Social Psych Final

Generalizability

**External Validity: The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people. Two important types of generalizability: Across situations Baumeister et al. (2007) Across people Henrich et al. (2010)

conformity in response decreased when..

- 1 confederate dissented - 95% correctness - Participants wrote their answers down- 88% correctness - There was a smaller group

Bond and Smith (1996)

- 133 studies in 17 countries → conformity consistently found across countries, but it did differ a little by culture - Participants from collectivistic countries showed greater levels of conformity than those from individualistic countries

Attitude Origin- Parental Influence

- Control rewards and punishments (maximize rewards, avoid punishment) - Control experiences and information their children encounter - Children seek parental approval and identify with their families - Parent-influenced attitudes are resistant to change

relational aggression in adulthood

- Emphasizing the amount of attention you get from others - Bragging to rub it in - Silent treatment or acting cold to others - Gossip

biological influences on aggression

- Men exhibit aggression much more than women -- High levels of testosterone (male sex hormone) increase aggression Naturally occurring levels of testosterone - Higher among prisoners convicted of violent crimes compared to those convicted of nonviolent crimes (Dabbs)

relational aggression in adolescence

- Talking about people behind their backs - Pretending to be friends w someone to manipulate them - Trying to steal someone's romantic partner - Trying to embarrass someone publicly

proximate explanations for behavior

- Why did the individual perform this particular action - situational influence comes into play

ultimate explanations for behavior

- Why did this species evolve this behavioral tendency - Operates at the level of genes, not the individual - Specific adaptations to promote inclusive fitness

emotional states- elevation

- elicited by witnessing others exceeding standards of moral virtue (often by helping someone selflessly) - Results in a motivation to do good deeds, emulate that good example, and become a better person

Attitudes are strongest when

- they are int.att. Consistent - We have a lot of knowledge (experience) about the object - They are important to us (Impact our self-interest and outcomes. Impact friends, family, ingroups)

functional approach to volunteerism

- we engage in volunteerism because we get something out of it - Different people get different rewards from same behavior -Can engage in multiple activities to satisfy one need, or multiple needs by engaging in a single activity

cognitive misers

-Categorizing others -Assuming their traits accordingly -Individuation takes more time and effort than we are generally willing or able to engage -First we process efficiently, then we process controllingly and thoroughly if needed -automatic is default route

script

-Cognitive representation of a typical event or encounter -Actions and events involved in certain situations The typical order of events ex: dining at a restaurant

emotional states- gratitude

-Elicited by others doing something for you -Results in a motivation to repay the benefactor and praise them publicly, and to "pay it forward"

Differences in Prosocial Behavior (Religiosity)

-More religious people tend to help more in publicly visible ways -In surveys, people who regularly attend religious services are more likely to report that they volunteer and give to charities -But there is no difference between religious and nonreligious people when it comes to private or "invisible" ways

Bargh, Chen, & Burrows (1996)

-Participants complete a scrambled sentence task, then get experimenter in hall to proceed with study -Polite condition (e.g., He was very considerate); rude condition (e.g., He was very inconsiderate); neutral condition -does subject interrupt experimenter? -interruption-> rude condition

Bargh, Chen, & Burrows (1996)

-Participants complete a scrambled sentence task, then met experimenter in hall to proceed with study -Polite sentence condition (e.g., He was very considerate); rude sentence condition (e.g., He was very inconsiderate); neutral condition -does subject interrupt experimenter? -interruption-> rude condition

Ainsworth Strange Situation

-Secure Attachment = parent is a secure base to explore from, sad when they leave and happy when they come back (good partners in future relationships, trusting) -Insecure Attachment Anxious-Ambivalent = often refuse to leave their parent, are very upset when they leave and often angry when they come back (clingy in future relationships) Aviodant = seek little contact with their parent, don't care when they leave and avoid them when they come back (have a hard time trusting in future relationships, develop coping mechanism from lack of contact with loved ones)

social cognition

-Social Thinking -How people make sense of their social worlds -How people notice, select, interpret, remember, and use social information

Trained Observers

-Unobtrusively watch subjects "from outside" -Use a coding scheme to record behavior

Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett (1973)

-purpose: how does use of rewards influence motivation? -Method: n=51 children ages 3-5 who liked drawing (intrinsic motivation) -Results: compared to other conditions, expected award: -spent less time drawing -Conclusion: when extrinsic rewards undermine intrinsic, overjustification occurs

Why does the media violence affect viewers' aggression?

1, "If they can do it, so can I" Weakens learned inhibitions; glorifies it 2. "Oh, so that's how you do it" Providing examples and new ideas 3. "I think I feel angry and aggressive..." Misattributing feelings to aggression through repeated priming 4. "Oh, another brutal murder. What else is on?" It becomes normalized and mundane; easier to live with, become desensitized

necessary conditions for long term reciprocity

1. Accepting delayed reciprocation - If someone is starving, they might not give you food back right away 2. Detection of cheating or freeriding - If we can benefit from the help of others and avoid being taken advantage of, we increase our inclusive fitness - Get rid of any people who take advantage and don't return the favor

Maximizing help in emergencies

1. Get someone's attention / Single someone out "Hey you, in the green shirt" 2. Make it clear that the situation is an emergency "I'm injured, I need an ambulance, I need help" 3. Direct the person to act and tell them how "Call 911 and tell them where we are and that we need an ambulance"

Necessary conditions for bystander intervention

1. Notice the event 2. Interpret it as an emergency 3. Assume responsibility 4. Know how to help 5. Decide to act!

Problems with Self-awareness theory

1. People don't really spend that much time introspecting on an average day 2. Even when we are self aware, we're not always aware of our motives and reasons for our behaviors 3. The reasons people provide for their behavior often do not match what experimenters know about a given situation (priming, group size, etc.)

volunteer process model

1. Personality, motivational, and situational factors predict who volunteers 2. Intrapsychic and interpersonal processes define the experiences of volunteers 3. Attitudinal, behavioral, and broader social consequences emerge as a result of volunteering

6 needs of volunteering

1. Values- express or act on important values (i.e., humanitarianism, egalitarianism 2. Understanding- seeking to learn or use unused skills "Volunteering is a great way to learn!" 3. Enhancement- growing as a person 4. Career- gain career experience or qualification 5. Social- build and strengthen social relationships (friends volunteer, looking for new friends) 6. Protective- reduce negative feelings or address personal problems

problems with self-verification theory

1. motivation to self verify can inhibit positive change 2. People with negative self-views (i.e., low self-esteem) construct a social world that reinforces these views for the sake of verifying their understanding of themselves

When a new person is encountered

1st: determine personal relevance If deemed irrelevant, then impression formation will cease If deemed relevant, further processing is initiated Further processing may be either automatic or controlled, depending on the importance of knowing the person Low importance → automatic processing Placing target into existing social category in memory → simpler (existing) schema-based impression High importance → controlled processing Thinking about specific behaviors or characteristics beyond categories; a more unique impression

Crick 1999

225 sorority and fraternity members completed a survey on their organization's members' social adjustment and personalities Relational aggression was significantly associated with multiple forms of maladjustment: - Peer rejection, lower life satisfaction, antisocial behaviors, egocentricity, less prosocial behavior, emotional instability, negative relationships, self-harm

Milgram Study

65% administered fatal shock Those who didn't obey: Political party did not make a difference Catholics more likely to shock than Jewish or Protestant participants More education → less obedience Those in so-called "moral" professions (e.g. medicine, law)

Elliot Aronson

A University of California social psychologist who argued that cognitive dissonance is caused by psychological—rather than logical—inconsistency.

Jigsaw Classroom

A classroom setting designed to reduce prejudice and raise the self-esteem of children by placing them in small, desegregated groups and making each child dependent on the other children in the group to learn the course material and do well in the class (Elliot Aronson)

Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love

A theory that sees love as having three elements: intimacy, passion, and commitment Romantic relationships contain a mix of passionate and companionate love, but the absence of companionate love typically spells trouble for the long-term stability of relationships.

active enabling

Actively doing something that allows anger to dissipate ex: Count to 10, take deep breaths, soothing music, take a walk - Works best with milder aggressive tendencies

Affective view of Attitudes

Affective: emotions/feelings about the attitude object I feel pride and comfort whenever I see the Target bullseye

Dickerson et al. (1992)

Aim: Dickerson's team wanted to see if they could get university students to conserve water in the dormitory showers Findings: Students who had signed a poster promoting water conservation were forced to think about their own water usage, and had average shower times of about 3.5 minutes. Conclusion: Participants in the induced hypocrisy condition took shorter showers

Latane and Darley (1968)

Aim: to test the diffusion of responsibility theory in real-life emergency situations 72 college students - 59 female, 13 male - told they were going to be interviewed about living in a high pressure urban environment - interviewed over intercom. 3 conditions - participant told that it was only 1) them and the victim, 2) them and one other participant and the victim, or 3) them and four others and the victim. At a certain point, interviewer said they were having a seizure 1) 85% helped 2) 65% 3) 31% --the more people perceived as present lowers the probability of receiving help

Devine's Model of Stereotype Activation and Prejudice (1989)

All people are equally knowledgeable about the content of culturally-held stereotypes about social groups Stereotype schemas are activated in anyone who perceives a relevant cue For example, a member of a particular social group responding in a non-prejudiced manner requires conscious inhibition of the stereotype Individual differences in the motivation to respond with prejudice determine whether you'll engage in controlled processing

Cyberball

An experiment in ostracism where people believed to be online with two other players who send the ball back and forth, and eventually exclude the participant. Members of their political party (ingroup) Members of opposing (rival outgroup) Members of KKK (despised outgroup) Still felt excluded regardless of which group was excluding them

anchoring and adjustment heuristic

Anchor: initial starting point Can be provided or self-generated Estimate: up or down from anchor Useful if anchor is valid; error-prone if anchor is not valid -More Estimation: Provided Anchors --People's answers depend on how they are asked ---More or less than 10%? More Estimation: Self-Generated Anchors What is the gestation period of an elephant You adjust down depending on the anchor Anchor: 9 months, Actual: 22 Months

Self-relevance

Aronson suggested that the key motivation to reduce dissonance is to preserve a consistent, stable, predictable sense of self We don't want inconsistencies in ourselves, want to come off as consistent to others The cognitions must implicate the self in order to be dissonant

Denotation

As many # as there are IVs Numbers represent # of conditions 2x3- 2 IVs, 2 conditions to 1st, 3 conditions to 2nd

BIRGing (Basking in Reflected Glory)

Associating the self with successful others so that their success becomes your own ex: We won- sports team wins

Behavioral view of Attitudes

Behavioral: behaviors toward the attitude object Approach or avoid someone or something I go to Target 4 times a week

Social Environment

Bobo Study, when kids view aggressive behavior, they become aggressive

Dolinski et al. (2017)

Burger and Milgram Findings still true

Latane and Darley

Bystander Effect Experiment: 6 (P, Victim, 4 others)- 31% helped 3 (P, Victim, 1 other)- 62% helped 2 (P, Victim)- 85% helped

intra-attitudinal inconsistency

CAB are not all consistent, some positive parts some negative, less strong

intra-attitudinal consistency

CAB components are all consistent, attitudes are stronger when this happens

Touch

Can people tell emotions from a 1-second touch on the forearm? Surprising accuracy for:Compassion, love, gratitude, anger, fear, disgust Keltner and colleagues Cultural differences in use of touch to communicate Study of a conversation between friends in a café Britain: 0, US: 2, PR: 180

situational origins of aggression: Heat

Carlsmith & Anderson (1979): Riots across the U.S. - Riots far more likely to occur on hot days than cold - Hotter temps increase likelihood of violent crime as well

ELM continued

Central route- Used when motivation and ability are high, More likely to effortfully scrutinize all available message-related information, Able to relate incoming information to existing beliefs and develop well-formed opinion Peripheral Route - can differ from central route in two ways Quantitative difference: less scrutiny -Examine less information -Examine information less carefully Qualitative difference: low-resource processing -Using heuristics

dissonance reduction

Change your beliefs- no cognitive disagreement, no tension *** easiest, most common way we reduce dissonance** - Drunk driving- decide it's not that bad, "there are worse things in the world, they usually get home safe" or "I'm not that drunk" Change your behavior - Drunk driving- decide not to drive when drunk, "let's get an Uber" Introduce new beliefs - Drunk driving- "even when i'm drunk i'm still a good driver" "I was the only one that could drive" ^ Try to rationalize it away

Barker, Dembo, & Lewin (1941)

Children in groups led to a room of toys Some get to play immediately, others are prevented from playing with them for a while When finally allowed to play, the frustrated children were more rough with the toys than those who played right away

Relationally aggressive children

Children who engage in relational aggression are more likely to experience social, psychological and emotional difficulties such as: - Peer rejection - Depression - Tendency to externalize their problems Relational aggression in childhood --> more maladjustment later in life - more maladjustment within a year for girls

Traits

Cognitive representation of a type of person based on a particular individual difference Kelley: Econ class given description of a guest lecturer -All students watched the same lecture by the same guest lecturer -Students who were told the lecturer was warm rated him much more positively and were more likely to ask questions after class than those who were told he was cold

social role schemas

Cognitive representations that indicate how one should relate to others -Often defined by the relationships between two or more roles -Student, teacher, bus driver, passenger, waiter, tour guide, boss They shift and become salient at different times

Cognitive view of attitudes

Cognitive: thoughts and beliefs about the attitude object (declarative statements one can make about the attitude object) I think Target has affordable prices and convenient locations

Operationalization

Coming up with a way to quantify or measure something that is not directly measurable like: happiness, honesty, relationship satisfaction, racial attitudes, morals

Conventional wisdom

Common sense ideas that most people hold true, despite the fact that often the opposite is true. Can often be misapplied Ex: Opposites Attract - people believe it but often end up with people similar to them Absence makes the heart grow fonder- not true

quasi-experimental research

Compares two naturally occurring groups rather than randomly assigned groups. No random assignment so it's not a true experiment Ex: Students in two or more different psychology classes -Males and females -Construction Workers and Bank Tellers One group is assigned to a treatment (IV level 1), and the other group is assigned to a different treatment (IV level 2)

direct exposure (Conditioning)

Conditioning- an attitude object can be repeatedly associated with another object that we already have positive (or negative) evaluations about Eat chocolate → pleasant taste and rush of endorphins Go to the mall → always plays pop music that you hate ^develops reinforcement history

Culture/Mass Media

Decades of work showing a social learning element for TV and Video Games Mixed evidence on whether they are really responsible for aggressive behavior There are self-selection considerations too Social environment has a large role

Intimidation

Desired Image- Dangerous tactics- High Power: threats to resources/property, physical violence, social exclusion Low Power: making a scene (children in public to get what they want) Used in involuntary relationships, when willing to give up approval and affection

Ingratiation

Desired Image- likeable Tactics- conforming to other's opinions, doing favors for others Used when- it's important to be liked, it isn't obvious, it's normally acceptable, few other observers

Self Promotion

Desired image: Competent The self-promoter's paradox- Common for people to exaggerate, so people often discount self-promotional claims, Excessive self-promotion can actually signal incompetence tactics- Reveal incompetence in unimportant areas, establishing credibility so you can self-promote in important areas, Self-promote by proxy: Let someone else do it

Assume Responsibility (3)

Diffusion of responsibility- feelings of personal responsibility decrease as the number of bystanders increase The more people who could help the less likely any one of them is to actually help Responsibility is psychologically divided among those present Freeman et. al- Increased number of people at table leads to a decrease in tip %

CORFing

Disassociating the self from people or groups who are considered failures ex: they lost- sports team loses

Quiz Bowl Study (Ross et al.)

Dispositional Attribution- She's smart Situational Attribution- She came up with the questions, of course she knows the answers

empathy prevents aggression when..

Dispositional empathy is negatively correlated with aggression Perspective taking in experiments → less aggression

magnitude of dissonance

Dissonance should be greater when the dissonant elements are important to us: - Object/issue/activity is more valued by the person - More central to self-concept- you define yourself partly with respect to your opinion about this object/issue or your skill/enjoyment of this activity - More cognitive elements dissonant, inconsistent with more things

Ex: Steve is wearing a suit to class

Does he always? (consistency) Do different stimuli elicit different responses? Does he wear a suit everywhere? (distinctiveness) Do other people act similarly? Are other people wearing a suit? (consensus) Why is he wearing a suit? Internal Attribution: low distinctiveness, low consensus, high consistency He wears a suit no matter where he is, no one else is dressed up, and always wears it to class "Steve is just a sharply-dressed man External Attribution- high distinctiveness, high consensus, low consistency He doesn't usually wear a suit,everyone dresses up for class, and he always dresses up for class "Steve would be wearing pajamas if it weren't for this dress code"

Within-subjects design

Each participant is exposed to all conditions for each independent variable Ex: You have people take a GRE and collect their scores. You then have every one of those people take a prep course, take another GRE, and collect those new scores. You compare the groups' first and second scores to see if they improved

Mixed Design

Each participant is exposed to all levels of one independent variable and only one level of another Ex: You have people take a GRE without preparation and collect their scores. You then randomly assign some people to take a GRE prep course and some to prepare on their own. You then have every one of those people take another GRE, and collect those new scores. You compare whether there was improvement over time and improvement as a result of taking a prep course.

Between-subjects Design:

Each participant is exposed to one and only one condition for each independent variable Ex: You randomly assign some people to take a prep course and some people to prepare on their own, and you then compare their GRE scores

Speed Dating Study

Efficient Initial attraction "Real" relationship processes in real time Dyadic processes

empathy-altruism hypothesis

Empathic concern for another individual is the main predictor of one-on-one prosocial behavior

intrinsic motivation

Engaging in an activity for the sake of the activity itself, not for external reasons

Aronson and Mills (1959)

Female participants, who were joining a discussion group about the psychology of sex, were either accepted into the group (control condition), had to go through a mild initiation, which involved reading aloud sex-related words, or had to go through a severe initiation by reading aloud explicit sex words (Aronson 1959). When the participants were later asked the rate the discussion and the group members, those who went through severe initiation rated both categories much higher than both the control and mild initiation groups. Because the female participants had to justify the effort and humiliation they experienced to enter the group, they rated the group as more attractive than the other conditions.

parental investment theory

Females have to "invest more" than males when it comes to reproduction bc they are limited in their fertile years, and men generally are not Females get pregnant, and males do not Women have to be more selective than men, because choosing the wrong mate has much more severe consequences Men do not have to be selective, and their "best" strategy is to reproduce with as many women as possible because that maximizes their chance of having viable offspring

problems with aggression research

Focus on male participants leads to "male" definitions of aggression Leads to false confirmations of the stereotype that men are aggressive and women are not - This is not necessarily true

Amato (1983)

Found that helping was negatively correlated with population level: lower population density= most helpful

Piff et al

Four Studies- IV: various measures & manipulations of social class DVs: Generosity- Lower SES (self-report)→ more generous Charitability- Lower SES (experimental) → more charitable Trust- Objective measures → more trusting Helpfulness- Objective measures → more helpful

Moreland & Beach (1992)

Four equally attractive women (determined by pretest) Women silently attended a class for 1, 5, 10, or 15 class sessions At end of course, students shown slides of women RESULTS: the women they had seen more often were rated as more attractive and likable

situational role in prosocial behavior

Free cookies, finding change in a public phone, recent success, sunny weather, pleasant fragrances → all lead to higher likelihood of helping

situational origins of aggression: Frustration

Frustration- the perception that you are being prevented from attaining a goal Ex: being stuck in a traffic jam Frustration does not always lead to aggression It just readies people, increasing the likelihood of aggression behavior

Gialdini (NSR) v Batson (Empathy)

Gialdini: helping as a result of empathy is still egoistic, empathize w someone--> helping reduces your own guilt Batson: people often help even when helping is not necessary to reduce negative affect When people are in positive moods, they are generally more inclined to help others (suggesting that "negative states" can not explain everything") Empathy still predicts helping when people can escape the situation, justify their inaction, or have other opportunities to reduce their negative affect

Aron et al

Had people in relationships list traits for themselves and for their spouse, and then perform the "me"/"not me" task Faster reaction times for traits shared with spouse Indicates that people come to understand and even define themselves in relation to close others

reciprocal altruism (living is hard)

Hard to survive, easier to do so when we all do favors for each other and pay it forward it was harder to stay alive because of predators, disease, natural disasters Human groups who engaged in more widespread and long term type of reciprocal cooperation were more likely to survive Reciprocity is persistent across cultures, so it is a strong indicator

need to evaluate things (measure of our cognitive style)

Higher need to evaluate: - More likely to describe daily events in positive or negative terms - Tend to evaluate many life events - Attitudes are more accessible from memory

Pendry & Macrae (1994)

Hilda, Results: remembered the most individuating info when interdependent with her and were NOT cognitively busy When you do not engage in controlled processing, you may rely on schemas, which can guide expectations and influence behavior

Kelley's Covariation Model

How and when people make internal and external attributions regarding other's behavior Looks at features of: A particular behavior at a particular time History of behavior And predicts what attributions we will make: Something about the actor (internal) Something about the situation (external) People consider whether a behavior Is consistent- is this how the person usually reacts to this stimulus? Is distinct- how does the same person act towards other stimuli? Has consensus- how do other people act towards the same stimuli?

Meta-stereotypes

How we think others view us

relational aggression in childhood

I won't be your best friend if you don't give me that block- Social exclusion Molly blocks out Clara's voice- Ignoring others

Zanna & Cooper study on dissonance and arousal-- placebo pill

IV: Placebo Pill- Told it would either induce tension or relaxation DV: Did their attitudes change? Induce tension, attribute attention to pill → no attitude change Induce relaxation → significant attitude change toward the position in essay, could not explain it away so they had to reduce tension themselves

Bushman, Baumeister, and Stack (1999)

IV: punching a punching bag or do nothing DV: choose to punish opponent w noise Catharsis- 40 times longer and more intense noise blasts than those who did nothing

Crusco and Wetzel (1984)

IV: waitress touched customer on shoulder, hand, or not at all DVs: tip (% of bill), rating of waitress, dining experience, restaurant atmosphere Bigger tips in both touching conditions; no self-reported differences

self-affirmation theory

If one can affirm his/her positive self-concept, dissonance is reduced without justifying the decision

psas on binge drinking tend to increase binge drinkning because...

If they use statistics on how common binge drinking is, people may want to drink more in order to fit the descriptive norm.

Study Design

Important factors -The number of independent variables -The number of conditions for each independent variable -Which subjects are exposed to which condition(s)

Facism Bias

In ads, men's faces and women's bodies are emphasized

Why do attributions matter?

Internal attributions about homeless Lazy, unintelligent, helpless, unmotivated, doesn't know better External Injured, bad economy, bad luck, no education, beyond control What do you do? Depends on your attribution for the behavior "I always make external attrib." ← bias blindspot

Bobo doll experiment

Kids exposed to model's aggression against the doll Kids modeled specific aggressive behaviors Kids behaved in an even meaner way than the model had Vicarious Punishment and Reward If model was rewarded, behavior was more likely If model was punished, less likely

Bystander effect

Kitty Genovese, the finding that the greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them is to help

Know How to Help (4)

Knowing what to do and how to do it - Do you know CPR? - What do you do when someone faints? - Do you know the Heimlich?

Marion Keech

Led a group to believe aliens were out to get them, when they didn't she told them god saved them because they were such good people Behaviorists would say the followers would leave her cult bc there is no reward However, they further embraced their beliefs

PDJ example

Let's say you're choosing between a Prius and a Civic Hybrid You might rate them (say on a 1-10 scale) before buying one (both 7.25 before) Imagine you bought the Prius, and you update those ratings (8.5 prius, 6 hybrid) Your evaluation of those "close alternatives" doesn't look so close anymore!

Kurt Lewin

Lewin's formula Behavior= f(Person x Situation)

Kin selection (gene preservation)

Likely to help people with similar genes to us like parents, siblings, cousins, aunts Since selection operates at the level of genes, not the individual, helping people with similar genes promotes inclusive fitness Errors: Kin selection is not sufficient to explain all human cooperation - genetic relatedness declines quickly as you go further from your immediate family

Dutton and Aron (1974)

Male subjects approached by an attractive female experimenter on a high suspension bridge were shown to mislabel their fear for sexual attraction. Supports Cognitive Labelling Theory.

IAT

Measures relative strengths of relationship between concepts, measures preference for group D Scores- magnitude of preference for one type of pairing over the other Is it a true attitude? Might just be a reflection of cultural knowledge and influence Probably both attitude and reflection of culture

Snyder, Tanke, & Berscheid (1977)

Men told to have phone conversation with woman and shown picture of attractive/unattractive woman beforehand and responses were coded for openness and warmth -attractive females had more open and warm responses beautiful is good effect

who volunteers?

More educated, higher income, older More religious More agreeable More empathetic

the culture of honor comes from...

N & C- south had to herd, needed to cultivate a tough reputation so people wouldn't mess with your herding/livelihood C,R,Loftin- high poverity and high religiosity

Factors that impact motivation

Need for Cognition Personality variable: extent to which people engage in and enjoy effortful activities People like to think more than others Accountability- responsibility → engagement and care Bosses, project leaders, etc. Personal relevance Personal stakes → engagement and care classic example opinions about tuition increases Task decision importance- More impactful → engagement and care

low self-esteem

Negative self image, lack of confidence

self-schema

Network of cognitive representations about the self, derived from past experiences, that organizes and guides processing of self-related information

low self-concept clarity

No clear definition of one's sense of self

Robin Akert

Nonverbal cues in social interaction

Facial Expressions

Often the first thing we notice Much of it is universally recognizable and not dependent on culture Children express these basic emotions between 6 months and a year Even true of children born without eyesight! Expressions for common emotions are similar, but display rules and tendencies differ Gender Differences Men less likely to express surprise and fear Women less likely to express disgust, contempt, and anger Cultural Differences Less appropriate to display negative emotions in public in collectivistic cultures; more appropriate in individualistic cultures

Impression Management- privacy during

Participants asked to make a tape of themselves making a counter-attitudinal speech IV: whether they believe someone will listen to it In one condition: turn in tape to researcher, and a committee will listen later In the other: destroy tape right after making it More attitude change in public condition, but change still occurred in private condition

Berglas and Jones

Participants asked to take an "IQ test," and all were told they performed extremely well IV: Whether the feedback was contingent on questions (Questions were easy- cont.) (Questions were hard - non-cont) Then, participants told they had to take another test to examine the effects of the drug "might improve performance- Actavil" "might inhibit performance- Pandocrin" Contingent (easy): 18% chose Pandocrin over Actavil, Non-Contingent (difficult): 60% chose Pandocrin over Actavil Contingent- no pressure to do well Non-Contingent- didn't want to look dumb after being told they were smart

Asch Experiment

Participants conformed because they did not want to be the only person with a different answer Control- people were alone Experimental- in groups ⅓ of the time, they would conform with the group and pick the wrong line, even though they did not believe the group was correct 75% of participants conformed and made the erroneous judgment at least one time

"Carol" study (Toi & Batson, 1982)

Participants listened to Carol talk about an accident, then asked to share notes from class with her IVs: difficulty of Escape and level of Empathic Concern - Easy Escape: carol will be finishing the class at home - Diff Escape: she will return to class soon - High Empathy: instructed to take her POV and focus on how she feels - Low Empathy: no instruction DV: % of students who agreed to help Carol Results: those with high empathy in easy escape were still motivated to help her (70% of participants)

DeWall et al. --> Social Pain

Participants took a pill twice daily One group took Tylenol, one group took a placebo For three weeks, they reported how much their feelings were hurt and how much social pain they felt Over the course of three weeks: significant reduction in both DVs for the Tylenol group Follow up showed Tylenol reduced neural response in areas associated with social pain after a Cyberball game

Bowlby (1973)

People are concerned with receiving support for themselves if their security is in question

kin selection evidence

People are more likely to help those genetically related to them (Smith, 1964) People more likely to donate a kidney to relatives compared to non-relatives (Borgida, Conner, & Manteufal, 1992) Survivors of a fire at a vacation complex looked for family before they looked for friends (Sime, 1983) People are more likely to help relatives than strangers in life-threatening situations (e.g., saving from a fire) But, less likely to help older members before younger ones, as means of ensuring offspring

Nisbett & Wilson (1977)

People don't know why they feel the way they do No privileged insight into our selves Causal schemas are often right Trying to introspect can change judgements for the worst

relationship initiation

People meet and choose to affiliate How this happens changes with time and technology In person, personal ads, online, Tinder, etc. - Information sharing - Demographic data - Personal beliefs - Information about the other person/relationship - Reciprocity is important Sharing more personal info before partner reciprocates --> uncertainty - Beginning stages of information sharing very different online

comparison level for alternatives

People's expectations about the level of rewards and punishments they would receive in an alternative relationship influences relationship stability

Cultural Influences on Aggression

Persistent evidence that the Southern United States is far more violent than the North -More violent crime, higher homicide rates, etc. -Attitudes toward violence and related concepts are also much more positive -More supportive of gun rights, capital punishment, defense spending, etc.

Factors that impact ability

Personal cognitive ability Ex: greater working memory → more conscious processing Time Pressure Doing anything very quickly

Interpret Event as an Emergency (2)

Pluralistic ignorance- assuming that nothing is wrong because bystanders collectively assume that everyone interprets the event as benign. Generally more likely when the situation is ambiguous No one seems worried → must not be an emergency

Affective forecasting

Prediction of how one will feel in the future, often inaccurate

Bransford and Johnson (1972)

Presented participants with difficult-to-comprehend information Experimental Group 1 first saw a picture that helped explain the information Experimental Group 2 saw the picture after reading the passage Control Group did not see the picture Group 1 outperformed the others. Having a mental framework of comprehension aided memory encoding and retrieval

Correlational pros and cons

Pro- Relates variables to one another Good for naturally occurring variables (especially those we cannot manipulate) Con: Correlation is NOT causation

Sam Sommers

Race and social perceptions, judgment and interaction, Intersection of psychology and law

Goldstein, Cialdini, & Griskevicius (2008)

Ran study on hotel bathroom signs in local Holiday Inn- Typical sign emphasizes the benefit to the environment Guests were randomly assigned to receive normal sign or one that said 75% of fellow guests reuse towels at least once... - for those in the latter group, reuse rates rose by 15% - and if they said guests in this room, over 30%!

temporary accessibility

Related to a current goal -Learning about a particular topic for an exam As a result of recent experiences -Seeing a movie

social exchange theory

Relationships function like a financial market, Major factors contributing to a relationship's success Rewards positive feelings, security, status, companionship, sex, etc. Costs annoying habits, bickering, low interdependence, used resources Expectations about rewards and costs Rewards - Costs = Outcome If this is negative, it is a bad relationship

Cultural differences (Hong et al. 2003) Cultural Identity Salience

Sample of bicultural students (Chinese in US) Primed with Chinese or American Cultural Reminders like pics GW of China, US flag, or random (control group) When asked why a fish swims in front of the rest Western and EA Perspectives Both automatically view behavior in terms of dispositions or personality East Asian perspectives more likely to correct for situational influence Individuals from East Asian cultures are, on average, less likely to commit the FAE for this reason

Notice the Event (1)

Seminary Study (Darley & Batson) Increased time pressure → reduced likelihood to help Busy? Distracted? In a hurry → less likely to help

similarity effect

Similarity - in looks, attitudes, beliefs, values, personality, and interests - is attractive to human beings; we tend to choose friends and loved ones who are most like us. we expect similar others to like us more, so we are nicer to them

Peer influence- Bennington College Study

Social scientist Theodore Newcomb's longitudinal study exploring the relative importance of family and the college social environment on long term political views of students Sometimes can override parental influences Most incoming students were conservative bc of parent, over time students less involved in college, students lower in self-esteem, more socially insecure, and with a tendency to socially isolate themselves didn't change views as much

Attitude Strength benefits

Strong attitudes are more durable More stable (less likely to change over time) More resistant (less likely to change after persuasion attempt) Strong attitudes are more impactful They influence behavior

Schultz et al (2007)

Suggested that social norms campaigns also affect those whose behavior is more desirable than the norm and has the opposite influence on them people told they were using less energy than their neighbors started using more

manipulation

Systematically changing one variable in order to determine how it affects another variable The independent variable is manipulated The variable a researcher changes or varies to see if it has an effect on some other variable The dependent (or outcome) variable is measured The researcher hypothesizes that the dependent variable will depend on the independent

Counterfactual thinking

Tendency to create possible alternatives to life events that have already occurred Ex: Bronze Medalists are happier than Silver

ELM Postulates- Ability

The amount/nature of message-related processing varies with individual and situation factors that impact ability. Individual Intelligence --> more ability Knowledge about the issue --> more ability Situational Distractions --> less ability Fatigue --> less ability Stress --> less ability

ELM Postulates- Motivation

The amount/nature of message-related processing varies with individual and situation factors that impact motivation. Individual High need for cognition --> more motivation Situational Self-relevant info --> more motivation Positive mood --> more motivation

Social Context

The demographics in a room, setting in which a behavior occurs

self-concept clarity

The extent to which beliefs about oneself are clearly and confidently identified and stable over time. Positively correlated with- conscientiousness & agreeableness Negatively correlated with- neuroticism (more neurotic less clarity)

mere exposure effect

The finding that the more exposure we have to a stimulus, the more apt we are to like it

social comparison theory

The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people

Social Psychology

The study of how the social context influences how we think and act, the study of human behavior from a particular perspective. Idea that thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of the individual are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of other humans (Allport) *** takes situation into account

Social Perception

The study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people fundamental interest in understanding the behavior of others This interest extends into entertainment like characters in books and movies, as well as in news consumption like with celebrities or politicians

inclusive fitness

The sum of an individual's own reproductive success plus the effects the organism has on the reproductive success of related others.

Fundamental Attribution Error (aka Correspondence Bias)

The tendency to overestimate how much people's behavior is due to internal dispositional factors and underestimate the role of external situational factors People are overconfident in predicting other behavior, and tend to ignore construals of the situation Ex: Poor people are just lazy

Construal

The way in which people perceive, comprehend, and interpret a situation Determined by basic motivations and abilities like: 1. Self-esteem Maintenance 2. Need to be Accurate 3. Cognitive Ability

Subjectivism

There is no absolute truth, rooted in Gestalt psychology "The whole is other than the sum of the parts."

Bargh & Morsella (2008)

Unconscious processes are defined by our lack of awareness of the effect of the triggering stimuli, not by the stimuli itself

Correlational Research

Used for prediction Systematically measuring the relationship between two or more variables Ex: Survey- ask people to report on their own attitudes or behaviors Correlational Observation- observe actual behaviors and see how they relate to reported attitudes

experimental research

Used primarily to determine causality not simply a relationship but a cause and effect relationship Considered the preferred method or "gold standard" for research in social psychology pro: directly tests causal relationships con: Laboratory experiments can have low external validity *Field experiments can be used to address this issue, but they are expensive and generally have lower internal validity.

Yale Attitude Change Approach

WHO says WHAT to WHOM WHO- credibility & attractiveness WHAT- is the argument effective (strong or weak)?, what is the message trying to influence? WHOM- Distracted or Paying Attention? Need for Cognition- Personality variable reflecting the extent to which people engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive activity, Prior Beliefs Communicators ("who") can tailor messages to audience ("whom")

theory of cognitive dissonance

We dislike inconsistency between cognitive elements Awareness of such inconsistencies --> unpleasant arousal/tension We are motivated to reduce tension

impressions

We judge people on their personal appearances How they dress- scrubs = doctor, lab coat = intelligence These are cues we use to form impressions about them We judge on their personal spaces Messy room = irresponsible person, clean office = smart and reliable person Can be informative about certain traits, particularly conscientiousness and openness

Actor-observer Difference

We underestimate situational factors for others, but are more likely to acknowledge the situation when we ourselves are involved Someone else gets in accident = bad driver, shouldn't be on the roads We get in accident- It's not my fault, I had no time to stop, not a bad driver

cultural influence on self view

Western (Independent)- one's own thoughts, feelings, actions Eastern (Interdependent)- one's relationships with other people and related thoughts, feelings, actions

Implement Decision (5)

What are the costs and benefits of helping? Is it too dangerous to help? i.e. Jumping into shark infested waters Are my efforts actually going to help?

third variable problem

When a relationship between two variables is explained by the presence of a third variable Ex: population cities w more churches have higher gun rates

choosing partner- low self esteem

When choosing interaction partners, people with low SE: Prefer to interact with people who have negative impressions of them When interacting with another person, people with low SE: Prefer negative feedback When recalling previous interactions, people with low SE- Are more likely to remember negative feedback

Self-Serving Bias

When good things happen to us we take credit - A on Exam, I'm a genius When bad things happen it's not our fault - C on Exam, I had 3 other exams that week

Differences in Prosocial Behavior (Attachment)

When people have secure attachments and are less concerned with being vulnerable they tend to engage easier with prosocial behavior

parental investment theory cont

Women tend to place more emphasis on men's resources- Indicates that offspring will be provided for, stability of resources especially important Men tend to place more emphasis on women's attractive appearance- Indicates health and fertility But note that these are relative differences. Both men and women value attractiveness and status in general The emphasis one sex or the other places on them is the difference

diffusion of responsibility

a bystander's sense of responsibility decreases as the number of people present increases

compliance

a change in behavior due to the intentional influence of others "I buy my groceries at Stop and Shop because a commercial said to"

obedience

a change in behavior in response to a specific command or authority figure "I read THG because my boss told me I had to"

Conformity

a change in behavior or beliefs to match the behavior or beliefs of others "I buy my groceries at stop and shop because everyone I know does" "I read the hunger games bc all my friends like it" Example: Bennington College Study

Schema

a conceptual framework a person uses to make sense of the world Schemas come from: -Direct experience -Indirect experience (family, friends, etc.) -Media -Culture -Socialization available: not familiar = not available accessible: The ease with which a schema can be retrieved from memory and used in a given situation

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

controlled processing

a detailed consideration of evidence and information relying on facts, figures, and logic

cognitive dissonance

a drive or feeling of discomfort caused by holding two or more inconsistent cognitions Dissonance results from performing an action that is discrepant with self-concept (typically positive)

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce a negative effect in an experiment

stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people based on their social categories

decades of research show....

a link between violent media and aggression Experimental Evidence Children who watched a violent police drama more aggressive towards other children who watched a nonviolent sports program Longitudinal evidence Consumption of TV violence (age 8) → violent crime (age 30) Strength of relationship increases over time

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category ex: soccer mom, hipster, etc.

representativeness heuristic

a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case -This approach often ignores base rate information -The combined prob of two events cannot ever be higher than the probability of one of the events alone -Bernadette is a bank teller who likes social issues, so we assume she is a feminist too

Ethnography

a method in which the researcher observes a group from within, tries not to influence the behavior with any preconceived notions

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

a model of persuasion maintaining that there are two different routes to persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route Message info/content → Central Route to persuasion (Controlled thinking) Cue info --> Peripheral (automatic thinking)

Attitude

a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity (target of evaluation) with some degree of favor or disfavor (evaluation of an attitude object)

people conform to informational social influence when...

a situation is ambiguous you are in a crisis - limited time to act the information is from an expert

Correlation

a statistical measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables notation: r range: -1 to +1 Meaning: r = 0 <-- no relationship r = 1, perf pos relationship r = -1, perf neg relationship

Observational Study

a study based on data in which no manipulation of factors has been employed, used primarily for description Pros: Easy and cheap Cons: Some behaviors are hard to observe Sometimes observers cannot be unobtrusive Consistency in coding is difficult Conclusions are rarely quantitative

looking-glass self

a term coined by Charles Horton Cooley to refer to the process by which our self develops through internalizing others' reactions to us if people treat us nicely, then we are nice

behavioral confirmation

a type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations - schemas guide our decisions - help us figure out ambiguous situations

prosocial behavior

actions that benefit other people (reward for helper)

high self monitors

adaptability- Actors adopting a different persona for a different role (Johnny Depp) - Change behavior based on situation (chameleons) - Sensitive to whether the self they put forward is having the desired effect - Expend effort to read others and situations - Situational cues are key predictors of their behavior

self-handicapping

any action that enhances the opportunity to externalize (or excuse) one's failures and internalize (or accept credit for) one's successes ex: "I barely studied for the test" if they do bad, theres a reason, but if they did well, they look good

relational aggression

any behavior intended to harm someone by damaging or manipulating their relationships or social status

Road rage

any behavior that violates traffic laws or that involves anger expressions that result from hostility toward another motorist; kills 300,00 people a year Factors that promote aggressive driving: - Aggressive personality, being male, wealth, intoxicated, being in a hurry, job stress, hot temperatures, sensation-seeking, narcissism

internal v external validity

as one increases, the other decreases Programmatic research- A series of studies that build on one another's findings and complement each others' weaknesses. ^can help address this issue.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

functional approach to attitudes

attitudes do something for the person holding them, most attitudes have different functional reasons behind them I'm a vegetarian Utilitarian- I want to lose weight Value-expressive- I hate killing animals Self enhancement- makes me feel good abt myself social function- none of my friends eat meat

implicit attitudes

attitudes that influence a person's feelings and behavior, occur automatically and operate outside of awareness

explicit attitudes

attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily access

people who feel the need to belong...

behave more prosocially Evidence 1: Lonely individuals are more likely to accept unfair allocations in dictator games (Cacioppo & Patrick 2008, p. 185) Evidence 2: Individuals who have just experienced social rejection are more likely to grant monetary compensation—and to grant larger sums—to potential interaction partners than more socially secure individuals (Romero-Canyas et al. 2010).

self-monitoring

being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one's performance to create the desired impression (masks for different situations)

Pronin

bias blindspot

Emotional attachment

characterized by feelings that promote a sense of closeness, bonding, and connection

mirror test of self-recognition

children ages 9-24 months of age were seated in front of a mirror after the experimenter placed rouge on their cheek. Infants at lease 18 months of age rubbed their own cheek when they saw the reflection rather than rub the mirror as the younger infants did

High self-concept clarity

clearly defined and consistent sense of self

why do attitudes change?

cognitive dissonance

social schema

cognitive networks of information about the social world--> This is the content of social cognition

Tripartite View of Attitudes

cognitive, affective, behavioral

downward social comparison

comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability, makes us feel better about ourselves

upward social comparison

comparing yourself to people better than you in a particular attribute, makes us feel worse about ourselves

private acceptance

conforming to other people's behavior out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right most likely to be related to normative social influence

low self monitors

consistency- look inside themselves to decide how to act - Don't change as much across situations - Less motivated to adapt to diff situations - Less attentive to situational cues

ostracism

deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups ostracized individuals feel: Alone, anxious, less important, low in control

Post-Decision Justification

dissonance from when a person can't find sufficient explanations for his/her choice between two alternatives, to reduce they justify one choice over the other/change attitude towards object

Freud catharsis...

doesn't actually work, punching a punching bag after being told your essay sucks makes you even more aggressive

Ben Franklin Effect

doing someone a favor with little or no external justification can create a more favorable attitude toward that person, in order to reduce tension from doing the favor

short term helping

emergency situations

Cohen et al. (1996) Experiment 1

emotional reactions of those who were insulted: How amused or angry did an observer rate the participant? Northerners: 35% were more angry than amused Southerners: 85% were more angry than amused perception of neutral stimuli word completion, face rating, neutral scenario completion No effect of insult or region, no interaction perception of insulting stimuli insult scenario completion 75% of Southerners completed with violent events if they had been insulted (vs. 20% if not); no effect for Northerners

situations are socially defined...

especially when they are ambiguous --> situation is unclear, look to others on how to behave bad situations promote bad behavior, we tend to stay away

random selection

every person in a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate

relational aggression could be...

evolutionary adaptive - Elevates your standing among possible reproductive rivals - Levels of relational aggression in boys and girls diverge over time Difference emerges at 2.5 years and increases from then on for girls

Archival Analysis

examine accumulated documents of a culture

egoism

helping others selfishly to gain rewards for oneself

dual-process model

how we form impressions: -assumption of these models: more than one mental process underlying a given psychological phenomenon -information can be processed at varying levels of awareness -Understood as a spectrum of processing ranging from fully automatic to fully controlled

independent view of the self

i am smart, i am a good listener

conformity can be bad because...

if people look to others to determine how to behave in situations, and everyone is looking to everyone else → nobody does anything An issue with emergency helping is diffusion of responsibility

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

hostile aggression

intended harm for the purpose of hurting the target - Harm is the end game

instrumental aggression

intended harm in service of a goal (other than causing pain or injury) - Still harming someone, but to achieve some other goal i.e. Make competitor feel inadequate to give yourself an edge in a job interview

passionate love

intense longing for another person accompanied by physiological arousal when reciprocated, you feel wonderful when not reciprocated, you feel badly

aggression

intentional behavior aimed at causing physical harm or psychological pain to another person - different from assertiveness - can be verbal or physical - an act can be aggressive whether it succeeds in its goal or not

physical aggression

intentional use of physical force to injure or abuse someone

companionate love

intimacy and affection not accompanied by compassion or physical arousal (real love without sex) ex: close friendships

Need fulfillment

intimacy, self-validation, belonging

availability heuristic

judging the likelihood or probability of an event based on how readily available other instances of the event are in memory

Control

keeping extraneous variables constant **When control is high, internal validity is high, and you have confidence that the differences you observe are a result of your IV manipulation**

autokinetic effect (Sherif)

left people in a completely dark room with one point of light and asked them to say how much it moved (This was an optical illusion, it didn't move at all) Motion is detected by different reference points No reference point in dark room → light appears to move If you are in a group of people and there are 3 different reports, eventually they will converge

Heider's Balance Theory

maintains that in any relationship between three entities, a state of unbalance cannot be sustained, and it will be resolved by altering one of the relationships. we work towards social consistency, want balanced relationships

Me vs I

me- library of information like memories, habits, roles (self-concept) I- knower of information, one who thinks about themselves (self-awareness)

Differences in Prosocial Behavior (Gender)

men: chivalrous, heroic helping (low-commitment) women: long-term, nurturant helping (commitment to situation)

Heuristic

mental shortcuts we use to make quick and efficient judgments -Schemas address cognitive content -Heuristics address cognitive processes

Functional Matching Effect

messages that "match" the function that an attitude serves for a specific individual will be more persuasive than those that do not "match"

automatic processing pro and con

more efficient, much faster, sometimes more accurate Cons: prone to certain errors, less controlled, overgeneralizations

Prosocial behavior increases after....

national crisis or threat -volunteering went up after 9/11, then back down

overjustification effect

occurs when an expected external incentive such as money or prizes decreases a person's intrinsic motivation to perform a task

self-esteem

one's feelings of high or low self-worth most people have high self-esteem

Cohen et al. (1996) Experiment 3

opportunity for aggressive behavior in a challenge situation A game of "chicken" in a narrow hallway At what distance did the participants give way to the confederate? Control Southerners: 108 inches Insulted Southerners: 37 inches Control Northerners: 74 inches Insulted Northerners: 59 inches Dominant behavior in subsequent encounters Met another confederate who rated handshake firmness (1-7 scale), eye contact, and general dominant behavior Control Southerners Handshake: 3.89 Insulted Southerners Handshake: 4.47 Control Northerners Handshake: 4.13 Insulted Northerners Handshake : 4.08

self-concept

our understanding and evaluation of who we are

public compliance

outwardly going along with the group but maintaining a private, inner belief that the group is wrong most likely to be related to informational social influence

Stone et al. (1994)

participants made to think about their unsafe sex choices were more likely to go buy condoms

self-verification theory

people prefer to receive feedback from others that is consistent with their own self-views

Differences in Prosocial Behavior (Social Class)

people with lower SE status tend to be more helpful

comparison level

people's expectations about the level of rewards and punishments they are likely to receive in a particular relationship influences relationship satisfaction

descriptive norms

perceptions of how people actually behave in a given situation what people do- "60% of people give to charity"

injunctive norms

perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved of by others in a given situation What people ought to do- "everyone should give to charity"

counter attitudinal advocacy

person sees his behavior and concludes he might like the exercise more than he thought

volunteering requires some level of..

personal benefit, self-focus and self-relevance

Cohen et al. (1996) Experiment 2

physiological measure of stress Stress hormone called cortisol Control Southerners: rose 42% Insulted Southerners: rose 79% Control Northerners: rose 39% Insulted Northerners: rose 33% physiological measure of preparedness for future aggression Testosterone (which is associated with aggression and dominance) Control Southerners: rose 4% Insulted Southerners: rose 12% Control Northerners: rose 4% Insulted Northerners: rose 6%

self-focused motives...

predict higher rate of maintaining volunteer work

Apologies tend to...

reduce aggressive responses even when transgression is not addressed, very effective method of reducing aggression

insufficient justification

reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is "insufficient" Participants completed a very boring task and were asked to tell the next participant the task was fun IV: large or small amount of money DV: participants rate of their level of enjoyment those w less money rated higher enjoyment because they figured they must think it's fun because why else would they do it for such a small reward

interdependent view of the self

relational- i am a sister collective- i am a member of a fraternity, I am an american Gender difference: women think relationally, men think collectively

Burger (2009)

replicating Milgram's experiments but they only went to 150 volts; 65-73% of the time they still obeyed

social norms

rules for what behavior is acceptable or appropriate in a given context

self-awareness theory

states that when we focus our attention on ourselves, we evaluate and compare our current behavior to our internal standards and values

Interactional Approach

taking into account the person and situation

Priming

temporary activation of a schema due to recent experience

reciprocity effect

tendency to like those who show they like us

impression management

the altering of the presentation of the self in order to create distinctive appearances and satisfy particular audiences

social influence

the effect of the real or imagined influence of other people, often resulting in changes in beliefs or behavior

propinquity effect

the finding that the more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends ex: why we reelect politicians, why some actors are in every movie even if they aren't that good. The more familiar a public figure's face or name, the more likeable a person is perceived to be

Internal (Dispositional) Attribution

the inference that an actor has behaved in a certain way because of personal factors such as dispositions, personality, or attitudes

External (Situational) Attribution

the inference that an actor has behaved in a certain way because of something about the situation, or because of forces outside the actor

informational social influence

the influence of other people that results from taking their comments or actions as a source of information about what is correct, proper, or effective you're new on campus, everyone eats at LBC, you assume that's the best because everyone goes, you now decide to go too

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration- the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger which can generate aggression

negative state relief model (Gialdini)

the proposition that people help others in order to counteract their own feelings of sadness Helping others provides emotional relief and improves mood If people have the opportunity to make themselves feel good in some other way, they will choose not to help others

chronic accessibility

the tendency of an idea or concept to come easily to mind - past experiences -repetition over time

Stroop Effect

the tendency to read the words instead of saying the color of ink

effort justification

the tendency to reduce dissonance by justifying the time, effort, or money devoted to something that turned out to be unpleasant or disappointing

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs helping occurs more often when it is easy and reciprocated

urban overload hypothesis

the theory that people living in cities are constantly bombarded with stimulation and that they keep to themselves to avoid being overwhelmed by it

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

self-knowledge

the way we understand who we are and formulate and organize this information

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory

theory that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal

self-perception theory

theory that when our attitudes and feelings are ambiguous or uncertain, we learn about ourselves by observing and examining our own behavior we notice a behavior and construct factors about ourselves to make us feel smarter/better (i'm smiling? I must be in a good mood)

punishments prevent aggression if...

they are immediate and consistently applied

interdependence

thoughts, feelings, behaviors

directionality problem

uncertainty about the direction of the causal relationship between two variables do violent games lead to more aggressive behavior, or do more aggressive people play violent games

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information ex: reading a book

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others (caused by selfless motivation)

long term helping

volunteerism

Uni-dimensional view

we develop overall likes or dislikes about objects

Problems with Yale AC Approach

what about when and why? doesn't consider situational factors, do these factors matter all the time? why do they matter?

Controlled processing occurs

when people have the ability and motivation to do so Ability: resources needed to do something Motivation- drive to do something Both can have internal or external cues Pros: more controlled and intentional, often more accurate cons : time consuming, uses up resources, not always more accurate