how did they come to define themselves as black or white? -Push immigration factors: job opportunities, peace/security, liberties, medical/education opportunities -Pull factors Prejudice: Micro: Prejudice is the preconceived attitudes about a group, usually negative and not based on facts (used to mobilize loyalty: wartime propaganda) Stereotyping: when prejudiced individuals use distorted, oversimplified exaggerated ideas to categorize a group ATTITUDES ARE HELD BY INDIVIDUALS. Discrimination is differential treatment and harmful action against minorities. Racial discrimination at the micro level: Frustration Aggression Theory: many of those who carry out acts of discrimination feel angry and frustrated because they cannot attain what they desire (poorly adjusted people) Scapegoating: when people cannot take aggression out on source and turn it to innocent victims Color blind ideology (ill informed on hidden privileges): Opposition of affirmative action, dominant racial ideology in US -We should all act as though we are colorblind when it comes to race and avoid the topic in personal interactions (to some their ___ness is so integral to who they are, others fail to see the wholeness of themselves, invisible) Allows hidden racism

Privileges taken for granted: avoid spending time with those who mistrust, protect children from those who do not like them, criticize government and talk of their fear for policies without being seen as outsiders, easily buy products with people of their race, arrange activities and never experience feelings of rejection

-Micro level: wealth, power, prestige ____ by ____ (what we know/non-material and knowledge) and ____ _____ (who we know). -Meso: Access to resources determined by meso-level institutions such as family and education (where we go, can we?, who is buying for school?). -Macro: Economic system is the ___ for social stratification (money to pay for workers and technology), influenced by ____ system, well-paying jobs, ____ economy, productive ____, ample supply of water. -How do many people think U.S. stratification looks like? The inverse pyramids model. -Why does income matter? -Provides for ____ (assistance, housing, health care) (supporting oneself at a minimum level) -Generates ___. (move up in social class) -Why does wealth matter? -Lessens _____. (weather the ups and downs, emergencies) -Provides ____. (Take chances - college or for kids to go to college. Allows for big mistakes.) (Savings cushion for stock market, losing jobs, having kids.) -Is a source of ____.

-Awarded, cultural and social capital. -Basis, education, vibrant, land . . . . . . . . . . -Subsistence -Wealth -Vulnerability -Opportunities -Power

-Same Styles play out when students go to college. -Upper and middle class: Have parents who are college educated and know the ropes. 'College ____.' Continuation of the 'I'm here to help you through it.' Have ___ support: having someone back you up financially and with connections to jumpstart a career. -Lower and working class: Often 1st generation with parents uncomfortable or unable to help students navigate the experience. 'College ____.' Continuation of the 'You need to do it for yourself.' -Changing the roles of universities. -Federal and state funding slashed, pushing universities to court ___-___-____ students who pay more through tuition than __-___ who are lower-income. (Also higher ___ ___ - more likely to graduate.) -Public universities operating more like ___-____ organizations. -Moving from being public good toward ___-____ system run on ___ support (tuition and donations). (Higher achieving alumni more likely to give more b/c of their good experience, the cycle continues.) -To court ___-___-___ students who pay higher tuition, universities have to cater to what parents paying want to see. -They intentionally or not reflect interests of ___ ____ over others. (Special degree programs, Greek system) . . . -This comes down to a difference in ___ to different class background students. -Affluent families: More likely to graduate ___ ___ (find a degree program earlier, know requirements), More likely to secure ___ ___ ____ (aided by family connections and those developed through social groups in college) -Working families: Less likely to graduate (___ ____ due to ill-given advice and lack of knowledge of what it takes to get a job in a given field). Less likely to secure ____ ____ _____. (Lack of family or social connections) -This process serves as a basis for ___ ____. -Reliance on tuition means reliance on parents who can pay. -Creates incentive to offer the infrastructure that aids affluent parents in achieving class ____ goals. -Parents viewed as '__' in higher education, but only some are equipped to comfortably fulfill this role. -As privatization continues, public universities have little incentive to invest in a functional ____ ___, yet less affluent parents are exactly what state systems were/are ____ to _____. -Creating a system of ____ _____ ____ (EMI), creating more barriers to ___ ____ that a college education is supposed to break down. Maintaining students' high opinions of themselves by ensuring their involvement in high quality extra-curricular activities. Are inequalities insurmountable? -____, they can be overcome and even changed -Even if everyone starts at the same place, ____ and differential ___ to ____ make playing field very ____, very quickly, and very ____. -Those inequalities follow us through our lives and we largely act to ___ them often _____. -System is set up to be self-____, to ____, not to be ____ with each generation. -Change is incremental, but it does exist.

-Concierge -Bridge -Outsiders . . . . . . . . -Out of state, in state, test scores, for-profit, consumer service, private . . . . . . -Out of state, affluent parents. . . . . . . . -Outcomes -On time, well paying jobs -Major churning, well paying jobs . . . . . . -Class reproduction -Reproduction -Partners -Mobility pathway -Expected, serve -Effectively maintained inequality -Social mobility . . . -No -Chance, access to resource, unequal, early -Reproduce, unintentionally -Sustainable, endure, recreated

Inequality by Class: -Class: groupings of people in similar social and economic positions -People who share an economic situation -Leads to... 1A) Have _____ economic interests with other classes 2A) Share similar ___ ____. 3A) Have similar ____. 4A) Have potential to engage in ____ ____. -Leads to.... 1B) Workers want more ____. AND Business owners want to pay ___ to increase profits. 2B) Similar ___ and ____ in life. 3B) Feel same about cultural issues. 4B) Such as when workers organize a ___/decide to ____. -Social Mobility: a measurement of the extent to which ___ and ___ have ___ or ____ ____ ____ in adulthood. (Do parents' location in hierarchy predict a child's location as adults, or is movement possible? (up or down.)) It is largely ____, but still possible. -Tabula rasa: born into a culture and initial economic standing. -What affects Social Mobility? -1A) ___ ____ regulate: ____ ___: hiring and promotion practices AND ___ ____: standards, teaching practices, availability of programs/aids, support for higher ed. -2A) ____ largely determines ____ in our society. : People with a college degree earn more over lifetime than with a high school degree. -Whether we think education is important or not comes from family: also where we get our social and intellectual skills that help us move up or down in social hierarchy. -The College Experience: The Hamilton Article -Asks: What role do parents play in producing ___ ____ ____ for students from different class backgrounds? -The importance of education comes from ___ ____. -Families with college educated parents place higher importance on attending university. (At some point the leap was made between one generation and the next.) -Where we seem social mobility is when kids become the ____ ____ to achieve a degree and become eligible for jobs/income levels unavailable to previous generation. (Success here is important for SM, but seeded much earlier. ____ ___ is a mechanism of ____ ____.) 2 Parenting Styles Linked to Class-Based Life Experiences (NOT PURELY STEREOTYPES) 1) Natural Growth: Focus on ____ directives, general ____ of agents of official social institutions and ____ ____ activities to teach __-____ observed mainly in ____/___ class families. (College is not a necessity, develop on your own. More constrained by social institutions.) 2) Concerted Cultivation: Focus on ____ the rules and expressing ___ in a negotiated and conversation of ____ with agents of official social institutions. ___ ___ activities to teach a kid ____ and the importance of being ___-_____. Observed mainly in ___ and ____ class families. (College = extension of childhood, Mom and dad here to guide you.)

-Conflicting -Life chances -Attitudes -Collective action -Money, less -Incomes, opportunities -Union, strike -Parents, children, similar or different economic standings, inherited . . . . . . . . . -Government policies, labor market, education systems -Education, income . . . . . . . . . -Divergent college experiences. . . . -Family socialization -First generation -Parenting style, social class . . . . . -Obeying, distrust, child-directing, self-reliance, lower and working -Questioning, opinions, equals, adult directed, organization, well-rounded, middle, upper.

-Minority group: a collection of people who suffer ___ and have ___ ___ because of identifiable physical or cultural characteristics (___ and/or ____) (does not have to be a big group of people, it is how loud a group is) (ACCESS TO POWER) -Majority group: collection of people who enjoy ____ and have ___ ___ to ____ because of identifiable physical or cultural characteristics (usually smaller in number, in power/charge) General Properties of Minority Groups: -6Shared physical/cultural characteristics -1____ Membership (others decide upon membership, a label given) -2____ Treatment (language: min = less (power) not size) -3Relatively high ____ (people stick together) -4Homophily/Endogamy (the custom of marrying only within the limits of a local community, clan, or tribe.) -5Does not have to be a numerical minority. -Race: category of people widely perceived as sharing socially significant physical characteristics, SUCH AS skin color. -An ____, not chosen classification (external classification) (Broad continental groupings: larger socioeconomic differences) -Ethnicity: shared ____ ____, often deriving from common ancestry and homeland -Generally a classification selected by ____ or group (internal classification, Cajun, LESS GEOGRAPHIC SIZE and boundaries) Even though much of Early American history discusses/talks of race, much of the separations are based on ethnicity. (So is 'race' real? Not exactly biology, but yes.) -Racial essentialism: scientifically discredited idea that supposedly natural and immutable differences ____ the races a reductionist theory -Based on physiognomy: symmetry is beautiful and beauty is good, ugly is bad. (Hunchback) Carried through history to justify slavery and genocide to justify the existing justice system and status quo. AND enough of what your society values (money) will making anyone or anything beautiful. Symbolic Interactionism: Social Construction (Micro) -Social reality of race based on ____ ____ (meanings constructed through interaction) -Race enshrined in ____ ___ due to categories of U.S. census -Definitions of the categories and categories themselves have changed over time. (White - 1, Black - 9, the language has changed.) -The social construction of ethnicity: has to do with cultural similarities which make it ____ based (we create our ethnical identifications through the ____ we participate in that are ____ to our _____) (Differences in food: instead of just 'Mexican' or 'Chinese' there are distinctions: Available ethnic variability - People identify with countries/cultures not continents or broad general regions.) -The social construction of race: A system for classifying people who are believed to share common descent based on ____ innate physical similarities (_____ distinctions that are _____ constructed through socio-historical processes based on ______ and _____ ____) -If we act as though something is real, it is, and has real social consequences. Act as though RACE has social consequences. -We are assigned to groups and given expectations to behave in these groups through socialization as we grow up. You are not born knowing or naturally divided. Race is a _____ ______, it is not a meaningful division unless we make it so. Everyone is a combination of R and E. -Racial categories are not the same in other countries and even over time. (Differences imply what is ____ to that ____: how they define their ____) -Support for Social Construction: Classification systems ____ by humans, Socially created - product of masses of people -As society changes, so do conceptions of race. -What we ____ for meanings assigned, NOT ____. Perceived reflections. -Immigration and Social Construction of 'Whiteness' -Early voluntary immigrants came to U.S. from British isles -Original definition of 'whiteness' included ____, ____, ____ immigrants who were _____. (Whiteness was ____-____ for a while), NOT Native Americans who were already there or anyone with dark skin, NOT later immigrants from European mainlands, NOT Catholics or Jews. -Over time, White came to be based on ____ ____ instead of ____/____ ancestry (Differences in ethnicity, not race) WASP - race, ethnicity, and religion. -C. Wright Mills's social construction of slurs: -Why didn't you know meanings to the ethnic slurs? Pre-1940s. -At different times, different slurs may be used (new slurs for new minority groups which are considered ____ to the ____ _____.) -Meanings change over time (Dutch Courage -> foolish or Frenchified -> disease-ridden) Formation of Racial Groups and Stereotypes: 1) Salience principle (with less ____, came with less ____ and ____) (Differs in every culture and country: who is the most important or visible groups) 2) Assimilation (language, accents, unique way of dress/customs -> abandoned in later generations) 3) Arbitrary nature of stereotypes all members share certain qualities, BROAD, what does not fit is cut out 4) Stereotype interchangeability Who is today associated with being drunk, criminal, promiscuous which were once French or German? Why are the French and German not called this still now?

-Disadvantages, Less power, race, ethnicity -Privileges, more access to power . . . . . . -Involuntary -Unequal -Solidarity . . . . . -Imposed -Cultural heritages -Self . . . . . . . . . -Separate . . . . . . . . -Social significance -Federal law -Socially, Rituals, Common, Culture -Perceived, Arbitrary, Socially, Interaction, Social Structure . . . . . . . . . . . -Social construction . . . . . -Important, culture, interactions -Invented -Think, Truth . . . . . . . -Welsh, Scottish, English, Protestant -Self-evident -Skin tone, ethnic/religious . . . . . . . . . . . . -Threat, Status quo -Visibility, discrimination, stereotypes (HAVE TO SEE IT)

Men and women are more alike than different. -Men are not from ____, women are not from ____. -What ___ us, other than our ____ is how we ____ men and women to ____ (____). We can manipulate the idea that men are more left-brained (more spatially oriented) and women are more right-brained. Feng, Spence, Pratt 2007: Playing an action video-game reduces gender differences in spatial cognition. Men and women look at a _____ with two dozen _____ items and one _____ item. Without any _____, men found object more quickly (68% vs. 55%), _____ _____ (a difference on sex in what they're looking for) When male and female participants spend 10 hours playing a video game that involved _____ ___ _ _____ (more popular with ____), that ____ ____. Brain plasticity: brain restructures information when learning a new skill - made salient when a new situation may need to apply it (ready available) -____ ____ are part of ___ ____ (___ does not tell us everything about a person). -Sex: 1) ____ (DNA or parts) 2) ____/____ (the act of) 3) And not everyone feels they are in the correct body (There is a difference between being male and acting male) -Differences are the ____ for ___ and ____ ____ and ____ -Intersex: when the chromosomes, genitalia, or both do not match (bits/pieces are just 1 way to define sex) Forced surgeries: many are saying it should be their decision John Money: iI the penis is too short to be functional, cut it off, make it into a vagina, put the child on hormones, everything should be fine (Spoiler alert: it is not) Status effect: when there is a ____ ____ in a situation that ____ pushes up the ____ of the individual in interactions (Doctor in white coat telling you what is wrong with you: you may disagree, but you feel like you cannot speak up, same can occur with professors) Transgender: someone who challenges, questions, or changes their gender Transsexual: undergoing surgery to anatomically alter their body to reflect the sex or gender they feel to be (matching sex with gender) Are all transgenders transsexuals? Sexuality: ____ _____ meanings both of ____ __a_ and of how we _____ _____ _____ ____ (especially in relation to the _____ _____ _____) Neither junk or suspecting to act with junk. (Is it because you want to or what you think you should do? -With ___ do you ____ ____? (or want to) -Who do you ____? (different from doing the deed) -_____ ____. -These may sound like the same question, but they do not have to have the same answer. -Alfred Kinsey: sexuality many do not ____ ____ ____, but lie somewhere on a ____ (behavior, desire, experiences) -The relationship between who ___ ____ based on gender identity and who ___ ___ ___ ___ (others' gender identity) -Separate but overlapping categories with gender and sexuality -Asexual: not being attracted to either sex -Bisexual: many do not like because it reflects the binary way of thinking A sex act is a social enterprise (__d__ by ____ ____) (what particular acts mean through interaction) -Some traits commonly associated with sex are actually learned through socialization (not born knowing how it works) Why is pushing the boundaries for gender so difficult in some societies? Gender: -What it means in a ____ ____ to ____ a man or a woman. -How we ___ men and women should ____. -'____' a man or a woman - a _____ of masculinity to femininity and everything in between -__s__ __c__ classifications exaggerating ____ ___d__. -Gender differences further gender inequality and stratification -Cisgender: when everything does line up (works out best for these people in society) -Children are questioning the relation of gender and sex earlier and earlier: not ____ at all. Comfort level in doing so: social construction. -Roles within one gender (#LikeAGirl) -In America, women are less than men. Femininity is less than masculinity. And like a girl is insulting (Bending gender lines). -Social construction of gender: Daniel Craig holding baby ('emasculating': what should a real man be?) Definitions have changed over time.

-Mars, Venus -Separate, anatomy, expect, act, gender -Grid, identical, different, prepping, significant difference, shooting at a target, males, difference disappeared. -Preexisting expectations, sex stereotypes, sex -Foundation for sex and gender inequality and stratification . . . . . . . . . . . . . -Biological -Copulation/Intercourse -Degree rare, degree, status -Culturally shaped meanings, sexual acts, experience our own bodies, bodies of others -Dictated by cultural norms -Sex is a central organizing principle, which could put the status quo into question, taking a step away from the dominant or majority group as a minority group -Whom, have sex -Desire -Sexual attraction -Choose either or, continuum -Who one is, one is attracted to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -dictated, cultural norms . -Particular culture, be -Think, behave -Being, continuum -Socially constructed, sex differences . . . . . . . . .

-Becoming Gendered (General Perspectives): -Psychological: -Schemas -____ ____ of men and women -Try to fit ____ into schemas -Believe there's a ____ so we look for information to ____ the idea of '____' -Correspondence bias: keeping information that matches what we think, disregarding what does not match (Grooming and appearance, sports) -Biological: -Gender behaviors are ____ ___ and ____ -Sex = gender -Built on ___ ____ between men and women (Feng, Spence, Pratt) -Sociological: 1) Essentialism: (word association test: homosexual/treated as anomaly, sports 13) -Early sociological perspective Terman and Miles 'The M/F Test' -____, _____ _____ between sexes differing social behaviors -These traits are part of people's ____ (having a vagina: act more feminine) 2) Used still Social Control (Conflict Theory) -People create ___ and ____ those who do not follow them -People who get to define are usually the ones with the power to make themselves heard -Traditional/historical female sexuality much more ____ than male sexuality (sexual conquest: boys will be boys, girls are to be pure. Sexual violence is a threat, and the violated will be held to a standard, rather than the violator) -Our gendered behaviors have developed according to this type of control More female empowerment, more male pushback 3) Used still Social Construction (Symbolic Interactionism) -We are completely shaped by our ____ (and only this: problem, ignores everything else) -Socially constrained to a set of ideas by the bodies we're born into -SEX can be _____, but what SEX _____ to us is ____ -'We know because we ____ it from ____ ____ ____' view -Inequalities maintained by meanings given to bodies: breastfeeding Sex, gender, sexuality: MICRO -____ ____ guide individuals into proper ____ ____ -Grouping children by sex (us versus them thinking) -Women may be privileged in micro, but disadvantaged in meso/macro (norms of being with opposite sex) Sex, gender, sexuality: MESO -Adults assume leadership roles in societal institutions, but ____ differ based on sex -Sex and age determine ____ ___ _____ Sex, gender, sexuality: MACRO -National, global inequality independent of ____ ____ -Institutionalized (dis)privilege (policies with an implicit bias) -Gender roles can be changed but are usually ____ ___ -Family and medical leave (university: paycheck or raise child/recover) Gender role socialization: MICRO and MESO -Punishment of incorrect behaviors -Reward of correct behaviors -Reinforces gender stereotypes -Gender stereotypes are now less rigid but remain influential Gender role socialization: MESO -Meso-level agents of socialization -Corporations: -Males appear more in children's books -Boys' toys are usually active or work-related -Girls' toys are usually more domestic or physical appearance-related -Mass Media: -Video games are more social for boys, but girls play them too -Images of women in video games and action films tend to promote stereotypes -Young people can be harmed from messages by media -Educational Systems: -SZ and stereotypes contribute to the gender gap in science and math fields -Boys on average spend less time on homework -Sports contribute to leadership difference -Religious Organizations: -Define, reinforce, and perpetuate gender roles stereotypes and cultural beliefs -Influence how different societies interpret proper gender roles -Can change with new interpretations Gender Stratification: Meso and Macro Processes: -Women and men at work: gendered organizations -Glass ceiling versus glass escalator -Sexual harassment in the workplace (experienced by 40% of women, 10% of men) -Bystander trainings are most effective

-Mental maps -Experiences -Difference, support, difference -Biologically wired, controlled -Factual differences -Innate, stable differences -Essence -Norms, punish -Controlled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -Environment -Biological, means, social -Learn, those around us -Cultural traditions, gender roles -Roles -Individual prejudice -Passed down

-What is the actual sociological model for stratification? (Super, Credentialed, Comfort, Contingent, Excluded) Privileged and New Working Class -Theoretical Explanations of Stratification: -Structural-Functionalism: Stratification provides people a ____ in the social world and motivates individuals to carry out their ____. Some people ____ from poor people kept poor. -Poverty provides a ____ __________. -Creates jobs for those who are not poor. -The poor provide ____ laborers. -Poor legitimate our own lives, institutions. -Violation of main-stream values affirms ____ values. S-F critiqued for inability to explain the ____ societies experience. Also criticized for those who do not provide vital services to society. -Conflict Theory: Stratification is the ____ of struggles for dominance in scarce resources. Everyone acts in their own self-interest by trying to ____ others. -Marx's 2 Economic Social Classes: 1) Bourgeoisie: ___ the means of production (haves) 2) Proletariat: remain ___ without class ____ (have-nots) -CT critiqued for only focusing on the ___ ____ - property, power, prestige, wealth - to determine ____ in the stratification system. -What does inequality effect? -Individual ____ ____ and lifestyle -Social mobility -Quality of living environment -Exposure to ___ and ____. -Health, happiness, and general well-being.

-Superclass: owners and employers -Credentialed: managers and professionals -Contingent: wage earners and self-employed, week-to-week salaries . . . . . . -Position, roles -Benefit -Convenient scapegoat. -Surplus -Affluent -Conflicts . . . -Outcome, exploit -Control -Exploited, consciousness -Economic system, position . . -Life chances -Crime, violence

Chapter 7 -Evolutionary Theory of Stratification: Lenski: S-F and CT: 1) To survive, people must cooperate. 2) Despite this, conflicts of interaction occur over important decisions. 3) Valued items always in demand and in short supply. 4) Likely to struggle over scarce resources. 5) Customs and traditions often prevail over rational criteria in determining the distribution of scarce resources. -After minimum survival is met, power determines who gets the surplus. -Privileges/wealth flows from having power. Prestige comes from access to power and privilege. -Degree of inequalities increased, till the Industrial Stage (interdependence) Surplus spread more broadly and rights were harder to exploit. -Individual's Social Status: Micro: -College: many levels of entry -The prestige of a college -> future opportunities Life chances: 1's opportunities depending on both achieved and ascribed characteristics. -Health, Social Conditions, Life Expectancies (causes of death age and from preventable diseases, access to resources) -Individual Lifestyles: Attitudes toward achievement differ by status and correlated to life chances. (Is food primary? Where is school and is it available?) You may gain the money, but not the lifestyle (shaped by socialization: attitudes, values, beliefs) -Most religious groups attract members predominantly from one social class. -Political involvement: lower social class: more likely to support greater distribution of wealth. Whereas, higher are more conservative in economics (protect wealth). -Status inconsistency: Weber: 1 trait, especially if achieved through education and hard work, but lower in others.

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Chapter 7 -Social Mobility: -Stacking: holding certain limited positions in a sport 4 Issues Dominating Analysis: 1) Types of Social Mobility -Intergenerational (Open Class systems: more movement between classes) -Horizontal: change position, but income/power/prestige remains -Intragenerational (within 1's life) -Vertical: up or down 2) Measure of social mobility, influenced by class origins 3) Factors Affecting an Individual's Mobility -Micro: cultural capital, socialization, personal characteristics, education -Meso/Macro: occupational structure and economic status of regions and countries, discrimination, global economic situation -All are interrelated. 5 Factors Explaining Levels of Mobility in Different Areas of U.S. 1) Residential segregation 2) Quality of schooling 3) Family structure 4) Social capital 5) Inequality (the groups outside the 1%) -Marriage, staying in certain income level -College degrees help move up or maintain same in stratification process. -Gender, race, ethnicity -Interdependent Global Market 4) Is there a 'land of opportunity'? -Would you have a better chance if you moved countries? -Immigration Major Stratification Systems - Macro: -Ascribed stratification system: characteristics beyond control determine position in society (CASTE SYSTEMS: most rigid, deeply embedded in norms and institutions: India) -Achieved stratification systems: ability, efforts, choices -Estate systems: concentration of power in hands of small minority of political-military elite, with peasantry tending to land (plantations) -The U.S./Achieved SS: -Born with a common legal status, however poverty and privilege does pass on. CT: Power is the key element. For the power elite (top leaders in corporations, politics, military rule society and grow together through unspoken agreement) -Pluralist power theorists: power shared by many among power centers, each has own self-interest to protect (competing interest groups and that holding political power) No one group has power. Checks and balances on elite. -2 Types of Poverty: 1) Absolute: not having resources to meet basic needs (no Ps or accumulated wealth) 2) Relative: one's income falls below poverty line, resulting in inadequate standard of living relative to other's in country Feminization of poverty. Bridging the Digital Divide (gap between those with knowledge and access to information technology and those without it: position of country in world, socioeconomic status of citizens, urban versus rural residence)

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Chapter 8 -Meso Level Discrimination: -Institutionalized racial discrimination: any meso-level arrangement that favors one racial group over another. This favoritism is intentional or unintentional consequences for minority groups. Often done unintentionally. Rooney Rule in sports. 2 Types: 1) Side-effect discrimination: practices in one institutional area that has a negative impact because they are linked to practices in another institutional area b/c of their independence (Criminal justice to employment) 2) Past-in-present discrimination: practices from the past that may no longer be allowed, but continue to have consequences for people in the present (kids in segregated schools -> lower social security checks and grandkids then not affording college, discriminatory housing practices b/f the Fair Housing Act) Dominant and Minority Group Contact: Macro: -Policies to manage racial and ethnic relations: depends on time, place, circumstance From most harmful to most accepting of others. 1) Genocide: systematic effort of one group to destroy the minority group by killing 2) Subjugation: subordination of one group to another that holds power and authority (Slavery, Segregation: deprive of access to dominant institutions) 3) Population transfer: removal, often forced, of minority group from a region or country 4) Assimilation: social and cultural merging of minority and dominant groups (can be voluntary) Forced: compelled to suppress identity from ridicule or death 5) Pluralism: when each ethnic or racial group maintains its own separated set of interests, but has recognized equality in society (Switzerland, Malaysia) Legal protection often necessary. 5 Common Reactions From Minorities to Prejudice, Discrimination, Racism 1) Passing: avoiding prejudice or discrimination associated with group membership. Some attempt to pass as dominant group, abandon own culture, cost in self identity, deny minority background with fear of being exposed. IS A FORM OF ASSIMILATION: cut off from family and communities. 2) Acceptance: learned to live with minority status and do not challenge the system, often seen as indifference 3) Avoidance: coping with minority group status through shunning all contact with dominant group, sometimes attempting to leave country 4) Aggression: anger and resentment over minority status and from subjugation leading to retaliation or violence 2 FORMS: Indirect: biting assertiveness in arts Displaced: hostilities directed toward those other than the dominant group 1-4 ADAPTING TO EXISTING STRUCTURE 5) CHANGE-ORIENTED ACTION: BLM, NAACP, Anti-Defamation League (Jewish) -Nonviolent resistance (Gandhi, MLK, NFL)

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Chapter 8 Theoretical Explanations of D-M Relations: -S-F: Prejudice/d/institutionalized racism dysfunctional to society leads to loss of resources, costs due to poverty and crime, hostilities between groups, and disrespect for those in power. -Durkheim: Divide social inequalities INTERNALLY (based on person's natural abilities) and EXTERNALLY (forced on people - indicated institutions are not being functional) -However, maintaining cheap pool of laborers serves for society (dirty or unskilled jobs, oppressing to buy goods others do not want) A functionalist might look at "functions" and "dysfunctions" caused by racial inequality. Nash (1964) focused his argument on the way racism is functional for the dominant group, for example, suggesting that racism morally justifies a racially unequal society. Consider the way slave owners justified slavery in the antebellum South, by suggesting black people were fundamentally inferior to white and preferred slavery to freedom. Another way to apply the functionalist perspective to racism is to discuss the way racism can contribute positively to the functioning of society by strengthening bonds between in-groups members through the ostracism of out-group members. Consider how a community might increase solidarity by refusing to allow outsiders access. On the other hand, Rose (1951) suggested that dysfunctions associated with racism include the failure to take advantage of talent in the subjugated group, and that society must divert from other purposes the time and effort needed to maintain artificially constructed racial boundaries. Consider how much money, time, and effort went toward maintaining separate and unequal educational systems prior to the civil rights movement. -CT: Creating a less powerful group protects a dominant group's advantages. -The labor pool and unemployment keep people in higher positions in those positions. -Exploitation of lower classes in Capitalism. -Want to keep privileges and limited resources. 3 Factors in Animosity Towards Groups: 1) Identifiable (US VS THEM) 2) Compete for scarce resources 3) One group has much more power than the other. -Macro discrimination justifies bigot ideology. -Split labor market theory: branch of CT 2 main types of jobs in labor market 1) Primary market (clean, supervisory roles, higher salary, good advancement opportunities) 2) Secondary market -Encourages a division of labor between worker groups, thus making employers have a lower threat to dominance and get cheaper labor. -Critique: most meso level is subtle or unconscious -Most policies today only focus on one level of analysis. NEED TO BRING CHANGE AT EVERY LEVEL. -Individual: therapy, tolerance education -Group: Positive contact, awareness of privilege (introduce a subordinate goal that requires groups to work together to solve it: summer camp) -Society: education, media, legal-system revisions -Global: human rights movements Affirmative Action: 3 different types of policies 1) Strict Affirmative Action: simplest, original. EMPLOYER OBLIGATIONS (reverse discrimination: hire most qualified: even those in the dominant group can be rejected) 2) Quota system: requirement that employers must hire a certain percent of a minority 3) MOST CONTROVERSIAL: Preference policies: Equity (belief that sometimes others must be treated differently to be treated fairly) -STUDENTS - Asian Americans at Harvard -Gender balance, more males -Legacies -Amnesty International (most widely recognized private group: privately funded)

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Chapter 9 -S-F: Each sex has a role to play in the interdependent groups and institutions of society. -Early theorists claim inequality was necessity because of needs of society. -Social relationships and practices proven successful will likely continue and be reinforced. -In hunter/gatherer and horticulture: division of labor based on gender and age. (Home, not at home) -Gender based DOL is efficient and useful due to complementary roles (helps accomplish tasks and maintain stability) -Inconsistent: CRITIQUE: Females staying at home and males working (what about single moms, turnover in partners, or not being married) Functionalists argue that gender roles were established well before the pre-industrial era when men typically took care of responsibilities outside of the home, such as hunting, and women typically took care of the domestic responsibilities in or around the home. These roles were considered functional because women were often limited by the physical restraints of pregnancy and nursing and unable to leave the home for long periods of time. Once established, these roles were passed on to subsequent generations since they served as an effective means of keeping the family system functioning properly. -CT: Males are the haves controlling the majority of power positions and most wealth. Females are the have nots. -Engels: size and strength essential for survival (male physical control to ideology) -Strengthen male dominance in Capitalism by giving more wealth -Females become dependent on males, roles transformed to take care of home Engels suggested that the same owner-worker relationship seen in the labor force is also seen in the household, with women assuming the role of the proletariat. This is due to women's dependence on men for the attainment of wages, which is even worse for women who are entirely dependent upon their spouses for economic support. -Male will not voluntarily give up position because they are benefiting from it (keep women in traditional roles) Multilevel: Feminist theory: -Agree with Marx/Engels that gender structure is based on power struggles, not biology. -Fail to mention, the patriarchy: a few men dominating and holding authority over all others including women, children, and less powerful men. -Females continue to be oppressed by men till this is eliminated. -Little change will occur till group consciousness is raised MICRO: DOMESTIC VIOLENCE perpetuates gender stratification by having more resources in home life. (RCT: staying or leaving)

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Chapter 9 Meso Level Gender SZ: Corporations create material that help SZ children into conduct socially approved for their gender -Books (stereotypical female, less representation) -Toys and games (choices in college major - occupational choices appear to be affected by these early choices) (Dolls/domestic roles vs. building and technological toy: Legos: trades and military: division in stores by gender (future skills and interest)) Mass Media: Magazines, advertisements, movies, music videos, internet sites, video games (social for males, private for girls, role models: females peripheral to this action: viciously attacked in speaking out of stereotypical portrayal: pushback against entrance) -New female protagonists: strong leadership, but not in competency -Desire to fit in can be harmful (steroids, dieting/binging) -TV gives a simple, stereotypical view of life) -Educational Systems: -Females achieve more academically, GENDER GAP in science and math, LAG in STEM PROGRAMS, females judged as less apt for math, males often fall behind in education attainment b/c of how they spend their time -Sports and Leadership Development in School: -Males more socialized to become leaders -Cheerleading = sport? -More visible positions for males than females (more people go to male games) -Title IX of US Education Amendment: level education and sports playing field (biggest impact in athletics: programs and scholarships) -Religious Organizations: Provide explanations to proper gender roles. -The 3 major monotheistic religions: patriarchal tradition: separation of male and female spheres. -Hebrew: women second class -Religious practices do change over time. Hindu and Islam: women seductive, erotic, threat to male spirituality. -Purdah: seclusion and separate worlds for female and male in Islamic cultures -Gender Stratification: Meso and Macro Processes: -Glass ceiling: processes that limit the progress of females and other minority groups, males often ride the glass escalator -Gendered Organizations: work central to definition of masculinity in US -Increased and now falling number of females in labor force (lack of support for working parents and career pauses) -WORK PLACE HAS GENDERED RELATIONS (ratio of workers, gender references in subordinate supervisor programs, distribution of positions) (Worst: Turkey, Japan, South Korea) Sexual harassment: fear of retribution (75% of females who speak out experience punishment) -Bystander sexual harassment training is the effective. (Tactics to disrupt in non-confrontational ways that support the victim) -Promoting more females and institutionalized gender equity is most effective of all. Institutionalized Gender Discrimination can occur independently of any overt prejudice or ill by others (part of social system, unconscious) Side-effect discrimination: income affected by academic degrees Past-in-present discrimination: the 5'10 machine incident: floor head -Sexism is subtle and pervasive in society Women of color experience the biggest disadvantages. Sexism harms men too (hurts male partners and offspring if females do not make as much)

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Chapter 9 Wodaabe -If genders are identified as fundamental differences then distinguishing symbols and roles become important for each gender's identity. Gender role variations. -Sex: biological term referring to genetic, anatomical, and hormonal differences between male and female (Intersex, transgender: someone who is challenging, questioning, or changing gender from that assigned at birth to a chosen gender: genderqueer: challenging gender norms) -Sex is as social as it is biological. -Sexuality: culturally shaped meanings both of sexual acts and of how we experience our own bodies of others (socially constrained) A sex act is a social enterprise (cultural norms) Who we find attractive is culturally defined. -Gender: society's notions of masculinity and femininity (socially constructed meanings associated with being male and female and how individuals construct their identity in terms of gender within these constraints) Gender roles: commonly assigned tasks or expected behaviors linked to an individual's sex-determined statuses -Female infanticide in China and India (Male preference systems) Micro Level: Childhood SZ: Reinforced messages (appropriate gender behavior) If fail to respond to expectations by significant people, receive negative sanctions. Children learn to conform (Gender SZ more involved in school age: grouped by sex) -Even if parents are not traditional in gender expression, expect to conform in school -Adulthood: new stratifications form (networks, access to resources which lead to more or less power, females look to father or husband for resources) -Who goes first? Language: Speak up (female) and seem bossy? Adapt to speech not seen as aggressive and then seem insecure? Meso Level: Sex and age stipulate when and how we experience our rites of passage (ceremonies that admit one to adult duties and privileges) -Institutionalized in various ways: religious rituals, education celebrations. Other institutions segregate by sex. -Institutionalized privilege: patterns of social action embedded in the entire social system may influence male or females providing unrecognized privileges or disadvantages. -Males still dominant in government. (Rwanda: most fem) -Democracy decreases female representation. -Gender roles passed down generationally. Gender role socialization: process by which people learn the cultural norms, attitudes, and behaviors deemed appropriate for a particular gender Micro Level Gender SZ: -Aggression in females, unassertiveness in males 1) Infancy: clothing, decor, toys reflect notions of gender (depictions and treat them as such) 2) Childhood: Males: receive encouragement to be independent and experimental, emphasis on achievement, autonomy, aggression Language: feelings females Male: less likely for emotions, more for competitive modes of thought Females: express aggression in subtle ways, but still harmful (gossip, name-calling, social exclusion) NAMES: Boys strong, girls soft -Boy code: rigid, Pollack: sturdy oak, give 'em hell, big wheel, no sissy stuff. Seen as a gender straitjacket. 'Tough guise'.

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