Soc. Psych. Readings Exam 3

"Behavior in Private Places: Sustaining Definitions of Reality in Gynecological Examinations" Emerson

Berger and Luckmann emphasize three processes that provide persons with evidence that things have an objective existence apart from themselves: reality seems to be out there before we arrive on the scene, continuously validated by apparently trivial features of the social scene, and each part of a systematic world view serves as evidence for all the other parts so that reality is solidified by a process of intervalidation of supposedly independent events; stability depends in the likelihood of three types of disconforming events: intrusions on the scene, participants may deliberately decline to validate the current reality, or a person may have limited social skills so that he cannot carry off the performance he would like to; gynecological examinations are good examples of: multiple contradictory definitions of reality and there is a substantial threat from participants' incapacity to perform; staff assume a responsibility for a credible performance; medical definition calls for a matter of fact stance; patient is a technical object to the staff; scene is credible because the staff act as if they have every right to do what they are doing; medical definition grants the staff the right to carry out their task; a physician may gain a patient's cooperation by acknowledging her as a person which contradicts the medical definition; labelin the pelvic area as special also contradicts the medical definition but is used; what is to be sustained is a shifting balance between medical definition and counterthemes; some routinized procedures and demeanor are available to participants in gynecological examinations, such as exclusion of lay persons, making special provision for the pelvic area (draping a sheet over it), explicit terminology is often avoided in staff-patient contacts, euphemisms and understood references are used when possible, orgainze the event from beginning to end, both staff and participant are nonchalant about what is happening; doctor must take special pains to ensure that his demeanor remains a no-nonsense show of efficacy; must treat the patient as an object with his hands while simultaneously acknowledging her as a person with his voice; threats to the reality of a gynecological examination may occur if the balance of opposing definitions is not maintained as described above, and it is usualy challenged by patients; any show of emotion except in a controlled fashion is objectionable; demonstrated presence of pain recalls the illness framework and counters sexual connotations; patients stumble over subtleties of what is expected: physical decorum (properties of sights, sounds, and smells of the body) and modesty; patients more concerned about physical decorum and doctors more concerned with behavioral decorum; staff take more preventive measures where they anticipate the most trouble : young, unmarried girls, persons known to be temporarily upset, and persons with reputations as uncooperative, in all cases the doctor may explain the technical details of the procedure more carefully and offer direct reassurance; neutralize threatening events is to sustain a nonchalant demeanor; redefinition is another tactic available to the staff; humor may be used to discount the line the patient is taking, thus indicating one should take these examinations casually; nurse normally remains in the background unless the definition of reality is threatened; the major safeguard of reality is that challenge is channeled outside the examination; the reality of these examinations can never be routinized, but always remains precarious.

"The Perspective of Social Science" Charon

Immanuel Kant argued there are two worlds of reality: a world of phenomena (world we can experience with our senses and is open to scientific investigation) and noumena (above scientific investigation, cannot be approached by empirical observation because it is not physical, God); although we can imagine world of noumena, reason and science cannot be used to investigate it, thus arguing science is a perspective sensitizing the investigator to part of the world; we are both phenomena, subject to laws of nature, open to science, and subject to natural necessity, and noumena, the human soul containing a will that is free; human being is conceptualized as both passive, in that individuals are caused, shaped, and driven by forces beyond their control, and active, in that individuals are also controllingm shaping, acting, free; exclusion of freedom is one of science's central assumptions; science might even lead us to a misleading or even false picture of the human being; Hampden-Turner takes position that social-scientific perspective by its very nature: concentrates on the repetitive, predictable, unvariable aspects of the human, concentrates on visible externalities, and concentrates on the various parts of the person; Hampden-Turner says social science is a perspective and what emerges from it is a picture of the human being that is far from objective and value free; sociology is the study of society and how society works and how society is an important cause of human action, study of human being in society and how society gets inside the human being; every thing develops a structure (politics); culture is the consensus developed by people over a long history and is their shared view of reality, the basic ideas, values, and rules they have come to believe in; born into culture and social institutions; according to sociologists we live within a massive reailty, bur society also exists within each of us; psychology is the sudy of the person, understanding of how the person works and how the characteristics of the person influence what he or she does; relied heavily on lab experiment and considered human being as part of nature in world of phenomena; all schools of psychology emphasize: the individual organism, an underlying belief that a person's performance at any point is tied to previous experience which can be labeled a predispositional orientation, an attempt to explain behavior in relation to the organism and change is explained in relation to change in the organism and stability is due to the stability in the organism, a focus on personality traits qualities of the person developed over time (term personality or person implies that these traits constitute a system, a network of qualities, an interrealted set of qualities), the idea that behavior is not situational or structural but personal and trait related even though social situations might influence traits over the long run, and the idea that cause is located in the individual's past and that is where traits come from; both cases focus on the human being's behavior; psychological social psychology: has its roots in Gestalt psychology which emphasizes the central importance of perception in human behavior (human being acts according to how the situation is perceived), focus on the social situtation and most important idea is that human beings are influenced by what goes on in that situation, human thought and behavior are thought to change according to the influence of others, most important topic are attitudes (a person's set of beliefs and feelings toward an object that predisposes the person to act in a certain manner when confronted by that object) and attitude change, attitudes lead to behavior, also the study of how other people influence our behavior, interpersonal influence: the importance of the social situation in influencing attitudes and behavior; sociological social psychology: focus on the person within a social situation where other individuals influence what we do and on the social situation, deemphasizes person as cause, real focus is on the concept of social interaction (ongoing action that actors take toward one another back and forth, places emphasis on researching real-life events, emphasizes socialization (various ways individuals learn to become members of society), tremendous importance on symbolic interactionism, roots of symbolic interactionism: the perspective of symbolic interactionism grows out of pragmatism and is heavily influenced by Darwin's work (to understand human being we need to study interaction and interaction of human beings relies heavily on the use of symbols), human beings are symbol users, human beings possess a self, human beings engage in mind action, human beings regularly take the role of the other, human beings act along a continuous stream of action interacting with others and engaging in mind action determining goals and seeing objects in relation to goals, human beings interact with one another, society is any instance of (a) social interaction in which actors (b) cooperate over time and (c) develop culture, Goffman is one of the most important theorists in sociology whose ideas are built on the principles outlined in the perspective, and symbolic interactionism is guided by certain scientific principles.

"Sissy Boy, Progressive Parents" Farr

When gender is not evident in this conventional way, there can be disapproval, concern, and even loathing, and these responses may torment both girls (tomboys) and boys (sissy boys) who do not conform to dichotomous gender characteristics; he was constantly picked on by peers for being unmanly and later for supposedly being a faggot; his parents were open to the types of toys he could play with, such as a loom; he became aware of the gendered division of hobbies and how to regulate and manage the public (school) and private (home) side of this; enjoyed cross-stitching, and classmates picked on him for bringing in something he made to show-and-tell; was selected for the Academically Gifted Program which fueled his teasing and helped him escape from it; tried to go on a diet in fourth grade to fit in better with his classmates; became increasingly isolated and distant; was able to flaunt his skills in home ec and wood shop; while both his feminine and masculine skills required similar abilities, the incongruity of being a boy who was successful in the feminine tasks was unacceptable; comfortable playing with the girls; was involved in Cub Scouts; his jeans bulged during sex ed section of health where one of his classmates outwardly asked whether he was gay; college offered him a clean slate.

"Truth, Objectivity, and Agreement" Babbie

definitions of truth, reality, true, and real point to the inherent circularity of language; here's a useful way of seeing the relationship between truth and reality: it is possible to make statements about reality, those that agree with reality are true; in these cases, "real" does not just have existence, it has "objective existence", actuality is not just a matter of fact but of "objective fact; to be is to have a place in the "objective universe"; the truth about truth eventually comes down to the recognition that we know most of the world through our minds, moreover, we recognize that our individual minds are not altogether reliable; subjective realm refers to the possibly inaccurate perceptions and thoughts we have through the medium of our minds, whereas the objective realm refers to that which lies outside and is independent of our minds; snags in the construction of objectivity: neither you nor I can know whether we perceive it accurately or not,; our only proof of objectivity is intersubjectivity, when different subjects report the same thing we conclude that what they report is objective, existing, actual, factual, real, and true; basis of truth is agreement; science also operates on the basis of agreement.

"Panhandling Repertoires and Routines for Overcoming the Nonperson Treatment" Lankenau

dramas are enacted at the face-to-face level yet display the larger social relations among the poor and nonpoor; interactions between panhandler and pedestrian more closely resemble the basic structural features of a play, the pandhandler who is the main actor is like an improvisitional performer to accomplish the act of panhandling, pedestrains serve as the audience and respond to the panhandling routine by selecting from a menu of responses; nonperson treatment: being ignored by a passerby, a primary problem confronted by panhandlers, one type of interaction occurring among unfamiliar persons in public places; Goffman refers to three types of interactions: nonperson treatment, civil inattention, and encounter or face encounter; panhandlers overcome nonperson treatment by initiating encounters through the use of dramaturgical techniques, routines, acts, pieces, or repertoires (capture attention by appealing to a range of emotional qualities); five routines: entertainer, greeter, servicer, storyteller, and aggressor; storyteller: conveys the dramaturgical nature of panhandling, based on using stories to evoke understanding, pity, or guilt from pedestrians, primary message is need, consist of signs appearances or narratives, three: sign/silent, line (repeat one line over and over), and hardluck storyteller; aggressor: premised on evoking guilt and fear in pedestrians by using either real or feigned aggression, increases feelings of strangeness by highlighting disparities and differences, obtains through intimidation, persistence, and shame (quarter or dollar insufficient); servicer: provides specific services to stimulate social interaction and exchange, lessens the sense of strangeness by converting the interaction into a kind of business transaction, establishes a sense of obligation and reciprocity, counterfeit intimacy (interaction supporting the illusion that a legitimate service is being performed when both parties know this to be false), consists of formal reactive component and informal reactive component; greeter: offers friendliness respect flattery and deference to passersby, routine enhanced when panhandler becomes familiar with a panhandling locale and remembers faces names and biological facts about contributors, will be used with other techniques; entertainer: provides humor and enjoyment and encompasses two more specific routines of the joker nd musician, strangeness reduced by creating rapport or intimacy by performing a familiar tune or by developing an ongoing presence in a particular neighborhood, most clearly resembles an actor staging a performance before an audience; most successful panhandlers devise a repertoire of several routines to stir the blase attitude, to minimize strangeness, and to maximize contributions; panhandling and panhandling routines are a response to economic and social marginality.

"Shaping the Selves of Young Salespeople Through Emotion Management" Schweingruber and Burns

emotional labor can be satisfying for some service workers, particualrly if a person's work role is central to their personal identity; Cahill and "emotional capital"; Enterprise Company selling books during summer; most difficult task for student dealers is learning to overcome negative emotions, so their training program is emotional training; work to develop emotional purposes: anything that students feel strongly about and can be used to sell books; emotional other: a person for whom a salesperson has strong feelings and who can be used to motivate the salesperson to sell books; emotion mining: the search for and development of potential emotional capital in workers' experiences that had not been previously recognized by the workers as related to their job; emotional bridge: how this new emotional capital is used to connect the worker's previous self to the new self that is being developed on the job; teaching emotion management is central to the Enterprise training program; contrats emotion training with technical training; teach salespersons that everything is within their control, proper attitudes and work habits will inevitably lead to success; training involves storytelling; at heart of training is assertion that selling books we ill make you a better person; personalized narratives: think of someone who inspires you and keep them in your mind, money insufficient reason to sell books, what is important to dealer and how that will help him sell books; generic narratives: inform sellers of everything that an go wrong and how they are supposed to react and feel about it, use generic narrtives to describe events that have happened to dealers and that are likely to happen to them, told through "what-ifs"; "service-mindedness" reframes the job as providing a service to those who buy and those who do not; emotional others: dealer visualizes conversations with emotional others and otherwise incorporates them into his thoughts as part of emotion management, supportive family members receive training, skeptic are a salesperson's emotional others who believe that selling books is a mistake; letters from one self to another self, promtoe use of positive phrases and positive self-talk as a way for dealers to discipline their thoughts; ability to tell a story is held in high regard.

"Methods in Social Psychology" Delamater and Myers

field of social psychology relies heavily on epirical research; when conducting empirical research, invetigators usually employ a methodology; independent verification of research findings is one of the hallmarks of any science; if the results are replicable, they stand a better chance of being accepted as general, reliable findings;investigators conduct social psychological studies for a variety of reasos: to describe reality in accurate and precise terms, to ascertain whether a correlation exists between two or more behaviors or attributes, to discover the causes of some behavior or event (best way is by an experiment), and to test existing theories and to develop new ones; various types of hypotheses: a causal hypothesis which include independent and dependent variables; studies need to have good internal and external validity; four main methods of social psychology: surveys (conducted to obtain self-reports from individuals about their own attributes, public opinion poll common in U.S., use to obtain data about various social problems, primary objective to making basic theoretical contributions to social psychology, types: interview survey, questionnaire survey, and telephone interview, ways to asses relaibility: see if people's responses to an instrument are consistent across time andsee if people's responses are consistent across items, three types of validity: face, criterion, and construct, framing of questions should be paid close attention to, use of single items to assess attitudes is common as well as asking questions, likert scales tell of how one feels about the object of interest and how each respondent's attitude compares with the attitude of others, semantic differntial scale measures connotative meaning (series of bipolar adjective scales), sample selections is one of the most important aspects of any survey, two types of systematic samples commonly used are simple random sample and stratified sample, a useful extension of the survey technique is a panel study, strengths: can provide an accurate and precise description of the characterisitics of a specific population, provide an effective means to study the incidence of various social behaviors, and are frequently used to test predcitions on symbolic interaction theory, weaknesses: rely on self-reports), field studies and naturalistic observation: (investigate social behavior in natural settings, differ in how the observers collect and record information, sometimes use unobtrusive measures, strengths: observable techniques allow researchers to study social activity in real-world settings and involve one period of time which can witness social change, weaknesses: sensitivity to specific recording methods used, validity may depend on the identities that the investigators publicly project, external validity can be problematic, sometimes do not get informed consent), archival research and content analysis: (many sources in archival data such as the Census Bureau, use content analysis of which the first step is to indentify the info unit to be studiedthen define the categories into which units will be sorted and then to code the units in each document into the categories and last to look for relations within the categorized data, strengths: low cost, can complete more quickly, can test hypotheses about phenomena that occur over extended periods of time, weaknesses: lack of control over the type and quality of info, creating a reliable and valid content analysis scheme for use with records can b difficult, some sets od records contain large amounts of inconsistent or missing info), and experiements: (most highly controlled of the research methodologies, random assignment is implemented, laboratory and field experiments, strength: high ;evel of internal validity by randomly assigning participants to treatments and holding constant known extraneous variables and incorporating extraneous variables as factors in the research design and measuring extraneous variables and including them to the data analysis of covariates of the independent variables, weaknesses: investigators cannot study many social phenomena, threats to internal validity such as the possibility that the experimental manipulation may fail, the existence of demand characteristics, and experimental effects, problems with external validity, low mundane realism); meta-analyis"s three steps: researcher locates all previous studies on the question, for each study the investigator computes a statistic that measures how big the difference was, and the researcher averages all the values of d over all th studies that were located; if researcher's intent is to characterize groups or cultures, the samples studied must be representative; potential sources of harm: physical harm, psyhological harm, and breach of conficentiality; institutional safeguards: risk-benfit analysis and informed consent; six elements are essental to informed consent: researchers should give potential participants an explanation of the purposes of the experiment and a brief description of the procedures to be employed, investigators should inform participants about any foreseeable risks of participation, researchers should provide a description of any benefits to the participants or others, investigators should provide info about which medical or psychological resources are available to participants who are adversely affected by participation, researchers should offer to answer questions about the study whenever possible, and the researchers should inform potential participants that they have the right to terminate their participation at any time.

"The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling" Hochschild

flight attendants are told to have facial expressions that are "sincere" and "unaffected"; people hired for job because they knew how to project an image and being able to act well; training would stake out a series of company claims on private territories of self, but first it prepared the trainees to accept these claims; training fostered the sense that it was safe to feel dependent on the company; the company claim to emotion work was mainly insinuated by example; there were many direct appeals to smile; there were actual attempts to modify feelong states, act as if airplane cabin was your home; the injunction to act as if it were home obscured crucial differences between home and airplane cabin, home is safe and doesnt crash; some passengers become irates and do not suppress their irritation, therefore passenger-as-child analogy; worker's right to anger is reduced; their protest may take the form of rebelling against the costumes, the script, and the general choreography; smile less often as rebellion; slow down is the manner of protest.

"The Persistence of Gender Inequality in Employment Settings" Ridgeway

gender hierarchy is a system of social practices that advantages men over women in material resources, power, status, and authority; the gender hierarchy in economic and other social arrangements is mediated by interactional processes that are largely taken for granted; gender processes taking place as people interact durin economic and other activities can operate as an "invisible hand" that rewrites gender inequality into new socioeconomic arrangements as they replace the earlier arrangements upon which gender hierarchy was based; people are nearly incapable of interacting with each other if they cannot guess the other's sex, and the difficulty of dealing with a person whose gender is ambiguous suggests that gender categorization is a basic first step in the cultural rules we use for organizing interaction; organizing interaction requires you to categorize the other as well as yourself in socially significant ways; the cognitive processes by which people are hierarchally organized begins with an initial, automatic, and usually unconscious classification of the other according to a very small number of primary cultural typing depending on the circumstances; in institutional settings there are often clear social scripts that define who self and other are and frame interaction, but gender categorization continues in these settings; gender categorization cues gender status beliefs that can unconsciously shape people's assumptions about how competent women in the situation are compared to similar men and unconsciously biases whom people compare themselves to. comparison in return affect the rewards to which people feel entitled and the wages for which they will settle; gender status beliefs are widely held cultural beliefs that posit one gender as generally superior and diffusely more competent than the other; gender often acts as a background identity that flavors the performance of those work identities; gender status beliefs are still salient to measurably affect people's expectations and behavior under two conditions: in mixed gender settings and when gender is relevant to the purposes or context of the setting; when gender status beliefs are salient they have three types of effects on goal-oriented interaction that affect employment inequality: first, cause both men and women to unconsciously expect slightly greater competence from qualified men than from similarly qualified women, which then tend to be self-fulfilling, second, cause people to expect and feel entitled to rewards that are commensurate with their relative status and expected competence in the setting, third, men in interaction are less likely to notice information about self or other that might diminish or eliminate the effects of gender statud beliefs in expectations for competence or rewards; automatic gender categorization causes people to unconsciously compare their own rewards more closely to those of the same gender than to those of the opposite gender; gender lableing hurts interview and job process; interests of men are more represented than women's; error discrimination: two workers who would perform equally are judged to be different and paid accordingly; women unintentionally accept lower pay; when women enter a male occupation, it can turn over into a female occupation.

"Changing Behavior by Degrees" Price

i already analyzed the crap out of this one, so im not doing it again.

"The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life: Selections" Goffman

info about the individual helps to define the situation, enabling others to know in advance what he will expect of them and what they my expect of him; many sources of info become accessible and many carriers, or "sign vehicles" become available for conveying this info; can rely on the type of people normally found in a social setting or from assumptions if they know or know of the person; expressiveness of the individual involves two radically different kinds of sign activity: the expression that he gives (involves verbal symbols or their substitutes) and the expression that he gives off (involves a wide range of action that others can treat as symptomatic of the actor, but only has initial validity); it will be in his interest to control the conduct of others, expecially their responsive treatment of him, which is done by expressing himself in such a way as to give them the kind of impression that will lead them to act voluntarily in accordance with his own plan; each participant is expected to suppress his immediate heartfelt feelings, conveying a view of the situation which he feels to others will be able to find at least temporarily acceptable, each participant conceals his own wants; he remains silent or noncommittal on matters important to others but not immediately important to him, together the participants contribute to a single overall definition of the situation which involves not so much a real agreement as to what exists but rather a real agreement as to whose claims concerning what issues will be temporarily honored; real agreement will also exist concerning the desirability of avoiding an open conflict of definitions of the situation, which is "working consensus"; when events occur that may discredit, contradict, or throw doubt upon this projection, the interaction itself may come to a confused and embarassed halt; preventive practices are constantly employed to avoid these embarassments and that correlative practices are constantly employed to compensate for discrediting occurrences that have not been successfully avoided, both are "defense practices", but when a participant employs them to save the definition of the situation projected by another they are "protective practices"; an intense interest in these disruptions comes to play a significant role in the social life of the group; interaction: the reciprocal influence of individuals upon one another's actions when in one another's immediate physical presence; encounter: all the interaction which occurs throughout any one occasion when a given set of individuals are in one another's continuous presence; performance: all the activity of a given participant on a given occasion whch serves to influence in any way any of the other participants; those who contribute to to the other performances are the audience, observers, or co-participants; part or routine: the pre-established pattern of action which is unfolded during a performance and which may be presented or played through on other occasions; when an individual plays the same part to the same audience on different occasions, a social relationship is likely to arise; front: part of the individual's performance which regularly functions in a general and fixed fashion to define the situation for those who observe the performance, the expressive equipment of a standard kind inattentionaly or unwittingly employed by the individual during his performance, setting, divide the stimuli into appearance (those stimuli which function as the time to tell us of the performer's social statuses) and manner (those stimuli which function at the time to warn us of the interaction role the performer will expect to play in the oncoming situation; dramatic realization: while in the presence of others, the individual typically infuses his activity with signs which dramatically highlight and portray confirmatory facts that might otherwise remain unapparent of obscure, to make his activity significant to others, he must mobilize his activity so that it will express during the interaction that he wishes to convey; idealization: the tendency for performers to offer their observers an impression that is idealized in several different ways, his performance will tend to incorporate and exemplify the officially accredited values of the society more so than does his behavior as a whole, one of the richest sources of data on the presentation of idealized performances is the literature on social mobility, people want to move up in stratified societies, which involves the presentation of proper performances and that efforts to move upward and efforts to keep from moving downward are expressed in terms of sacrifices made for the maintenance of the front, most important piece of sign equipment associated with social class consists of the status symbols through which material wealth is expressed; reality and contrivance: an honest, sincere, serious performance is less firmly connected with the solid world than one might first assume, almost anyone can quickly learn a script well enough to give a charitable audience some sense of realness because ordinary social intercourse is itself put together as a scene is put together, individual is required to learn enough pieces of expression to be able to fill in and manage any part he is likely to be given, we all act better than we know how; personality-interaction society: when an event occurs which is expressively incompatible with this fostered impression, significant consequences are simultaneously felt in three levels of social reality, each fo which involves a different point of reference and a different order of fact -first, social interaction may come to an embarrassed and confused halt and the situation may cease to be defined- secondly, performance disruptions may have consequences of a more far-reaching kind- finally, the self-conceptions around which his personality has been built may become discredited, performance disruptions have consequences at three levels of abstraction: personality, interaction, and social structure; staging the self: the self is a dramatic effect arising diffusely from a scene that is presented, and the characteristic issue is whether it will be credited or discredited.

"The Measurement of Psychological Androgyny" Bem

masculinity and femininity have long been conceptualized as bipolar ends of a single continuum; this sex-role dichotomy has served to obscure two very plausible hypotheses: first that many individuals might be androgynous (both masculine and feminine) and conversely that srtongly sex-typed individuals might be seriouly limited in the range of behaviors available to them as they move from situation to situation; a mized or androgenous self-concept might allow an individual to freely engage in both masculine and feminine behaviors; Bem Sex-Role Identity; masculinity has been associated with an instrumental orientation, a cognitive focus on "getting the job done" and femininity has been associated with an expressive orientation, an affective concern for the welfare of others; males scored significantly higher on the masculinity scale than females and females scored significantly higher than males on the femininity scale; on the two scale of androgyny, males scored on the masculine side of zero and females scored on the feminine side of zero.

"Talking to Women" Duneier

most interactions between pedestrians and people working and/or living on the street show social solidarity; it may only take a small number of men who insist on getting the attention of strangersto create an occasional "quality of life" problem in the minds of local residents; special attention to poor black men and upper-middle-class white women; a good street life consists in part of the freedom to walk along without getting entangled, and to feel safe while doing so; thinks the women he addresses never feel harassed becausehe gives them respect and he can tell from thier smiles that they like the attention; conversation analysis: looks at conversation in micro-detail, how they are ordered sequentially and how participants organize them moment to moment in responding to one another's moves; these cues are based on elements of normal conversation that almost all people take for granted; for men to keep asking, when knowing perfectly well they have been heard is a kind of "disaffiliative escalation"; in ordinary conversation, not only do questions and compliments usually elicit responses, but those responses come immediately; gaps and silences in conversation show a woman's wanting to close the conversation; women want to avoid seeming "rude"; Mudrick is in a lower social-class position but he uses his status as a man to create entanglements with women on a public sidewalk whereby he can achieve a limited measure of power, and this power is indicated by his insistence that "they gotta deal with it"; Keith and Carrie with dog: in gaining control over the dog, he gains control over the situation, writer's presence helps elicit easy talk from the woman, cues were shown that she wanted to end the conversation, Keith gives a demand for her to take the leash off and ahe will not abide but tries to soften her "technical rudeness"; has never seen any man or panhandler try to control a man with a comment such as telling him to drop his leash; white liberal guilt: perhaps they are erecting boundaries not only because the men are poor and black but also despite this, which is why they have to be forced into rudeness, desire to avoid rudeness may be compounded by the surface morality of wanting to be nice to those at the bottom of the racial and class structure; the men deprive the women the ability to assume in others the practices behind the social bond; "eyes upon the street"; Jacobs celebrated the restraints that play out in urban life and enable people to function without others in their hair.

"Passing By: Street Remarks, Address Rights, and the Urban Female. Sociological Inquiry" Gardner

norm of civil inattention between unacquainted persons in large urban centers; street remark: a comment in public taking place between the unacquainted; occasion of concern is male to female street remark; these types of markers of passage thus salute civil inattention by obeying its boundaries and simultaneously undermine it by incorporating attention-getters such as gaze and noise into those boundaries; when breaches of civil inattention with a spoken component occur (asking for directions), the person becomes an open person for the time being; another occasion for breaching civil inattention occurs when some obvious similiarity exists between one passerby and another; use of "badges" announces some characteristic of the possessor that is usually unavailable to the public but that once displayed becomes a resource for focused interaction and conversation; civil inattention may be breached when the citizen is accompanied by a person or animal in an open category, disabled persons, minorites, and interracial couples are also considered "open"; in urban areas women are subjected to a free and evaluative commentary by men; the force of many of the street remarks that women receive suggests that they are in some way acting out of role; street remarks accuse women of inferior looks, improper carriage or attire, inappropriate actions, and moral defects; men do not realize that street remarks may be offensive to women; street remarks are the rewards due the women who fulfill their female role rquirements or they are the playful patter of the men she passes; Goffman's analysis is instructive inasmuch as it places the responaibility for the breach on the women, though it is in fact the male who is the invariable first mover, though the women's appearance could be considered the first move; men offer evidence when confronted by women who are offended or hurt by a street remark that they meant no harm; respectful reversals of manner may also show the woman that male street remarkers, if they do not always envisage a positive response to their words, at least do not envisage a negative one; some women may simply feel pleasure from street remarks; the disparity between men's and women's view on street remarks may in part be explained by the double-entendre nature of many remarks; women in public are obliged to show that they are neither accessible nor preoccupied, that they cannot be approached by every male, but that they can be won by some male; double-entendre involved when a man involves the woman in his convo but does not actually talk to her; woman is required not to ratify the male's attempt to gain the floor and intiate conversation; other cases of double-entendre may make props pf actual or elaborated characteristics of the woman; one effect of introducing topics taboo in polite conversation into public conversation is and is meant to be to embarass the woman who cannot help but overhear them, and she cannot reply for several reasons, one being opening herself up to criticism for violating her feminine role propriety; another characteristic of street remarks us that they are evaluative and evaluative in a positive way; a woman's appearance is public info, addressed, as Goffman says, "to whom it may concern"; an additional characteristic of street remarks is their construction of a woman's normal behavior as if it were out of role; another characteristic is that it tests the woman's self-control and finally they are the occasional involvement of a split of functions for the men who utter it; two or more speakers, division of labor presented for female target; the fact of male to female street remark is in some respects an exploration of civil inattention, since such remarks simultaneously require a woman to respond to an attempted opening and obliges a woman to ignore it; men violated three separate conditions: appropriate content, length, and degree of involvement, for giving a compliment; blocking or repressing: attempting to act as if nothing is happening; another strategy women employ to deal with street remarks is to avoid the places where a particularly offensive remark has occurred; place male in position of traditional chivalry and calling upon him to respond with noblesse oblige, woman's intiative; women who answer back angrily to men who make street remarks often find that the man's next move is an escalation to a high level of verbal abuse; the accusation that a woman is displaying conceit is also an effort to find a response where none has occurred; when one man is the speaker, any response on the woman's part may elicit an escalation to hostility or even blows; with men in groups, frequently there will be male laughter no matter the nature of her response; severla guards to a man's personal rejection when a woman resists the overture he presents: the impersonality of his remark, the brief nature of the street remark and the fact that it involves a moving linguistic target, there are female gener role constraints, and there is the street remark's use of innuendo and double-entendre which ensures that a man may hedge his bets whenever he chooses; severl factors that ensure that the man will always be rejected by the woman; men who make street remarks are setting up the conditions for their own rejection.

"The Many Me's of the Self Monitor" Snyder

self is a product of the individual's relationships with other people; there may be striking gaps between the public and private appearances of the self; impression management: the strategies and techniques that people use to control the impressions they convey to others; high self-monitoring individuals have developed the ability to carefully monitor their own performances and to skillfully adjust their performances when signals from others tell them that they are not having the desired effect, are likely to seek out info abou appropriate patterns of self-presentation, know when to conform and not to conform, use their skills to promote smooth social interaction, adept at detecting impression management in others, better at identifying the real Mr. X and therefore are better able to see past deception, keenly attentive to the actions of others as clues to their underlying intentions, likeed target better if he was disagreeable but sought respectmay perfer friends on the opposite end of the spectrum; low self-monitoring individuals tend to express what they feel, rather than mold and tailor their behavior to fit the situation, more accurate reflections of their personal attitudes and dispositions, accept behavior at face value; people who engage in self-monitoring for deceptive purposes are less skilled at controlling their body's expressive movements; prejudice can be revealed in the physical distance people maintain between themselves and the target of their prejudice; a women on trial for a crime she did not commit requires her to carefully manage her verbal and nonverbal behaviors; in some circumstances we are persuaded by our own appearances: we become the persons we appear to be and will particularly occur when the image we present wins the approval and favor of those around us; high and low self-monitoring individuals have different views about what constitutes a self and their notions are well-suited to how they live: high believe a person is whoever he appears to be in an particular situation, low strive for congruence between who they are and what they do and regard their actions as faithful reflections of how they feel and think; from this perspective, the processes of self-monitoring are the processes of self, a system of operating rules that translate self-knowledge into social behavior.

"Attitudes vs. Actions" LaPiere

social attitude: a behavior pattern, anticipatory set or tendency, predisposition to specific adjustment to designated social situations, or a conditioned response to social stimuli; social attitudes are seldom more than a verbal response to a symbolic situation; there need be no relationship between what the hotel proprietor says he will do and what he actually does when confronted with a colored patron; traveled with a chinese couple; only one time did the fact that they were chinese affect them, cleanliness and appearance, etc were more influential; most places said that would not service chinese people; the questionnaire measured political attitude: a verbal response to a symbolic situation; shows the danger in the questonnaire technique because it only obtains a verbal reaction to an entirely symbolic situation.

"The Constructive, Destructive, and Reconstructive Power of Social Norms" Schultz

social-norms marketing campaigns have emerged as an alternative to more traditional approaches designed to reduce undesirable conduct; the rationale for the social-norms marketing approach is based on two findings: one, the majority of individuals overestimate the prevalence of many undesirable behaviors and two, individuals use their perceptions of peer norms as a standard against which to compare theitr own behaviors; the perception of prevalence is commonly referred to as the descriptive norm governing a behavior; social-norms marketing techniques actually increase the undesirable behaviors and misperceptions they set out to decrease; injunctive norm: refer to perceptions of what is commonly approved or disapproved within the culture; experiment on househols energy consumption: descriptive-norm-only feedback produced a significant decrease in energy consumption for households consuming more than the average, households that were below the mean had an increase with teh descriptive-norm-only message, when injunctive message added to descriptive normative feedback households consuming less stayed there, same shown in long-term.

"Gender Gap: What Were the Real Reasons Behind David Reimer's Suicide?" Colapinto

story of David Reimer and his unsuccessful sex-change surgery.

"Smell, Odor, and Somatic Work: Sense-making and Sensory Management" Waskul and Vannini

to sense is to make sense, and sense-making entails "somatic work"; smell is an act, odor is a state; smelling of odor evokes olfactory definitions of the situation by which multiple meanings mediate between the act of smelling and the condition of odor, in this way odor and smell are conjoined in an interpretive relationship; somatic work is fashioned in the context of negotiated somatic rules that vary by personal, interpersonal, situational, contextual, cultural, and historical circumstances; olfactory impression management is built of two basic processes identified by Largey and Watson: odor avoidance (cultural inclinations to avoid individuals, gorups, or environments that are considered foul smelling) and odor attraction (cultural tendencies to approve of individuals, groups, or environments that are considered aromatically pleasing; basic olfactory processes are expressed in deodorizing rituals (culturally grounded practices that entail the removal of socially discreditable odors through such activities as washing, gargling, and cleansing of teeth) and odorizing rituals (practices that involve the presentation of self with accreditable odors through the art of pefuming); odor conveys meaning and is a significant element of the dramaturgies of everyday life; constructions of odor and perceptions of smell as both a part of the processes of presentation of self and a means of bestowing sanctity or stigma unto others; because odor conveys meaning, it both reflects character and expresses to others an awareness of and commitment to olfactory rules of decorum; romantic encounters important moments for acute olfactory dramaturgical awareness and positive interpersonal olfactory ritual for both self and environment, also work enivronments, restaurants, bathrooms, menstruation; an odorous body is an offensive body and failure to adhere to somatic rules and maintain expected olfactory impressions is potentially stigmatizing; odor is a means of creating and enforcing class boundaries; remember times when you smelled bad; odor is a "sign vehicle" we manipulate and manage on bodies and in environments in an effort to convey desired impressions.

"Human Use of Human Subjects: The Problem of Deception in Social Psychological Research" Helman

use of deception has become more extensive and is now a commonplace and almost a standard feature of social psychological experiments; question is whether the amount and type of deception is justified by the significane of the study and the unavailability of alternative procedures; undermines relationship between experimenter and subject; second-order deceptions, where subjects think they are experimenters, is wrong; deception is used without question; concern of the use of deception based on three considerations: ethical implications of such procedures, their methodological implications, and their implications for the future of social psychology; ethical implications: arise in experiments in which deception has potentially harmful consequences for the subject, experiments designed to make people feel as if their life is in danger; methodological implications: people know the experiment is usually not what they say it isand therefore value of deception is nullified, one will do what the experimenter wants or try to not do what he wants, they are responsive to demand characteristics of the experimenter's expectations and to the role of the experimenter within the social system that experimenter and subject jointly constitute; implications for the future of social psychology: relying on massive deception as the basis for developing a field of inquiry is disturbing, deception involves a contradiction between our experimental procedures and our long-range aims as scientists and teachers, deception is self-defeating; three steps to take to improve: increase our active awareness of the problem, explore ways of counteracting and minimizing the negative effects of deception, and give careful attention to the development of new experimental techniques that dispense with the use of deception; active awareness of the problem: no complete elimination of deception, ask whether deception is necessary; counteracting and minimizing the negative effects of deception: sensitizing the apprentice researcher, subjects selected in a way that will exclude those who are especially vulnerable, harmful manipulation kept at moderate level, experimenter sensitive to danger signals, and experimenter should help subject at end (postexperimental feedback); development of new experimental techniques: role playing which creates a high level of emotional involvement and elicits motivations, with full cooperation of subjects specific experimental variations are introduced, telling subject he will not know what the full information but to suspend his judgment.