SOCI 101

Stigma

"Stigma" refers to an identity that has negative social connotations People deal with stigma by concealing it. Not really possible with visible stigmas like homelessness. Another strategy is physical isolation Again, not really possible.

Weber-Rationality

"The Iron Cage" Society becomes more and more rational, analytic, rule-based. This destroys individual thought, free expression. Sameness is the dominant experience.

Functionalism

(in the social sciences) the theory that all aspects of a society serve a function and are necessary for the survival of that society.

Bureaucracy

-Hierarchy of authority -Clear division of labor -Explicit Rules -Impersonality -Meritocracy

Steps of the Scientific Method:

1. Ask a question. 2. Research Existing Sources 3. Formulate a Hypothesis 4. Design and conduct a Study 5. Draw Conclusions 6. Report Results

Group Characteristics

1. Can be any association of more than one person. 2. Associate frequently (broadly defined). 3. Associate identity with the group. 4. Not groups yet: aggregate, category.

Some features of African American English

1. Copula Absence (They Hungry): •AAE speakers will occasionally omit any form of the verb to be in sentences that require a form of to be in Standard English. 2. •3rd person singular-s deletion: "He jump high."Another common feature of AAE is omitting the -s with verbs following a third person singular subject. 3. •Habitual be: "We be playing basketball after school."Perhaps the most stereotypical feature of AAE is what linguists refer to as habitual be: using the unconjugated form of the verb to be to signal a habitual or regularly occurring action. 4. •Double negatives: "Ain't nobody can beat me."

Define and give an example of the three types of leadership: 1. Democratic 2. Laissez-faire 3. Authoritarian

1. Democratic leaders: encourage group participation in all decision making. They work hard to build consensus before choosing a course of action and moving forward. (Club where all the members vote on which activities or projects to pursue). 2. Laissez-Faire Leaders: hands-off, allowing group members to self-manage and make their own decisions (Art teacher who leaves out art supplies). 3. Authoritarian: Issue orders and assigns tasks. These leaders are instrumental leaders with a strong focus on meeting goals.

Gross and Stone found that embarrassing moments fit roughly into 3 categories which respond to essential stages in effective role performance:

1. Establishing Identity. 2. Maintaining poise. 3. Maintaining confidence.

Agents of Socialization

1. Family 2. Peer Groups 3. Schools 4. Religion

Know the five types of pre-industrial societies

1. Hunter-Gatherer: based around kinship or tribes. Relied on their surroundings for survival- they hunted wild animals and foraged for uncultivated plants for food. Nomadic 2. Pastoral: Relied on domestication of animals as a resource for survival. Pastoral groups were able to breed livestock for food, clothing and transportation, and they created a surplus of goods. 3. Horticultural: Formed in areas where rainfall and other conditions allowed them to grow stable crops. Didn't have to abandon their location to follow resources. 4. Agricultural: Relied on permanent tools for survival. Learned to rotate the types of crops grown 5. Feudal: These societies contained a strict hierarchical system of power based around land ownership and protection.

In groups vs. Outgroups

1. In groups are groups you actively part of. 2. Out groups are groups you actively identify as not being part of. 3. Out groups can be strong sources of identities. 4. In groups can be defined as not them relative to out-groups. In-groups and out-groups can form as a result of power structures or inequalities within larger groups. This is especially the case with secondary groups. They can also exist as sources of group identity overall. A group can define themselves as much by who they are as who they are not.

IRB Rules Governing Research

1. Informed Consent 2. Voluntary (without coercion) 3. Disclosure of Risk 4. Confidentiality 5. Right of Withdraw

What are the 3 types of societies and how are these different?

1. Pre-industrial 2. Industrial 3. Post-industrial. How are these different? 1. Economy 2. Work 3. Family 4. Social Power/Influence 5. Living Arrangements.

Social Capital

1. Social capital refers to resources you can access through social ties to others. 2. Groups are a source of social capital. 3. Social capital can be a beneficial resource, also a source of inequality.

3 Things to Know about Socialization

1. Socialization happens to everyone in many ways and from many different sources. 2. It carries over from one generation to the next and persists through institutions. 3. It involves beliefs, behaviors, and inequalities.

Sociology is the scientific study of:

1. Things that hold people together in groups. 2. Things that divide people or create inequality. 3. Things that influence how we interact with other people, groups, and institutions.

Different ways to assess the quality of research:

1. Validity: Does the study measure what you want to measure? 2. Reliability: Would you get the same result if you measured it again?

Identity Work

1. •Procurement or arrangement of physical settings and props 2. •Cosmetic face work or the arrangement of personal appearance 3. •Selective association with other individuals and groups 4. •Verbal construction and assertion of personal identities

In his analysis of advertisements for "genderisms," Goffman classified men and women's portrayals in five ways:

1.Relative size - men were almost always taller, larger than women 2. Touch - women were pictured touching themselves to convey a sense of the female body as precious 3.Activity - men were shown in an occupational or active role while women usually were not 4.Subordination - women are often lowering the body in deference, a "bashful knee bend," or lowering/turning the head 5.License withdrawal - he observed women portrayed more often than men as removed psychologically (and thus in need of the protection or goodwill of others). Men were almost always taller than women, presumably to represent their superior social rank This category included such gestures as covering the mouth to hide losing control of emotions (when afraid, for example), a finger to the mouth to show anxiety or contemplation, or averting one's gaze or head to show submission

Theory

A belief about how a social process works or why it happens

Subculture

A group of people with a deeper knowledge about something than most people would have, often interest-based but also can be identity-based, still a part of the mainstream culture.

Sociological Paradigms

A paradigm is a way of thinking about the world. Disease is caused by germs Disease is caused by bad air Disease is caused by sinful behavior Disease is caused by God's will

Give examples of how culture is communicated through symbols

A police officer's badge and uniform are symbols of authority and law enforcement. The sight of an officer in uniform or a squad car triggers reassurance in some citizens, and annoyance, fear, or anger in others.

Role

A role is a set of behaviors that are associated with a status. Roles are things I do because of these statuses (or things I'm expected to do)

Hypotheses

A testable theory

Paradigms

A theoretical framework, a general way of looking at social phenomena Functionalism Conflict Symbolic Interaction

Grand Theories

A theory about how society functions or changes

What is a social fact? Be able to give some examples.

A thing originating in the institutions or culture of a society that affects the behavior or attitudes of an individual member of that society. Social facts are the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life (Durkheim 1895).

Identify three key ethical considerations when doing sociological research and describe what they mean (confidentiality, informed consent, disclosure of risk, protection of subjects, value neutrality)

ASA maintains a code of ethics- formal guidelines for conducting sociological research- consisting of principles and ethical standards to be used in the discipline. 1. Informed consent: researchers must obtain the participant's informed consent and inform subjects of the responsibilities and risks of research before they agree to partake. 2. Value neutrality: the practice of remaining impartial, without bias or judgment, during the course of a study and in publishing results. 3. Disclosure of risk: Inform subjects of the responsibilities and risks of research before they agree to partake. 4. Protection of Subjects: Researchers are required to protect the privacy of research participants whenever possible. Even if pressured by authorities, such as police or courts, researchers are not ethically allowed to release confidential information.

How the big three theorists relate to society (Marx, Weber, Durkheim)

All of these theorists were particularly interested in how society was changing - Durkheim - looking at the shift from pre-industrial to industrial. Felt that it was not going well. Marx - what we do is what we are. Conflict. Four types of alienation: 1) the product, 2) the process, 3) others - compete not cooperate, 4) self (identity from job) Weber - Different from Marx because he thought economy = class but other things. = status

Society and Self

All this "stuff" that we learn through socialization also tells us who we are. Individuals are fundamentally social beings. Socialization is linked to social facts.

What is reification?

An error of treating an abstract concept as though it has a real, material existence. Sociologists take care not to treat the concept of culture as though it were alive in its own right. Its a complex idea for when you treat something immaterial- like happiness, fear, or evil, as a material thing.

Describe the two defining characteristics of a group

Any collection of at least 2 people who interact with some frequency and who share a sense that their identity is somehow aligned with the group.

Reference Groups

Are the groups you compare yourself to Similar to the "generalized other" but not generalized- specific to a group identity.

Cultural Relativism

Assessing another culture by its own standards.

High Culture

Associated with people who have high social standing and economic resources.

Describe how socialization happens across the lifecourse and give examples of two life transitions that involve resocializations

Becoming school age, entering workforce, or reitiring.

Norms:

Behavior expectations specific to a situation Formal vs. Informal Norms

Be able to define the following terms as they relate to culture: Beliefs Values Norms (differentiate between functional and informal norms) Social control

Beliefs: Tenets or convictions that people hold to be true. Individuals in a society have specific beliefs but they also share collective values. Values: Account for the stability of social order. They provide the general guidelines for social conduct. Values such as: fundamental rights, patriotism, respect for human dignity, democracy, etc. Norms: The fundamental concept in the social sciences They are most commonly defined as rules or expectations that are socially enforced. Social control: As the way that norms, rules, laws, and structures of society regulate human behavior.

Components of Marx Theory

Bourgeoisie: Own the means of production (factories) Proletariat: Sell their labor (work in factories) This is inherently alienating! This also creates conflict!

Pre-industrial characteristics

Characteristics of pre-industrial societies: smaller, fewer specialized occupations, human labor instead of machines, fewer social divisions

Do the same as #3 but as it applies to the article on child rearing

Child Rearing Main Ideas: Although family life has an important impact on children's life chances, the mecha-nisms through which parents transmit advantages are imperfectly understood. An ethnographic data set of white children and black children approximately 10 years old shows the effects of social class on interactions inside the home. Middle-class parents engage in concerted cultivation by attempting tofoster children's talents through organized leisure activities and extensive reasoning. Working-class and poor parents engage in the accomplishment of natural growth, providing the condi- tions under which children can grow but leaving leisure activities to children them- selves. These parents also use directives rather than reasoning. Middle-class children, both white and black, gain an emerging sense of entitlement from their family life. Race had much less impact than social class. Also, differences in a cultural logic of childrearing gave parents and their children differential resources to draw on in their interactions with professionals and other adults outside the home. Middle-class children gained individually insignificant but cumulatively important advantages. Working-class and poor children did not display the same sense of en- titlement or advantages. Some areas off amily life appeared exempt from the effects of social class, however. Sought to show that soical class does create distinctive parentings styles. Both white and black middle-class parents tend to conform to a cultural logic of childrearing called concerted cultivation. The childrearing strategies of white and black working-class and poor parents emphasize the accomplishment of natural growth. They believe as long as they provide love, food and safety, their children will grow and thrive Compared to middle class children, working and poor children participated in few organized activities and have much more free time and deeper connections with extended families. Study was based on interviews and observations of children aged 8-10 and their families.

Conflict Theory vs. Functionalism

Conflict Theory: -Stratification is part of unequal societies, harmful to individuals. -Social inequality creates stratification. -Stratification results in conflict, competition for resources. Functionalism: -Stratification is universal and helps organize societies. -Social stratification creates social inequalities. -Stratification motivates individuals to work towards success.

Beliefs

Convictions held to be true.

Cooley

Cooley - The "looking glass self" (how you think others see you)

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Culture is embedded in language; people understand culture through language. People can't experience things they can't describe.

What is culture? What are examples of material and non-material culture?

Culture refers to the group's shared practices, values and beliefs. Material Culture: refers to the objects or belongings of a group of people. (Metro passes and bus tokens are art of material culture). Nonmaterial Culture: consists of the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society. Material and nonmaterial aspects of culture are linked, and physical objects often symbolize cultural ideas.

Leadership Styles

Democratic, Laissez-faire, Authoritarian Democratic: leaders encourage group participation in all decision making. They work hard to build consensus before choosing a course of action and moving forward. This type of leader is particularly common, for example, in a club where the members vote on which activities or projects to pursue. Democratic leaders can be well liked, but there is often a danger that they will proceed slowly since consensus building is time-consuming. Laissez-Faire: An example of this kind of leader might be an art teacher who opens the art cupboard, leaves materials on the shelves, and tells students to help themselves and make some art. While this style can work well with highly motivated and mature participants who have clear goals and guidelines, it risks group dissolution and a lack of progress. Authoritarian: issue orders and assigns tasks. These leaders are clear instrumental leaders with a strong focus on meeting goals. Often, entrepreneurs fall into this mold, like Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg. Not surprisingly, the authoritarian leader risks alienating the workers. There are times, however, when this style of leadership can be required.

Components of W.E.B Dubois Theories:

Didn't talk about how societies change over time, emphasized importance of social identities. How we view society is always a function of our social identities "Double Consciousness" Can be applied to any disadvantaged social identity. Example: women in the workplace. Not based on individual beliefs but on social identities.

W.E.B Dubois

Double consciousness, The Veil, Social Identities The authors write that the great social changes that took place starting in the 1930's led to a renewed exploration of basic social theory. New theorists brought new ideas, often from diverse and underrepresented backgrounds. One of the most significant scholars of this time was W.E.B. DuBois. DuBois wrote about what he called "double consciousness", the idea that Black people in American society are both aware of their own identity and aware of how they are perceived by the dominant class of White people. DuBois also wrote about what he termed "the veil" - the way that marginalized groups of people saw the world filtered through the frame of their disadvantaged status. It has been applied to understanding many different types of identity-based inequality.

How was Du Bois Different from Mark, Weber and Durkheim?

Du Bois was part of the second wave of social theory Marx, Weber, and Durkheim were all writing generally about changes they had witnessed in how Western societies were organized and functioning during the period around the industrial revolution. As a result, while many of their fundamental ideas are still relevant, there are questions left unanswered. For example, how would Marx address the rise of the service economy? Most workers in modern economies do not actually produce something that is then sold by a factory owners; people today provide services and trade information. How would Durkheim explain the rise of identity politics and cultural sub-groups in the United States over the past 50 years, and Weber's original theories would find it challenging to explain the rise of the creative class or the unstructured gig economy.

Describe the theoretical frameworks (aka "paradigms") developed by the following key sociologists (this is also covered extensively in chapter 4): Durkheim (Structural-Functionalism) Marx (Conflict theory) Weber (Rationality) W.E.B. BuBois (Identity groups) Mead/Blumer (Symbolic interaction) - note: we didn't mention these guys by name but did discuss their theories

Durkheim: Structural-Functionalism: Macro or Mid analysis: the way each part of society functions together to contribute to the whole. A critique of it is that it can't adequately explain social change. Marx: Conflict Theory: Macro: The way inequalities contribute to social differences and perpetuate differences in power. Criticism: many social structures are extremely stable or have gradually progressed over time rather than changing abruptly as conflict theory would suggest. Mead/Blumer: Symbolic Interactionism: Micro: One-to-one interactions and communications. Criticism is that it is extremely narrow-focused. Weber: Rationality: Implies the conformity of one's beliefs with one's reasons to believe, and of one's actions with one's reasons for action. W.E.B DuBois: Identity Groups: Double-consciousness is a concept in social philosophy referring, originally, to a source of inward "twoness" putatively experienced by African-Americans because of their racialized oppression and disvaluation in a white-dominated society.

Define ethnocentrism and give an example. Be able to do the same for cultural imperialism.

Evaluating and judging another culture based on how it compares to one's own cultural norms. Involves a belief or attitude that one's own culture is better than all others. Example: Americans tend to say that people from England drive on the wrong side of teh road, rather than on the other side.

Describe the difference between an expressive leader and a functional leader in a group

Expressive Leader: more concerned with promoting emotional strength and health,and ensuring that people feel supported. Instrumental Leader: one who is goal-oriented and largely concerned with accomplishing set tasks.

Identity key agents of socialization: 1) social groups, 2) institutions

Family is the first agent of socialization. A peer group is made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests. The social institutions of our culture also inform our socialization. Formal instituitions- like shcools, workplaces and he goverment teach people how to behave and navigate these systems. Religion is a formal instituition. Government: many of the rites of passage people go through today are based on age norms established by the government. Mass Media distribute personal information to a wide audience. In the United States, socialization throughout the life course is determined greatly by age norms and "time-related rules and regulations" (Settersten 2002). As we grow older, we encounter age-related transition points that require socialization into a new role, such as becoming school age, entering the workforce, or retiring. For example, the U.S. government mandates that all children attend school. Child labor laws, enacted in the early twentieth century, nationally declared that childhood be a time of learning, not of labor. In countries such as Niger and Sierra Leone, however, child labor remains common and socially acceptable, with little legislation to regulate such practices (UNICEF 2012).

Why study groups?

Force for social change. Source of individual identity. Socialization. Perpetuate social inequalities. Site of exchange relationships. Reinforce belief systems. Support power hierarchies

Examples of groups vs. not a group:

Groups: -Students at a college. -Members of a neighborhood association. -People who share a profession (maybe) -Coworkers in an office -Pickleball Club. Not a Group: -People attending a concert. -A political rally. -A crowd at a mall. -Members of the Jewish diaspora. -People who took an Introduction to Curling class together. -Baby boomers. Aggregate: People who exist in the same place at the same time but who don't interact or share a sense of identity- such as a bunch of people standing in line at Starbucks. Category: People who share similar characteristics but are not tied to one another in any way. (Millenials).

Habitualization

Habitualization describes how "any action that is repeated frequently becomes cast into a pattern, which can then be ... performed again in the future in the same manner and with the same economical effort" - Examples: Things that individuals do regularly, things that society does regularly

Anomie

Happens when solidarity breaks down. Individuals feel: disconnected from others, "nothing matters"; Societies experience- social rewards uncertain, social values unclear. Examples: 1. Post-Katrina (acute), 2. "Saints and Roughnecks" (chronic).

Give a definition for each of the five characteristics of a bureaucracy: Hierarchy of authority Clear definition of roles and tasks Explicit rules for behavior Impersonal Meritocracy

Hierarchy of authority refers to the aspect of bureaucracy that places one individual or office in charge of another, who in turn must answer to her own superiors. For example, as an employee at Walmart, your shift manager assigns you tasks. Your shift manager answers to his store manager, who must answer to her regional manager, and so on in a chain of command, up to the CEO who must answer to the board members, who in turn answer to the stockholders. Everyone in this bureaucracy follows the chain of command. A clear division of labor refers to the fact that within a bureaucracy, each individual has a specialized task to perform. For example, psychology professors teach psychology, but they do not attempt to provide students with financial aid forms. In this case, it is a clear and commonsense division. But what about in a restaurant where food is backed up in the kitchen and a hostess is standing nearby texting on her phone? Her job is to seat customers, not to deliver food. Is this a smart division of labor? The existence of explicit rules refers to the way in which rules are outlined, written down, and standardized. For example, at your college or university, the student guidelines are contained within the Student Handbook. As technology changes and campuses encounter new concerns like cyberbullying, identity theft, and other hot-button issues, organizations are scrambling to ensure their explicit rules cover these emerging topics. Finally, bureaucracies are also characterized by impersonality, which takes personal feelings out of professional situations. This characteristic grew, to some extent, out of a desire to protect organizations from nepotism, backroom deals, and other types of favoritism, simultaneously protecting customers and others served by the organization. Impersonality is an attempt by large formal organizations to protect their members. Large business organizations like Walmart often situate themselves as bureaucracies. This allows them to effectively and efficiently serve volumes of customers quickly and with affordable products. This results in an impersonal organization. Customers frequently complain that stores like Walmart care little about individuals, other businesses, and the community at large. Bureaucracies are, in theory at least, meritocracies, meaning that hiring and promotion is based on proven and documented skills, rather than on nepotism or random choice. In order to get into a prestigious college, you need to perform well on the SAT and have an impressive transcript. In order to become a lawyer and represent clients, you must graduate from law school and pass the state bar exam. Of

Quantitative Articles

How are variables coded? What methods are used to analyze them? What findings are significant?

Research Methods

How we collect data: 1. Surveys 2. Field Research 3. Experiments 4. Interviews 5. Participant Observation

Qualitative Articles

How were the data collected? How were they coded?

Describe the relationship between culture and symbols.

Humans, consciously and subconsciously, are always striving to make sense of their surrounding world. Symbols—such as gestures, signs, objects, signals, and words—help people understand that world. They provide clues to understanding experiences by conveying recognizable meanings that are shared by societies. As physical objects, they belong to material culture, but because they function as symbols, they also convey nonmaterial cultural meanings. Some symbols are valuable only in what they represent. Trophies, blue ribbons, or gold medals, for example, serve no other purpose than to represent accomplishments. But many objects have both material and nonmaterial symbolic value.

Explain some of the ways that people do "identity work" to find dignity and self-worth in a stigmatized identity (you don't need to memorize the specific terms for each pattern

Identity Work Main Ideas of the Paper: This paper elaborates processes of identity construction and avowal among homeless street people, with two underlying and interconnected objectives in mind: to advance understanding of the manner in which individuals at the bottom of status systems attempt to generate identities that provide them with a measure of self work and dignity and to shed additional empirical and theoretical light on the relationships among role, identity, and self-concept. Identity talk constitutes the primary form of identity work by means of which homeless street people construct and negotiate personal identities. Three generic patterns of identity talk are elaborated and illustrated: distancing, embracement, and fictive storytelling. Each form contains several subtupes that vary in usagae according to the length of time one has spent on the streets. The personal identities of the homeless may be derived from the embracement of the social identities associated with certain stereotypical street roles. Personal identities homeless people construct are not static but instead change with passage of time on the streets. Typical progression is: categorical distancing and the assertion of future-oriented identities to categoical embracement, distancing from specific types of homeless individuals and street institutions, and the embellishment of past experiences and encounters. Findings suggest that identity statements implying choice can best be regarded as manifestations of life on the street rather than as indicators of initial precipitants, especially since such statements tend to be more common among those who have been only the streets for more than 2 years.

Identity

Identity is a bridge between the individual and society A location of self-worth and dignity A signifier of social belonging or position

What does it mean to refer to the "social construction of reality"? Give an example.

In 1966 sociologists Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann wrote a book called The Social Construction of Reality. In it, they argued that society is created by humans and human interaction, which they call habitualization. Habitualization describes how "any action that is repeated frequently becomes cast into a pattern, which can then be ... performed again in the future in the same manner and with the same economical effort" (= Not only do we construct our own society but we also accept it as it is because others have created it before us. Society is, in fact, "habit." Example: Your school exists as a school and not just as a building because you and others agree that it is a school. If your school is older than you are, it was created by the agreement of others before you.

Explain how the industrial revolution changed how societies are organized and how they function (changes in organization of work, living arrangements, families social power)

In the eighteenth century, Europe experienced a dramatic rise in technological invention, ushering in an era known as the Industrial Revolution. What made this period remarkable was the number of new inventions that influenced people's daily lives. Within a generation, tasks that had until this point required months of labor became achievable in a matter of days. Before the Industrial Revolution, work was largely person- or animal-based, and relied on human workers or horses to power mills and drive pumps. In 1782, James Watt and Matthew Boulton created a steam engine that could do the work of twelve horses by itself. Rise of Urban Centers. Populations of cities became increasingly diverse. The new generation became less preoccupied with maintaining family land and traditions and more focused on acquiring wealth and achieving upward mobility for themselves and their families.

Explain what an in-group is and what an out-group is, and describe how each group can be a source of identity

In-Group: is the group that an individual feels she belongs to and she believes to be an integral part of who she is. Out-Group: Group someone doesn't belong to, often we may feel disdain or competition in relationship to an out-group. Sports teams, unions, and sororities are examples of in-groups and out-groups

Micro-level:

Individual experiences, "private troubles"

Industrial characteristics

Industrial: Power! Rise of urban centers, changed where people lived and what they did. Most of the things we think of today when we describe work and family started in the industrial age

Describe the key characteristics of post-industrial societies

Information societies, sometimes known as postindustrial or digital societies, are a recent development. Unlike industrial societies that are rooted in the production of material goods, information societies are based on the production of information and services. Members of a postindustrial society are likely to be employed as sellers of services—software programmers or business consultants, for example—instead of producers of goods. Social classes are divided by access to education, since without technical skills, people in an information society lack the means for success.

Institutionalization

Institutionalization: the act of implanting a convention or norm into society. Bear in mind that the institution, while socially constructed, is still quite real. Examples are big things like family, marriage, school. Can also be smaller things.

Cultural imperialism

Intentionally imposing your culture on another.

Ethnocentrism

Judging another culture based on your own culture norms and/or values.

Describe how language functions as a cultural symbol and give examples

Language is a symbolic system through which people communicate and through which culture is transmitted. Some languages contain a system of symbols used for written communication, while others rely on only spoken communication and nonverbal actions. ... Taken together, these symbols convey specific meanings

Conflict Theory:

Main Ideas: The bourgeoisie, The proletariat, Means of Production, Alienation Conflict Theory: The first theory described by the authors is the work of Karl Marx. Marx saw capitalist society as fundamentally consisting of a struggle for resources and power between social classes. He identified two primary classes of people, namely: The bourgeoisie - these are people who own what Marx called the "means of production", things like factories and businesses The proletariat - these are people who sell their labor - or work for - the bourgeoisie; they do not actually own the things they make Marx described how these two groups were in a constant struggle for money and power. The business owners want to make as much money as they can by paying their workers as little as possible and then selling the products those workers make for as much as possible. The workers want to do as little work as they can for the amount they get paid. Marx believed that this type of system was unsustainable; eventually there would be so much inequality between the 2 classes of people that there would be a revolution and a new classless system would be created. This part of his theory has not been born out by history, but sociologists have found many examples of how conflict between social classes has had profound impacts on both individual experiences and entire societies.

Founding Fathers of Sociology

Marx, Weber, and Durkheim. They each developed a theory about how society was organized, broadly speaking, and their work continues to influence sociologists today. Rather than see these theories as conflicting with each other, it is most helpful to think about what social experiences or phenomena can be best explained by each of the different theories.

Things you learn through socialization:

Material culture (what things are, how to use them) Non-material culture: Beliefs, Values, Norms, Roles and Language

Mead

Mead - process of learning to view yourself as others see you (the "generalized other")

Mechanical Solidarity vs. Organic Solidarity:

Mechanical Solidarity (Pre-Modern): Solidarity from Collective Consciousness. Is the social integration of members of a society who have common values and beliefs. Organic Solidarity (Modern): Solidarity from Inter-Dependence. Social integration that arises out of the need of individuals for one another's services.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Merton explains that with a self-fulfilling prophecy, even a false idea can become true if it is acted upon.

What are the three types of formal organizations? For each type, describe the benefits of membership, type of attachment to the group, and sense of connection among group members

Normative or voluntary: Intangible benefit, volunteer basis, shared affinity. Based on shared interests. Joining them is voluntary (Ski club). Coercive: Corrective benefit, required, no affinity. (Prison or Rehabilitation Center). Utilitarian: Tanglible benefit, contractual basis, some affinity (High school and the workplace-one joined in the pursuit of a diploma, the other in order to make money).

Social Norms: Implicit and Explicit:

Norms can be implicit, like how we know without being told that when we get on an elevator we stand facing the door and generally keep to ourselves. These can also be explicit, such as being told to keep your hands and feet inside the rollercoaster at all times.

How socialization changes:

Over Time By Social Status Based on Identity Across the life-course.

What is a cultural universal and why do they exist?

Patterns or traits that are globally common to all societies. One example of a cultural universal is the family unit; every human society recognizes a family structure that regulates sexual reproduction and the care of children.

Personal Identity

Personal identity - how one identifies one's self

Define and give examples of the following cultural sub-groups" Popular culture High culture Subculture Counterculture

Popular culture: pattern of cultural experiences and attitudes that exist in mainstream society. Examples: parade, baseball game. High Culture: The pattern of cultural experiences and attitudes that exist in the highest class segments of society. Examples: people associate high culture with intellectualism, political power and prestige (also associated with wealth). Subculture: a smaller cultural group within a larger culture; people of a subculture are part of the large culture but also share a specific identity with a smaller group. Counterculture: type of subculture that rejects some of the larger culture's norms and values. In contrast to subcultures which operate relatively smoothly within the larger society, countercultures might actively defy larger society by developing their own set of rules and norms to live by.

Post-Industrial Societies

Post-industrial societies are based on producing information, knowledge, and services instead of "stuff" (although they still make stuff). Social classes based on access to education.

Heteronormativity

Presumptions that society makes about people's gender and sexual orientation, specifically the way that social institutions and interactions are built around the assumption that people's gender identities match their biological sex, and that heterosexuality is the norm in sexual orientation. Heteronormativity is present in most social institutions and interactions, from the section on a driver's license where you have to select "male" or "female" to relatives asking you at holidays, "So, do you have a boyfriend/girlfriend?"

Differentiate between primary and secondary groups in terms of: 1) size, 2) members, 3) function, 4) duration

Primary Groups: -play the most critical role in our lives. -Small, and is made up of individuals who generally engage face-to-face in long-term emotional ways. -serves emotional needs (expressive functions rather than pragmatic ones). -Usually made up of siginifcant others and these individuals have the most impact on our socialization. Secondary Groups: -Larger -Impersonal -Task-focused and time-limited. -Serve an instrumental fucntion rather than an expressive one, meaning their role is more goal or task-oriented than emotional. -Example: classroom.

Different types of groups:

Primary: -Serve expressive needs. -Socialization role -Longer-term attachment. Secondary: -Instrumental needs -Goal or task-oriented.

Examples of micro, meso and macro:

Private troubles would be - Paul has financial difficulties because he was laid off from working in the garment industry Macro-level would be - Most garment manufacturing moved out of the US following the NAFTA trade deal in the 1990s Meso-level is the link between these things. So in our example, the big social trend of manufacturing moving to other countries made it financially disadvantageous for companies to keep making clothing in the US. Other factors that linked this change to Paul's private troubles are things like fewer job opportunities for people without a college degree, the changing demographic nature of this country as people move to cities, the rise of the gig economy and the service industry. LGBTQ: Individual experiences, Meso-Level: community changes, pride day visibility, churches changing rules, Macro-level: things are big things like supreme court decision that abolished gender restrictions on who can marry.

What is the "protestant work ethic"and how does it relate to predestination and capitalism?

Protestant work ethic is a new attitude toward work based on the Calvinist principle of predestination. Weber argued that this mentality encouraged people to work hard for personal gain; after all, why should one help the unfortunate if they were already damned? Over time, the Protestant work ethic spread and became the foundation for capitalism. Protestant work ethic: work ethic that emphasizes hard work, discipline and frugality.

Contrast sociological and psychological theories of the development of the self

Psychological Theories of self-development: Sigmund Freud- believed that personality and sexual development were closely linked. Sociological Theories of self-Development: Charles Cooley: asserted that people's self understanding is constructed, in part, by their perception of how others view them- a process called the "looking glass self".

Max Weber

Rationality, Rules > Tradition, Bureaucracy Rationalization Max Weber is the second founding father discussed in this lesson. Unlike Marx, who saw conflict as the fundamental driver of social change, Weber saw change happening through and increasing amount of bureaucracy and rationality in society. Weber thought that history showed a steady pattern of shifting from norms and social structures based on tradition and emotion to a society that was organized around rules and procedures. This sounds, on the surface, like it could be a good thing. After all, having rules to follow means that everyone gets treated the same way and everyone knows what to expect. However, Weber saw this process of bureaucratization as actually trapping people in impersonal social structures with little room for individual meaning or flexibility. When society operates entirely based on rules and sameness, efficiency becomes more important that the human experience. While Weber does not think society experiences significant conflict, he argues that the regimented reliance on rules and structure makes much of what people do personally meaningless.

What is a reference group? Give an example of a reference group relevant to your life

Reference group is a group that people compare themselves to- it provides a standard of measurement. Example: In U.S society, peer groups are common referene groups. Most people have more than one reference group.

What is culture?

Refers to the group's shared practices, values and beliefs. Encompasses a group's way of life, from routine, everyday interactions to the most important parts of group members' lives. It includes everything produced by a society, including all of the social rules.

Counterculture

Rejecting mainstream culture .

Social Facts:

Related to culture: things that we believe to be true within a given culture that affect how we behave.

Define the following terms related to identity: Role Status (achieved and ascribed) Role strain Role conflict Role performance

Roles: patterns of behavior that we recognize in each other that are representative of a person's social status. Status: describes the responsibilities and benefits that a person experiences according to their rank and role in society. Ascribed: those you don't select, such as son or female. Achieved: obtained by choice, such as nurse. Role Strain: If too much is required or a single role, individuals can experience role strain. (Parent duties including cooking, clearning, driving and acting). Role Conflict: when one or more roles are contradictory (What comes first children or work?) Role Performance: is how a person expresses his or her role.

Describe the scientific method and apply it to develop a process to explore a sociological question

Scientific method: interpretative teamwork to increase understanding of societies and social interactions 1. As a Question 2. Research Existing Sources 3. Formulate a Hypothesis 4. Design and Conduct a Study 5. Draw Conclusions 6. Report Results

Self-Concept

Self-concept - Over-arching view of one's self as a physical, moral, spiritual being

Culture

Shared Beliefs, Values, and Practices. Some cultural symbols have no meaning to people not in the culture. Ex - seeing a Fever jersey on campus over the summer. Some cultural symbols can mean different things to different societies. People are in many different societies that often overlap.

Culture:

Shared practices, beliefs, bodies of knowledge and values.

Small Groups vs. Large Groups

Small groups - dyads, triads - unique dynamics in small groups Informal leadership, shifting roles Large groups - more formal leadership Instrumental vs expressive (note discussion of gender roles here)

Social class replicates social class through socializing children in:

Social class replicates social class through socializing children in: o Habits o Practices o Interactions

Social Conflict Theory

Social conflict theory sees social life as a competition and focuses on the distribution of resources, power, and inequality. Conflict theorists view society as an arena of inequality that generates social conflict and social change.

Social Identity

Social identity - things that are imputed about someone by society based on dress, actions, appearance, language, etc

Give examples of how culture creates or perpetuates social inequality

Social inequality is the existence of unequal opportunities and rewards for different social positions or statuses within a group or society.

Explain why socialization is important and how it affects individuals, social institutions, and societies

Socialization is critical both to individuals and to the societies in which they live. It illustrates how completely intertwined human beings and their social worlds are. First, it is through teaching culture to new members that a society perpetuates itself. If new generations of a society don't learn its way of life, it ceases to exist. Whatever is distinctive about a culture must be transmitted to those who join it in order for a society to survive. For U.S. culture to continue, for example, children in the United States must learn about cultural values related to democracy: they have to learn the norms of voting, as well as how to use material objects such as voting machines. Of course, some would argue that it's just as important in U.S. culture for the younger generation to learn the etiquette of eating in a restaurant or the rituals of tailgate parties at football games. In fact, there are many ideas and objects that people in the United States teach children about in hopes of keeping the society's way of life going through another generation.

Social Mobility by Country

Socialization is the process through which we learn about our position in the economic hierarchy of our society. What does it mean to be "middle class"? What about being poor, or being wealthy? How do we know which of those are good or bad? Socialization teaches uf what these classes or categories mean, and what it means for to be in one of them This is often taught at home because income classes are pretty static in this country.

Socialization teaches us:

Socialization teaches us how to be members of groups. Socialization can be obvious (wear a suit to a job interview) and subtle (remember the Disney example?). Socialization often teaches us something about our place in a social structure or system: Functionalism: thinks this is a good thing because - social cohesion. Conflict theory thinks this is often a bad thing because - social inequality. Symbolic interactionists think this is...interesting (can be good or bad) But they all agree that socialization is not accidental! How people are socialized tells us something about society

Group can be:

Society Status Group or Role Identity Group Voluntary Group Socialization happens through socializing.

Durkheim's View of Society

Society is good Society is what holds people together, the reason we behave. Solidarity happens in 2 ways: Mechanical and Organic

What are the differences between micro-level and macro-level analyses in sociology?

Sociologists working from the micro-level study small groups and individual interactions, while those using macro-level analysis look at trends among and between large groups and societies. Example: a micro-level study might look at the accepted rules of conversation in various groups such as among teenagers or business professionals. In contrast, a macro-level analysis might research the ways that language use has changed over time or in social medial outlets.

Forces that hold us together vs. division:

Sociology is the study of the shared meanings and experiences that we have in common as a result of living within a specific social environment. One of the basic tenets of sociology is that all of us are social beings - we are not just individuals. Our beliefs, expectations, values, and actions are influenced in powerful ways by the social institutions and structures we live in. Some of these are things that hold us together. We saw some of that already today. People from different parts of the country who have never met each other before today all had a shared understanding of what a McDonalds looks like. We even had a common language to make some assumptions about who the people in the McDonalds were, what kind of place the restaurant was in, and why people would choose to buy food from a McDonalds. But some social structures and social forces can also cause division and conflict. For example, almost everyone in the photo we looked at is black. This is related to the fact that our society has considerable racial inequality in almost all areas including education, housing, income, and employment. In many public places in this country, you find people gathered who look similar to each other. This is true for race, but also for other social identifiers such as religion, age, and affluence.

Sociology Example:

Sociology often involves data and analysis to inform topics and questions that we think we know about. Because we all live in society, we tend to think that we know what society looks like or how it functions. But a key principal of sociology is that we can't analyze society from the perspective of someone inside the society. We have to take the perspective of an outsider and study it the same way we use the scientific method in other disciplines. Example - where do homeless people live? About 69 percent of homeless Americans lived in shelters in 2014, according to HUD's survey. At least 30 percent of unsheltered homeless Seattle residents live in vehicles, according to the Vehicle Residency Research Program, the first scholarly attempt to calculate the number of homeless people living in vehicles.

Durkheim

Solidarity, Division of Labor, Anomie, Functionalism Solidarity The final founding theorist discussed in this chapter is the French scholar Emile Durkheim. Durkheim had perhaps the most optimistic view of society; he viewed society as the organizing body that held people together in groups and allowed them to work together for a common goal. Durkheim believed that, in early societies, people were held together through bonds of kinship. Most people lived in small family groups, and they worked together because they were related. Mechanical solidarity is the social integration of members of a society who have common values and beliefs. These common values and beliefs constitute a "collective conscience" that works internally in individual members to cause them to cooperate. As societies grew larger, people could not rely on family ties to hold them together. Durkheim argued that modern societies were therefore held together by a division of labor. For example, I might have a farm and grow wheat, but I can't eat bread unless I work with a baker who can turn my wheat into food. This interdependence through the division of labor is what characterizes developed societies and, according to Durkheim, keeps people in cooperative harmony with each other. The branch of sociology that looks to Durkheim's work to explain different social patterns is often called functionalism, because it emphasizes how the functions that different people and groups perform lead to the shared values and common interests that hold us together. Anomie is a condition of instability resulting from a breakdown of standards and values or from a lack of purpose or ideals. The term was introduced by the French sociologist Émile Durkheim in his study of suicide. He believed that one type of suicide (anomic) resulted from the breakdown of the social standards necessary for regulating behaviour. When a social system is in a state of anomie, common values and common meanings are no longer understood or accepted, and new values and meanings have not developed. According to Durkheim, such a society produces, in many of its members, psychological states characterized by a sense of futility, lack of purpose, and emotional emptiness and despair. Striving is considered useless, because there is no accepted definition of what is desirable.

Values

Standards for right and wrong, good and bad.

Describe each of the following methods of sociological research and how it could be used to research a question: Surveys Analysis of existing data Field research/ethnography Experiments

Survey: collects data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire. Allows individuals anonymity. A survey targets a specific population. Analysis of existing data: secondary data analysis: use of existing sources. Field Research/Ethnography: Gathering primary data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey. It is a research method suited to an interpretative framework rather than to the scientific method.

Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory that focuses on the relationships among individuals within a society. Communication—the exchange of meaning through language and symbols—is believed to be the way in which people make sense of their social worlds.

The Iron Rule of Oligarchy

The "Iron Rule of Oligarchy" says that all large organizations are ruled by a few elites.

Theoretical Approaches to Groups: 1. Functionalist Perspective 2. Conflict Theory 3. Symbolic Interaction

The Functionalist perspective is a big-picture, macro-level view that looks at how different aspects of society are intertwined. This perspective is based on the idea that society is a well-balanced system with all parts necessary to the whole, and it studies the roles these parts play in relation to the whole. The Conflict perspective is another macroanalytical view, one that focuses on the genesis and growth of inequality. A third perspective is the Symbolic Interaction or Interactionist perspective. This method of analyzing groups takes a micro-level view. Instead of studying the big picture, these researchers look at the day-to-day interactions of groups. Studying these details, the Interactionist looks at issues like leadership style and group dynamics.

Macro-level

The big social process, trends, and changes, "public problems".

The error of regarding an abstraction as a material thing:

The error of regarding an abstraction as a material thing, and attributing causal powers to it—in other words, the fallacy of misplaced concreteness. Example: would be treating a model or ideal type as if it were a description of a real individual or society. In Marxist theory, reification is linked to people's alienation from work and their treatment as objects of manipulation rather than as human beings. An example;e is treating labor - a thing that is an abstract thing - as a real physical, material thing to be bought and sold.

Society

The group of people that share a culture.

What is cultural relativism? Give examples of when this would be a beneficial perspective when doing sociological research, and when it would not

The practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one's own culture. Requires an open mind and a willingness to consider and adapt to new values and norms. Example: Even the most culturally relativist people from egalitarian societies—ones in which women have political rights and control over their own bodies—would question whether the widespread practice of female genital mutilation in countries such as Ethiopia and Sudan should be accepted as a part of cultural tradition.

What is sociology?

The study of groups and group interactions, societies, and social interactions, from small and personal groups to very large groups. Sociologists call it a group of people who live in a defined geographic area, who interact with each other and who share a common culture.

Cultural Universals

Things that are found in all societies. Marriage, funeral rites, family units, personal names, illness, humor, music, art Why are some things culturally universal? Because they serve a function, such as helping people cope with difficult or traumatic things. Because they serve a universal function that keeps society going. Because they inform how social solidarity happens. Things that are found in all societies.

Meso-level:

Things that link people and larger social processes or forces.

Popular Culture

Things that most people in society know at least a little bit about.

Describe the interpretive method of sociological research

This research method focuses on understanding subjective experiences rather than simply observing facts. Interpretative researchers: seek to explain and understand sociological data. They interpret life and society through human experience. Interpretive Framework While many sociologists rely on the scientific method as a research approach, others operate from an interpretive framework. While systematic, this approach doesn't follow the hypothesis-testing model that seeks to find generalizable results. Instead, an interpretive framework, sometimes referred to as an interpretive perspective, seeks to understand social worlds from the point of view of participants, which leads to in-depth knowledge. Interpretive research is generally more descriptive or narrative in its findings. Rather than formulating a hypothesis and method for testing it, an interpretive researcher will develop approaches to explore the topic at hand that may involve a significant amount of direct observation or interaction with subjects. This type of researcher also learns as he or she proceeds and sometimes adjusts the research methods or processes midway to optimize findings as they evolve.

Thomas Theorem

Thomas theorem which states, "If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences"

Sociologists and the study of homeless people:

Topic: Homelessness: Individual vs. social causes and outcomes. Where are homeless people?Most are in shelters (just over half) and a third are in vehicles Leaving a domestic abuse situation is the leading cause of homelessness for women (but that is an acute cause) All government-sponsored housing assistance programs combined provide enough funds to subsidize rent for 25% of people living in poverty (so is poverty a social cause of homelessness, or is the lack of funding a social cause?) - Talk about policy implications here Often the way we react to a social problem creates another social problem: A 2014 survey of 187 cities by the NLCHP found that 24 percent of cities make it a city-wide crime to beg in public, 33 percent make it illegal to stand around or loiter anyplace in the city, 18 percent make it a crime to sleep anywhere in public, 43 percent make it illegal to sleep in your car, and 53 percent make it illegal to sit or lie down in particular public places. And the number of cities criminalizing homelessness is steadily increasing.

Reification

Treating an abstract concept as if it was an objective reality.

Reification

Turning an abstract experience into a physical thing. A commodity is a thing that hides the exploitation that went into making it. Example: What is the value of an iphone? Reification is the process of attributing concrete form to an abstract concept. ... Reification is a complex idea for when you treat something immaterial—like happiness, fear, or evil—as a material thing.

Cultural Appropriation

Using cultural symbols of another group (typically without original meaning).

Social Control:

Ways of promoting conformity to social expectations.

Role Conflict

When roles are contradictory. Ex: Religious and political beliefs.

Role Strain

When too much is required of a role. Gender differences in parent roles.

Be able to describe the main findings from research on obedience to authority

Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment revealed how social roles can influence our behavior The Stanford Prison Experiment was a landmark psychological study of the human response to captivity, in particular, to the real world circumstances of prison life.

Status

is a set of benefits and responsibilities associated with a role. It is a social position. A status can be ascribed, Or it can be attained Examples of the status of our professor: mother, woman, runner, professor, white person, housing board member Roles are things I do because of these (or things I'm expected to do)

Formal Organizations

o Normative (voluntary) organizations o Coercive organizations (often also "total institutions") o Utilitarian organizations Voluntary organizations often focus on identity or shared interests Coercive - things we have to be pushed or forced to join Utilitarian - join because you need to access a given reward or benefit so you have to join.

Symbolic Interaction

o People reinforce and recreate social stratification through socialization. o Social stratification systems are part of how we are socialized. o Micro-level symbols and meanings teach us about these systems

According to Durkheim,

social facts emerge out of collectives of individuals, they cannot be reduced to the level of individuals - and this social reality is real, and it exists above the level of the individual, sociology is the study of this 'level above the individual'. As far as Durkheim was concerned this was no different to the concept that human life is greater than the sum of the individual cells which make it up - society has a reality above that of the individuals who constitute it. A key idea of Durkheim - that we should never reduce the study of society to the level of the individual, we should remain at the level of social facts and aim to explain social action in relation to social facts. (Not in the video) - this is precisely what Durkheim did in his study of suicide by trying to explain variations in the suicide rate (which is above the level of the individual) through other social facts, such as the divorce rate, the pace of economic growth, the type of religion (all of which he further reduced to two basic variables - social integration and social regulation.

Sanctions:

support/disapproval of actions.

Distancing

•Associational distancing •Role distancing •Institutional distancing

Fictive Storytelling

•Embellishment •Fantasizing

Examples of Social Facts:

•Most crime is intra-racial •Women have been marrying later in life in this country for the past 50 years •Nicotine use among young people declined since the 1980s but started increasing sharply five years ago •College graduates under 30 have more debt than any prior generation These facts cannot be understood as individual choices. They have to do with the macros-level and meso-level forces that affect individuals.

Embracement

•Role embracement •Associational embracement •Ideological embracement

Some theories of gender socialization:

•Structural functionalism - the theory that people are socialized into different gender roles as a way to divide up the labor in society. •Object relations theory - children learn gender roles in relation to their closest caregivers, typically women. •Social construction - people experience many gender identity interactions all the time. Structural functionalism - the theory that people are socialized into different gender roles as a way to divide up the labor in society and create social bonds between people. Object relations theory - children learn gender roles in relation to their closest caregivers, typically women. Boys adopt more aggressive behaviors and preferences to distance themselves from their caregiving mothers. Social construction - this group of theories looks at how gender is reinforced and performed. People experience many gender identity interactions all the time; those that conform to social expectations are rewarded with positive interactions, while those that challenge norms are often not.