Social Psychology - Exam 3
What factors influence attitude strength?
Formed through experience, more knowledge, vested interest, currently aware of attitude, personality genes.
What was Barry Goldwater's phrase?
"In your heart, you know he's right"
What was Lyndon Johnson's phrase?
"We must either love each other -- or we must die"
Individual differences between the groups
25% of participants never conformed 50% conformed on > half of trails No personality traits associated with conformity Similar conformity in recent studies
What is an attitude?
A positive, negative or mixed evaluation toward an object
Observed behavior...:
Specific attitude object Young, attractive Chinese-American couple that was traveling with a white guy
Theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991):
Attitudes, subjective norms, perceived control --> behavioral intentions --> behavior
The 1984 apple computer commercial showed what to get people's attention?
Award winning Few words, powerful imagery Youthful, defiant, woman, powerful, nonconformist
Dissonance aroused when...
Behavior is freely chosen May be enticed, gently coaxed But not coerced, not bribed Negative consequences are foreseeable
Fear Arousal and Hygienic Products are seen in what signs/warnings?
Beware!! Bad breath Dandruff Acne Germs Yellow teeth
Who refrained from touching the toys?
Both groups refrained from playing with toys
Behavior that is gently coaxed is seen in what kind of techniques?
Brainwashing techniques
Barry Goldwater used what threat?
Communism greatest threat
The Source (central route):
Credibility Competent/expert Trustworthy Likability Similarity Physical attractiveness
The Source (peripheral route): who...
Credibility/believable Competent/expert Degrees, experiences, mature looking, speak quickly or fluently Trustworthy
Central Route:
Critical evaluation of the strength or quality of arguments
Normative influence:
Desire to be liked, accepted
Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo 1986):
Due to limited cognitive resources the amount of elaboration (thoughtfulness) we can or are willing to put into analyzing a message varies Leads to two routes for attitude change
What is the elaboration likelihood model as it pertains to persuasion?
Due to limited cognitive resources, the amount of elaboration (thoughtfulness) we can or willing to put into analyzing a message varies. Leads to 2 routes for attitude change.
Example of insufficient deterrence?
E.g., aronson and carlsmith, 1963
Peripheral Route:
Influence due to superficial cues -- peripheral to the content of the message
Justification of effort:
The more we pay for something (time, money, effort) - the more we come to like it
When attitudes predict our behavior:
The reported attitude and the observed behavior to the object are highly specific and similar to each other
Need for cognition:
There is an interaction self-monitoring and type of message
Reported attitude...:
Vague attitude object - abstract Stereotypical image of a Chinese person
Persuasion by communication:
Who (source, communicator) said what (message) to whom (audience, receiver)
Attitude:
a positive, negative, or mixed evaluation toward an object
$1 = $1.00 Insufficient justification so their behavior is?
behavior freely chosen, dissonance, attitude change
High Need for Cognitions points to what route?
central route
Behavior that is gently coaxed leads to what?
greater attitude change than behavior that is coerced, bribe or threatened with severe consequences
Who is in the business of attitudes?
Advertisers, Politicians, Lobbyists, Charities, religious groups, and advocacy groups, Businesses, Lawyers, Educators, Clinicians, You! Friends, family, ect.
How best to change behavior?
Advising, warning, lecturing, threatening, rewarding, punishing. Gently entice a person to engage in a desired behavior and attitude change often follows
Persuasion by our own actions (cognitive dissonance)
Attitude --> behavior Behavior --> attitude Read, learn, study (behavior) --> positive attitude towards learning (attitude)
Link between attitudes and behavior:
Attitude --> behavior? Clean environment is essential --> recycle? Smoking is unhealthy --> quitting? Education is important --> effort and energy put into learning? Expect attitude to feed into/effect the behavior to an extent
Brehm, Kassin, and Fein, 2005, p. 213 findings?
Attitude change persists more when it is inspired by our own behavior than when it stems from passive exposure to a persuasive communication
Data vs. theory:
Attitude-discrepant behavior --> attitude change -- empirical finding Cognitive dissonance -- theoretical explanation
Conformity to norms:
Changes in perception, opinion, or behavior in ways consistent with group norms
Receiver must have (central route)...
Cognitive ability Time Motivation Personal investment
Private response in conformity
Conformity decreased by two-thirds
Partner in dissent:
Conformity decreased to 5%
Forewarning:
Decrease susceptibility to persuasive message Negative attitude change Opposite from position advocated Even when the audience original agrees
Sleeper Effect:
Delayed increase in the persuasive impact of a noncredible source
Informational influence in conformity:
Desire to be right (objectively) Correct response is ambiguous Majority signals what is correct
Attitudes strengths:
Formed from experiences More knowledge we have about a topic - the stronger the attitude Vested interest - affect them personally, or their loved ones/family Currently aware of attitude Personality, genes
Subliminal Messages with James Vicary, 1950s movie theater
HOAX "Eat popcorn!!" "Drink Coke!!"
Two different signs in the hotel rooms, what were the results?:
Help save the environment - reuse towels or Join your fellow guests in helping to save the environment - a social norm now - 25% more guests reused their towels - 75% of the guest in this hotel participated in our new resource program by using their towels more than once - 44% reused 75% of the guest in this room participated in our new resource program by using their towels more than once - 49% reused
Attitude-discrepant behavior lead to inconsistent cognitions meaning?....
I need a healthy diet (attitude) --> I just ate chocolate (attitude-discrepant behavior)
How to prevent the sleeper effect:
Identify source before exposure to communication
Is fear arousal effective:
If fear is not too high - so generally yes If message contains advice for avoiding negative consequences If perceive consequences as negative, probable, and avoidable
Eagly et al. (1981)
In public women became more conforming and men less conforming than in private
Experimental Study Subliminal presentation of "RATS":
Increased negative ratings of an unknown politicians
Behavior intentions: I'm going to do this but they don't end up doing it, why?
Lack of time, lack of motivation, distractions, fear of missing out with your friends Obstacles: time, money, and effort
Message: what? (peripheral route characteristics)
Length # of arguments Amount of statistical information Number and reputation of supporters Emotion
1964 Presidential Campaign between who?
Lyndon Johnson and Barry Goldwater
How can a person measure an attitude so that the measure best predicts the target behavior?
Measuring attitudes helps investigators make inferences about the attitudes that may be responsible for certain behaviors
What type of influence?
Men - Independent Women - Agreeable
What group had an insufficient justification for not touching the toys?
Mild punishment - cognitive dissonance
Why are positive emotions used?
More easily persuaded Don't think as critically Greater influence of peripheral cues
Result of Greenwald's experiment:
No actual behavior change
Personality:
No consistently persuadable personality type No gender differences Interactions between personality and type of message
Festinger and Carlsmith results:
No lie: didn't enjoy the task at all 6/25 $20 lie: 9/25 enjoyed it a little more $1 lie: 23/25 enjoyed it a lot and were able to enjoy the task more
Ambivalent -
Not sure what your attitude is towards a topic/issue
Lyndon Johnson used what threat?
Nuclear war greatest threat
Sherif, 1936 Studied development of a group norm
Optical illusion 1 year later, tested participants alone Participants reported group norm
Festinger and Carlsmith (1959):
Participants engaged in a boring tasks For an hour Turn the peg one score to the left then to the right ect. Take stools off of rods then back on and ect. Told another student that the task was interesting and fun Some were paid $1 (9.31 today), while others were paid $20 (194.57 today) for telling another student that it was fun and interesting They then rated their enjoyment of the task The task is boring (attitude) --> I said It was interesting (attitude discrepant behavior) -- inconsistent cognitions Paid $1 for attitude discrepant behavior or Paid $20 for attitude discrepant behavior
Greenwald et al., 1991 experiment:
Participants listened to subliminal tapes designed to: ○ Increase self-esteem ○ Improve memory ○ Half the tapes labeled as the opposite
Low Need for Cognition points to what route?
Peripheral route
Subjective norms:
Personal perception of what we think other people think is accepted
We have attitudes about...
Politics, marriages, religion, smoking, friendship, gun laws, war, riots, food, clothing, music, exercise, ect.
How is emotion communicated?
Positive emotions
aronson and carlsmith, 1963 experiment?
Preschool children could not touch the toys Threat of mild vs. severe punishment
Motivational effect
Psychological reactance
Other theories:
Self-perception Impression management Self-affirmation
Two early classics
Sherif, 1939 Asch, 1951
Norms:
Socially accepted rules that pertain to specific groups or situations Relatively weak pressure but powerful social impact
Even when dissenter:
Stated an opinion different from participants Deemed incompetent Said "I don't know"
Message: what? (central route characteristics)
Strength of arguments
Current Consensus of subliminal messages:
Subliminal messages have short-term effects (15 minutes) on simple judgements in the lab There is no evidence for long-term effects on substantial behavior or decision-making
Public Conformity
Superficial change in overt behavior
Source appears to (peripheral route):
Take position opposite than expected Have nothing to gain Not be trying to persuade Present balanced argument
How to reduce dissonance?
Technique Example Change your perception of the behavior "I hardly ate any mousse" Add consonant cognitions "Chocolate mousse is very nutritious" Reduce your perceived choice "I had no choice; the mousse was prepared for special occasion" Change your attitude "I don't really need to be on a diet"
Asch, 1951 experiment:
Tested alone, error rate = 5% Simple, unambiguous In group, conformed on 37% of trails
Persuasion:
The process of changing attitudes
Cognitive Effect:
Time allows the audience to think up counterarguments But that doesn't explain negative attitude change
When we think our freedom is threatened we...:
We want the threatened freedom even more So we try to restore the freedom
What were the general methods, findings, and problems of LaPiere's study?
Traveled with Chinese couple, politely served at 250 businesses, 90% said they would not serve Chinese. Similar findings in subsequent studies. Reported attitudes do not necessarily correspond with behavior.
Why do people act this was in dissenter?
Unanimity important, group size not so much
Behavior: attendance at religious services
Waking up early Importance of attending the services Attitudes towards attending religious services
Cognitive Dissonance Theory:
We desire cognitive consistency Beliefs, attitudes, behaviors Consonant, correspond Inconsistent cognitions arouse cognitive dissonance Psychological tension
No evidence that subliminal auditory messages aid in what?
Weight loss Quitting smoking Or other behavior change
Majority signals the norm
What's socially acceptable
Insufficient Deterrence:
When refraining from a desired behavior is unjustified
What factors influence the correspondence between attitudes and behavior?
attitudes, subjective norms, perceived control, behavioral norms, and obstacles.
$20 = $20.00 sufficient justification so their behavior is?
bribed, coerced
Adamant -
strong attitudes towards a topic/issues
Participants subjective reports of change were consistent with what?
the LABEL
Indifferent -
weak/no attitudes towards a topic/issue
Attitudes unrelated to what kind of topics?:
○ Pro-environmental behavior (Kasapoglu and Ecevit, 2002) ○ Risky sexual behavior (Shearer et al,.)
Sistrunk and McDavid (1971)
○ Topic ○ Masculine Feminine Neutral ○ W >M M > W M = W
LaPiere, 1939:
○Traveled across the US with a Chinese couple ○ During the time that there was prejudice against Chinese people ○ Politely served at 250 businesses - over a 6-month period ○ 90% said they would NOT serve Chinese