Social psychology unit 1
Social neuroscientists do not reduce complex social behaviors (hurting and helping) to simple neural or molecular mechanisms
Each science builds upon principles of more basic sciences (sociology builds on psychology, which builds on biology, which builds on chemistry, which builds on physics, which builds on math)
Which of the following combine to create the hindsight bias?
Errors in judging the future Errors in remembering the past
Social comparisons
Evaluating one's opinions and abilities by comparing oneself with others Others help define standard which we define ourselves as poor, smart, rich, or dumb, tall or short. Social comparison explains why high school students tend to think of themselves as better students if their peers are only average. Self-concept can be threatened after graduation when student who excelled in average high school goes on to an academically selective university. (Big fish no longer in small pond)
In one study, University of Texas students wore recording that listened in on their lives.
Even on weekdays, almost 30% of students time spent talking to other people. facebook has 2 billion users around the world, the average 18-year old in US spends 2 hours a day sending texts. Relationships are a big part of being human.
People who engage in self-serving biases will display tendencies to do which of the behaviors below?
Excuse their failures See themselves as better than average Accept credit for a success
Inspiration for cognitive dissonance theory was participant observation study by Festinger. Study that an Association for Psychological science president declared as high all-time favorite psychological study
Festinger read news report of UFO cult's expecting to be rescued by flying saucers from cataclysmic flood anticipated on December 21, 1954. Researchers joined cult and observed. As December 21st approached, most devoted followers quit jobs and disposed of possessions, with some even leaving their spouses. When 21st passed uneventfully, group coped with massive dissonance not by abandoning beliefs but with increased fervor for them. They believed that their faithfulness persuaded God to spare the world, a message they proclaimed boldly.
Self-knowledge is best learned not by contemplation but action
Goethe said
Carol Tavris and Elliot Aronson illustrate dissonance reduction by leaders of various political parties when faced with clear evidence that a decision they made or course of action they chose turned out to be wrong or even disasterous
Human phenomenon nonpartisan, a president who has justified actions to themselves believing that they have the truth becomes impervious to self-correction. Even in the face of being wrong, people will reinforce their ideals. Cognitive dissonance theory offers explanation for such self- persuasion, and it also offers several predictions.
______ help explain the greater sexual assertiveness exhibited by men around the world and the greater tendency of men in various cultures to justify rape by arguing that the victim consented or implied consent.
Misattributions
In one survey 85% of students agreed with Lama's statement "Memory can be likened to a storage chest in the brain into which we deposit material and from which we can withdraw later if needed. Occasionally something is lost form chest and we say we have forgotten"
Psychological research has proved the opposite. Our memories are not exact copies of experiences that remain on deposit in a memory bank. We construct memories at time of withdrawal. We can easily (although unconsciously) revise our memories to suit our current knowledge.
"memory isn't like reading a book: Its more like writing a book from fragmentary notes"
Said by John Kihlstrom
______ theory states that when we are unsure of our own attitudes, we would infer them as we would someone observing us.
Self-perception
______ explains attitude formation, while ______ explains attitude change.
Self-perception theory; dissonance theory
Attributing one's success to internal causes and failures to external causes is an example of
Self-serving bias
We have two brain systems, notes Daniel Kahneman. there is
System 1: Functions automatically and out of our awareness (intuition or gut feeling) System 2:Requires conscious attention and effort. System 1 influences more of our actions than we realize
Mary was aging and feeling sad and depressed with her inability to do different activities. Mary's friend stopped over and made a suggestion that made Mary feel better. Which suggestion did Mary's friend make?
Tape the sides of your lips upward on each side.
In which of the following activities is social comparison more likely? (More than one answer is correct - Select all that apply)
Team volleyball Individual wrestling Individual finances
Which of the following statements is/are true about values?
Values can influence the types of people entering a major field of study. Values can play a role in the choice of research topics.
People tend not to seek information that might disprove what they believe, this is confirmation bias.
We are eager to verify our beliefs but less inclined to seek evidence that might disprove them.
Sheridan considers herself a religious person who attends worship services regularly, but she did not attend worship services for two weeks in a row. Using the principle of aggregation, we can predict that
averaged over time, Sheridan attends worship services regularly.
When people become more self-______, they are more conscious of their words and deeds.
aware
Availability heuristic
a cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory. If instances of something come readily to mind, we presume it to be commonplace
Random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
The "A" in the "ABCs" of attitudes is
affect.
People are prone to impact bias
after negative events
In an experiment, people anticipated interacting with another person of a different race. When led to believe that the other person disliked interacting with someone from their race, they felt more ______.
anger
I am _. "In 5 different ways
answers provide glimpse of self-concept
Jonas was certain his computer program for grading classes was the best system to use. When others tried to offer feedback, Jonas did not really listen. Jonas is displaying ______ bias.
confirmation
Replication =
confirmation
Colton was told to eat his cereal and he would grow big muscles. Colton ate his cereal and checked his "growing" muscles in the mirror daily. Colton is experiencing an illusory _______.
correlation
Which type of research examines the relationship between two variables?
correlational study
Imagining an alternative scenario or outcome that might have happened but did not is known as ______ thinking.
counterfactual
Joey placed second in the state wrestling meet. He spent some time thinking about what might have been if he had gotten one more take down. Joey is demonstrating ______ thinking.
counterfactual
social influence
culture pressures to conform persuasion groups of people
schadenfreude
delight in another person's misfortune
When subjects receive experimenter cues that guide their behavior and suggest how to act, they are experiencing ______.
demand characteristics
The measured variable is also know as the _ _
dependent variable
A good theory
effectively summarizes many observations makes clear predictions that we can use to: Confirm or modify the theory, generate new research and suggest practical applications.
Due to ______, people become more likely to rate someone more warmly and behave more generously after holding a warm drink.
embodied cognition
A type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations is called
behavioral confirmation.
We tend to see our worlds through _______ glasses.
belief-tinted
In social psychology, attitudes are defined as
beliefs and feelings related to a person, or an event. A person can have a negative attitude toward coffee, a neutral attitude toward the French and a positive attitude toward their neighbor.
Jaquon is having trouble with math class in school. Jaquon's teacher keeps telling him he is a smart boy. Eventually, Jaquon starts to improve his grades. This is an example of "saying becomes ______."
believing
When attempting to predict your own behavior, it is best to consult with your ______. (Multiple answers exist - select all that apply)
father roommate mother
Stanford Psychologist Albert bandura, captured the power of positive thinking in his research and theorizing about self-efficacy
believing in our own competence and effectiveness pays. Children and adults with strong feelings of self-efficacy are more persistent, less anxious and less depressed, they also live healthier lives and are more academically successful.
Thinking strategies that serve as mental shortcuts are referred to as
heuristics
The Danish philosopher-theologian Søren Kierkegaard said, "Life is lived forwards, but understood backwards." This is an example of
hindsight bias
Scientists in Country A found an interesting result from their study. Scientists in Country B then repeat the procedure with people from their own country to see whether the results are the same in both countries. When the same study is conducted in multiple settings to see whether results are consistent, it is called ______.
replication
Cody is at the funeral of his great-grandmother. He knows he is to be quiet and not run. This expected behavior is a/an ______.
role
Eduardo is sitting at his desk in his new kindergarten classroom and listening to his teacher. This behavior is a ______ Eduardo has learned.
role
High expectations do seem to boost low achievers
rosenthal and people report that teachers look, smile and nod more at high-potential students. Teachers may teach more to gifted students, set higher goals for them, call on them more and give them more time to answer.
One of the first decisions that researchers must make is about their
samples. who will participate in studies.
When good things happen, people with high self-esteem more likely to
savor and sustain good feelings. Research on depression and anxiety suggests, self-serving perceptions can be useful. May be strategic to believe we are smarter, stronger and more socially successful than we are.
Facebook users who socially compared themselves to others on the site were more likely to be depressed, a phenomenon called
seeing everyone elses highlight reels. Could explain why young adults who use facebook more often were more anxious, lonely, and less satisfied with thei lives.
When we want to minimize dissonance, we will often seek agreeable information or people that agree with our viewpoint, a strategy known as ______.
selective exposure
Cognitive dissonance theory offers us an explanation for _____-persuasion.
self
When we have acted badly, we are more likely to attribute our behavior to the ______.
situation
When we see our behaviors as intentional and admirable we attribute this to our own good reasons, not to the _______.
situation
The civil rights movement of the 1960s is an example of the change brought about by ______ movements.
social
We are, as Aristotle long ago observed _
social animals
Kruglanski & Gigerenzer describe our thinking as _____.
intuitive and deliberate
We think on two levels
intuitive and deliberate These are also called system 1 and system 2
Research has shown through behavioral confirmation that people who are more lonely behave less ______.
socially
Regression toward the average
statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward their average
Believing you're great when nothing can prove you wrong is one thing, but with an evaluation fast approaching
it is best not to look like a fool
Research has shown that if we smile we tend to feel ______.
joyful happy
Political and social movements may legistlate behavior designed to
lead to attitude change on mass scale
Jack and Jill are having problems in their marriage. One night, Jack is actually working late, but Jill is sure he is out with another woman instead. Jill is demonstrating ______.
misattribution
misattribution
mistakenly attributing a behavior to the wrong source
In research comparing people in general, most people see themselves as being ______.
more ethical better looking friendlier
Those low in self-monitoring care less about what others think
more internally guided and likely to talk and act as they feel and believe.
It was no accident that the study of prejudice flourished during the 1940s as fascism raged in Europe. This is an example of
obvious ways values enter psychology
The result of bribing people to do what they already like doing, so that they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing, is a description of the _ effect.
overjustification
One patient with right hemisphere damage failed to recognize that he
owned and was controlling his left hand.
Some people are more inclined to attribute behavior to stable personality whereas other
people more likely to attribute behavior to situations
As a college freshman, Sydney sees herself being retired at 50 years of age in a beautiful home on the ocean beach. This is an example of Sydney's _____ self.
possible
Studying social science might enhance such beliefs
such factors explain why, when Jonathon Haidt asked 1,000 social psychologists at convention about their politics, 80-90% said liberal, when asked those who were conservative, only 3 hands went up.
In courtrooms, most confession tapes focus on confessor. Daniel Lassiter and Dudley noted
such tapes yield a nearly 100% conviction rate when played by prosecutors. Aware of Lassiter's research on the Camera Perspective Bias, new Zealand and some Canada and US now require police interrogations be filmed with equal parts on officer and suspect.
Cognitive dissonance
tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of 2 inconsistent cognitions. May occur when we realize that we have with little justification, acted contrary to our attitudes or made a decision favoring alternative despite favoring another
There are two general ways that values enter psychology
the obvious and subtle.
A student plans to read this chapter and do the quiz in an hour, but it ends up taking three hours. The student's error in underestimating the required time is an example of ______.
the planning fallacy
Overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
Hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
What is selective exposure?
the tendency to seek information and media that agree with one's views and to avoid dissonant information
Because scholars in any given area often share a common viewpoint and come from the same culture
their assumptions may go unchallenged
People evaluate pay raises as fairer when
they receive a bigger raise than most of their co-workers.
William Ward and Herbert Jenkins showed people results of hypothetical 50-day cloud seeding experiment
told participants which of the 50 days the clouds had been seeded and which days it rained. information was random mix of results. Sometimes it rained after seeding, sometimes it didn't. Participants became convinced in conformity about effects of cloud seeding. They believe they observed a relationship between cloud seeding and rain.
Social intuition can be a problem because we may ______.
trust our memories more than we should predict our future incorrectly
What does the Implicit Association Test (IAT) measure?
unconscious attitudes
Theories are ______.
used to make predictions a scientific shorthand used to explain events
Mark Leary believes that self-esteem similar to fuel gauge
relationships enable surviving and thriving so self-esteem gauge alerts us to threatened social rejection, motivating us to act with greater sensitivity to other's expectations. Studies confirm that social rejection lowers self-esteem and makes people more eager for approval. spurned or jilted, we feel unattractive of inadequate. Pain can motivate action such as self-improvement or a search for acceptance and inclusion elsewhere.
In one national survey, ______ percent of American women said they had been forced into unwanted sexual behavior, and ______ percent of American men said they had ever forced a woman into a sexual act.
23; 3
By about a ______ ratio, people preferred supporting, rather than challenging, information.
2:1
Microsoft managers automatically add
30% onto a software developer's estimate of completion and 50% if project involves new operating system.
We are mile per mile, _ times safer on a commercial flight than in a car
86
Experiments do not need to have mundane realism
A degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations
Heuristics
A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgment and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier, but more error-prone than algorithms
In one study where teachers were videotaped talking to, or about, unseen students, it took a _____ clip to determine if the teachers viewed the student as a good or poor.
10-second
Selective exposure
Another way people minimize dissonance (festinger) Tendency to seek information and media that agree with one's views and to avoid dissonant information
Swann and Read compared Self-verification to the way a domineering person might behave at a party
Arrives, seeks out those who acknowledge said dominance. In conversation, presents views in ways that elicit respect they expect. After party, they have trouble recalling conversations in which influence was minimal and more easily recalls persuasiveness in conversations, thus experience at party confirms self-image
Which of the following are reasons why individuals construct their social reality?
As humans we like to attribute behavior to some cause. As humans we like to have events be predictable. As humans we like to have order in our world.
When an experimenter or therapist manipulates people's presumptions about their past, many people will construct false memories.
Asked to imagine as a child that they knocked over a punch bowl at a wedding, 1/4 will later recall fictitious event as something that happened. In search for truth, the mind sometimes constructs falsehood.
More than 700 studies with 276,000 participants confirmed that specific, relevant attitudes do predict intended and actual behavior.
Attitudes toward condoms strongly predict condom use. Attitudes toward recycling but not toward environmental issues predict intention to do so. Practical lesson: to change habits through persuasion, we must alter people's attitudes toward specific practices.
Which of the examples below would be affected by social influences?
Attraction to small versus large body size in potential mates Beliefs about whether same-sex relationships are acceptable
From the social neuroscience perspective, to understand social behavior we must consider both the under-the-skin influences, also known as ______ influences, and the between-skins influences, or ______ influences.
Biological social
If attitudes determine behavior then it is also true that behavior determines
Blank 1: Attitudes
_ consensus effect is when one overestimates the extent to which others agree.
Blank 1: False
_ and _ attitudes together may predict behavior better than either alone.
Blank 1: Implicit Blank 2: Explicit
_ is ascribing a behavior to the wrong source.
Blank 1: Misattribution
_ effect occurs when one incorporates wrong information into a memory after witnessing an event and attaining wrong, misleading information about it.
Blank 1: Misinformation
According to research presented the book, students who score the lowest on tests of grammar, humor, and logic are the most prone to _ their abilities.
Blank 1: Overestimating
In order to avoid dissonant information people tend to engage in a behavior called _ _
Blank 1: Selective Blank 2: Exposure
Most people see themselves as better than average person on three dimensions: _. _. and _
Blank 1: Subjective Blank 2: Socially desirable Blank 3: Common dimensions
Moral _, especially when freely chosen rather than coerced, affects moral thinking.
Blank 1: action
A tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconception is identified as confirmation _
Blank 1: bias
Research has shown that our self-esteem motivation is a motivator in increasing our self-serving _
Blank 1: bias
After making important decisions, one can experience _ dissonance when thinking about the negative options of what was chosen and the positive options of what was not chosen.
Blank 1: cognitive
Giving priority to the goals of a group rather than individual goals is an example of
Blank 1: collectivism
Evaluating our abilities and opinions by comparing ourselves with others is called social
Blank 1: comparison
Self-_ is what we know and believe about ourselves.
Blank 1: concept
The study of naturally occurring relationships among two variables is called _ research.
Blank 1: correlational
Dr. T. is studying the transmission of values from one generation to the next. Dr. T. is studying
Blank 1: culture
Researchers misled subjects in Milgram's now-classic study in obedience to authority. In other words, researchers used _
Blank 1: deception
When research subjects are misled about study methods and purposes, it is called _
Blank 1: deception
The adaptive value of anticipating problems to motivate effective action is a description of _ pessimism
Blank 1: defensive
Words the experimenter uses, tone of voice, and gestures that suggest how a participant should act are all examples of _ _.
Blank 1: demand Blank 2: characteristics
You have an appointment with someone and they are late. You are more likely to use a _ attribution to explain why they are late.
Blank 1: dispositional
Tension that arises when one is aware of two inconsistent thoughts, cognitions, or behaviors at the same time is a description of cognitive _
Blank 1: dissonance
Believing in our own competence and effectiveness is a description of self-_
Blank 1: efficacy
Studies that have the ability to examine cause-effect relationships are called _ studies
Blank 1: experimental
A theory is an integrated set of principles that is used to _ and _ observed events.
Blank 1: explain or understand Blank 2: predict
Another name for the research in everyday situations is called _ research.
Blank 1: field or observational
Theorist Mark Leary describes self-esteem feelings as being like a fuel _
Blank 1: gauge
Our personal system of mental shortcuts is the definition of
Blank 1: heuristics
The tendency to exaggerate your ability to have foreseen the results after you learn the outcome is called the _ _.
Blank 1: hindsight Blank 2: bias
The perception of a relationship where none exists or a perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists is the definition of an _ correlation.
Blank 1: illusory
Overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events is identified as _ bias
Blank 1: impact
The manipulated variable is also known as the _ _
Blank 1: independent Blank 2: variable
During adolescence individuals achieve self-reliance, and they should be able to separate from their parents and have a clear definition of their _ self
Blank 1: independent or own
Creating one's identity in relation to others is _ self, whereas creating one's identity as an autonomous being is one's _ self.
Blank 1: interdependent Blank 2: independent
For strategic reasons we express attitudes that make us appear consistent. This is a description of self-_, also known as impression management.
Blank 1: presentation
Even when stimuli are presented unconsciously, their effects can become conscious due to
Blank 1: priming
The tendency to presume that someone or something belongs to a particular group if it resembles a typical member is a description of _ heuristic
Blank 1: representativeness
Investigating what areas of the brain become active during altruistic behaviors is an example in the social psychology subfield of
Blank 1: social Blank 2: neuroscience
Personal convictions about what is right and how people should behave are called _.
Blank 1: values, norms, morals, or convictions
Which of the following are affected when we engage in effortful self-control?
Blood sugar Energy reserves
In olympic competition, athlete's emotions after an event reflect mostly how they did relative to expectations, but also their counterfactual thinking (what might have been)
Bronze medalists exhibit more joy than silver medalists. On medal stand, happiness is simple as 1-3-2, similarly a higher student's score within a grade category (B+) the worse they feel. The b+ student misses an A- but feels worse than the B+ student who did worse and just made B+ by a point.
What are the two major advantages of experimental research over correlational studies?
Causal relationships can be inferred. Random assignment is possible.
Correlational research has both a major advantage, examining important variables in natural settings, and a major disadvantage, ambiguous interpretation of cause and effect
Douglas Carrol when to Glasgow, scotlands old graveyards and noted lifespan of 843 individuals. As indication of wealth they measured height of grave pillars, reasoning height reflected cost and affluence. Height correlated to longer life
Experimenters do not want participants consciously play-acting or bored. They want to engage real psychological processes.
EX: Delivering electric shocks as part of experiment on aggression. Forcing people to choose whether to give mild, intense shock to someone else can be a realistic measure of aggression. Functionally simulates real aggression, much as wind tunnel simulates atmospheric wind.
Illusory correlation
Easy to see a correlation where none exists. We easily associate random events as connected.
Research suggests that after people have exerted self control on some behavior they are more likely to
Exhibit decreased stamina Quit faster when given unsolvable puzzles Become more aggressive
Our memory system is a web of associations and Priming is the awakening or activating of certain associations
Experiments show priming one thought even without awareness can influence another thought or action.
Collectivism
Giving priority to the goal's of one's group. (Often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly. respecting and identifying within the group, people are more self-critical and focus less on positive self-views.
Dr. R. is conducting an experiment to determine whether using LearnSmart has an effect on students' grades. One group of students is assigned LearnSmart and the other group of students is not assigned LearnSmart. At the end of the course, student grades are assessed. In this experiment, what is the dependent variable?
Grades
Imagining what could have been occurs when we can easily picture an alternative outcome
If we barely miss a plane or buss, we imagine making it if only we had left at our usual time, taken usual route, or not paused to talk. If we miss our connection by half an hour after taking usual route its harder to simulate a different outcome so we feel less frustrated If we change an exam answer and get it wrong We think if only, and vow next time to trust our immediate intuition, although contrary to student lore, answer changes are more often from incorrect to correct
Although dissonance theory inspired much research, an even simpler theory explains its phenomena. In how we make inferences about people's attitudes, we see how a person acts in particular situations and we attribute behavior to person's traits and attitudes or to an environmental force.
If we see parents coercing children into apologizing, we attribute apology to situation and not personal regret. If we see no coercion we attribute apology to child themselves.
For attitudes formed early in life, like racial and gender attitudes, implicit attitudes can predict behavior
Implicit racial attitudes have successfully predicted interracial roommate relationships and willingness to penalize other-race people.
Which of the following is NOT an aspect of controlled thinking?
Impulsive
Confirmation bias helps explain why our self-images are so remarkable stable.
In experiments at the university of Texas at Austin, William Swann discovered that students seek, elicit, and recall feedback that confirms their beliefs about themselves. People seek as friends and spouses those who bolster own self views. Even if they think poorly of themselves.
Misinformation effect
Incorporating misinformation into one's memory after witnessing an event and receiving misleading information about it.
Which of the following statements about overconfidence is FALSE?
Individuals who are highly competent are more likely to be overconfident than incompetent individuals.
Social neuroscience
Interdisciplinary field that explores the neural bases of social and emotional processes and behaviors, and how these processes and behaviors affect our brain and biology
Our instant intuitions shape fears (is flying dangerous), Impressions (can I trust them), and relationships, (do they like me).
Intuitions influence presidents in time of crisis, gamblers at the table, jurors, personnel directors screening applicants.
Mark Snyder at University of Minnesota showed how once formed, erroneous beliefs about the social world can induce others to confirm those beliefs (Behavioral confirmation)
Male students talked on phone with women they thought (Having been shown a picture_ were either attractive or unattractive. Supposedly attractive women spoke more warmly than the others. Men's erroneous beliefs had become a self-fulfilling prophecy by leading them to act in a way that influence the women to fulfil men's stereotype that beautiful people are desirable people.
Which of the following is an example of experimental research?
Manipulating lecture styles in different classrooms to see whether they cause different test grades
Historian Richard Grunberger reports that for those who had doubts about hitler, german greeting was a powerful conditioning device.
Many experienced discomfort at contradiction between words and feelings. Prevented from saying what they believed, they tried to establish their psychic equilibrium by consciously making themselves believe what they said.
Given sufficient expertise, people may intuitively know the answer to a problem.
Many skills like piano playing to swinging gold club begin as controlled deliberate processes that gradually become automatic and intuitive.
Misattribution is particularly likely when men are in positions of power. A manager may misinterpret a subordinate woman's submissive or friendly behavior and full of himself see her in sexual terms
Men think about sex more often than women do. Men also more likely than women to assume that others share their feelings. A man with sex on his mind may greatly overestimate the sexual significance of a woman's courtesy smile.
Antonia Abbey and Colleagues have repeatedly found that men are more likely than women to attribute a woman's friendliness to sexual interest
Men's misreading of women's warmth as a sexual come on (misattribution) can contribute to sexual harassment or even rape.
Without doubt it is a delightful harmony when doing and saying go together
Michel de Montaign
Research in cognitive social psychology mirrors the mixed review given humanity in literature, philosophy and religion. Many research psychologists spent lifetimes exploring capacities of human mind. We are smart enough to crack our own genetic code, talking computers, and sent people to moon.
Mind's premium on efficient judgment makes our intuition more vulnerable to misjudgment than we suspect. With ease, we form and sustain false beliefs led by preconceptions, feeling overconfident, persuaded by vivid anecdotes, perceiving correlations, and control even where none may exist. Construct social beliefs and influence others to confirm them.
Batson called disjuncture between attitudes and actions
Moral hypocrisy. (Appearing moral while avoiding the costs of being so.
Existence of distinct explicit and implicit attitudes confirms one of psychology's biggest lessons
Our dual processing capacity for automatic and controlled conscious thinking
Americans and Australians, whom are descended form those who struck out on their own to emigrate, are more likely than Europeans to give children uncommon names.
Parents in US and Canada descended from independent pioneers, are also more likely than those in the east to give children uncommon names. the more individualistic the time or the place, the more children receive unique names.
Approximately 1/3 of social psychological studies in past decades used deception
Participants did not know the study's true purpose.
To help, or to help oneself?
Passerby's grab money that fall off of things. What situations trigger people to be helpful or greedy? Cultural context? Small towns and villages?
Social psychologist Hazel Markus said"
People are above all malleable, "we adapt to our social context. Our attitudes and behavior are shaped by external social forces
High self-esteem is especially problematic if it crosses over into narcissism or having an inflated sense of self.
People with high self esteem value both individual achievement and relationships with others. narcissists' usually have high self esteem but miss piece for caring for others.
Attitudes also follow behavior in peacetime. A group that holds another in slavery will come to perceive slaves as having traits that justify their oppression
Prison staff who participate in executions experience "Moral disengagement" by coming to believe that their victims deserve their fate. Actions and attitudes feed each other, sometimes to the point of moral numbness. The more one harms another and adjusts one's attitudes, the easier it comes to do harm. Conscience is corroded.
Two techniques have successfully reduced the overconfidence bias
Prompt feedback and to get people to think of one good reason why their judgments might be wrong (force them to consider disconfirming information.)
In experiments involving 20k people Elizabeth Loftus explored mind's tendency to construct memories. in typical experiment people witness an event receive misleading information (or not) and then take a memory test
Results find a misinformation effect in which people incorporate misinformation into their memories. They recall yield sign as a stop sign, hammers as screwdrivers, vogue magazine as something else, different names, etc. Suggested misinformation may even produce false memories of supposed child sexual abuse
Which of the following are the fundamental principles in social psychology?
Social behavior is shaped by others and ourselves. Social behavior is shaped by biology. We socially construct our world view.
Values influence the types of people who are attracted to various disciplines.
Social psychology and sociology attract people who are eager to challenge tradition and more inclined to shape future than preserve past.
Jewels has just been accepted to graduate school in social psychology but she is not sure what area to do her research. Based on your reading, she could do research in:
Social relations Social influence Social thinking
In Savitsky and Gilovich's research on nervousness and public speaking, which of the following is true?
Speakers in the informed condition felt best about their speeches and the observers agreed.
Confirmation bias is a system 1 snap judgment. Our default reaction is to look for information consistent with our presupposition.
Stopping and thinking a little by using system 2 makes us less likely to commit said error
The 1969 research by Allan Wicker discovered that a person's attitude did not necessarily predict his or her behavior. Specific examples Wicker found include which of the following?
Student attitudes about cheating did not predict their own cheating behaviors. Individual descriptions of racial attitudes did not predict behaviors in an actual situation. Individual attitudes about church attendance did not predict their own Sunday attendance.
Students who exhibit excess optimism (students destined for low grades do) benefit from some self-doubt.
Students who are overconfident tend to underprepare whereas their equally able but less confident peers study harder and get better grades.
Big Dig freeway construction in Boston supposed to take 10 years but actually took 20.
Sydney opera house supposed to be done in 6 years but took 16. Less than 1/3 couples engaged to be married completed their wedding planning quickly as they expected, and only 4/10 sweethearts bought a planned valentine day gift by their self-imposed deadline.
Ethical principles developed by American Psychological association, the Canadian Psychological association and the British Psychological society mandate investigators to:
Tell potential participants enough about experiment to enable informed consent Be truthful, use deception only if essential and justified by significant purpose and not "about aspects that would affect willingness to participate" Protect participants (and bystanders if any) from harm and significant discomfort. Treat information about individual participants confidentially Debrief participants: fully explain experiment afterwards, including any deception. Only exception to rule is when feedback would be distressing, such as making participants realize they have been stupid or cruel.
To judge something by intuitively comparing it to our mental representation of a category is to use the representativeness heuristic
Tendency to presume, despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member.
False uniqueness effect
Tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and one's desirable or successful behaviors
Hypotheses
Testable proposition that describes a relationship that may exist between events serve several purposes: Allow us to test a theory by suggesting how we might try to falsify it. predictions give direction to research and sometime send investigators looking for things they may not have considered. Predictive feature of good theories can make them practical
When our ideas lead us to act in ways that produce apparent confirmation, they become what sociologist Robert Merton termed "Self-fulfilling prophecies
These are beliefs that lead to their own fulfilment.
Ivan Hernandez and Jesse Lee Preston had college students read an article arguing for the death penalty
Those who read article in dark standard font did not change their opinions but when the words were in light gray and italics, more shifted in their beliefs. Straining to read words slowed down participants thinking enough for them to consider both sides. Contemplation curtails confirmation.
How much our behavior guides our self-perceptions demonstrated by researchers at Sweden's lund university. they wondered: what would we experience if we said one thing but heard ourselves saying something else.
Through a headset, people heard themselves name various font colors such as grey when shown the word green in a gray color. Sometimes they substituted the participants voice into the recorded word. 2/3 of word switches undetected. People experienced inserted word as self-produced
University of Oregon students told that panel of psychologists interviewed 30 engineers and 70 lawyers and summarized their impressions in thumbnail descriptions:
Twice divorced, James spends most of his time hanging at country club, clubhouse bar conversation often center on regret of following father's footsteps. What is the probability that James is a Lawyer rather than an engineer. More than 80% of students surmised he was a lawyer.
Behavioral confirmation
Type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations
John Bargh reports that priming experiments have their counterparts in everyday life
Watching a scary movie alone at home can activate emotions without even realizing it that cause us to interpret furnace noises as intruder. Depressed moods can prime negative associations. But put people in good moods and their past seems more wonderful and future brighter For many psychology students, reading about psychological disorders prime how they interpret their own anxieties or gloomy moods. Reading about disease symptoms similarly prime medical students to worry about their congestion, fever or headache.
social psychology not just collection of findings but also set of strategies for answering questions. IN science, as in courts of law, personal opinions are inadmissible
When ideas are put on trial, evidence determines the verdict.
From analysis of 173 studies, bertram Malle concluded that the actor-observer difference is minimal
When our action feels intentional and admirable, we attribute it to our own good reasons, not the situation. Its especially when we behave badly that we tend to display our disposition and attribute our behavior to the situation.
Social surroundings affect out self-awareness
When we are the only member of race, gender, or nationality in group, we notice how we differ and how others are reacting to our differences
Our culture helps define our situations; standards regarding promptness, openness, and clothing vary with our culture
Whether you prefer a slim or voluptuous body depends on when and where in the world you live. Whether you define social justice as equality (all receive the same) or equity (those who earn more receive more) Whether you are expressive or reserved, casual or formal, hinges on culture and ethnicity. Whether you focus primarily on yourself, personal needs, desires and morality, or on family, clan and communal groups depend on how much you are a product of western individualism.
With precious little time to process so much information, our cognitive system is fast and frugal. it specializes in mental shortcuts.
With remarkable ease, we form impressions, make judgments and invent explanations. We do this by using heuristics
_____ theory assumes that to reduce discomfort, we justify our actions to ourselves.
_____ theory assumes that to reduce discomfort, we justify our actions to ourselves.
Review of available research reveals behavior is predicted best with
a combination of implicit and explicit (self-report) measures Both predict behavior better than one alone. Behavior predictions range from dental flossing to the fate of romantic relationships to suicide attempts. In one study, hiring managers received job applications matched on credential strength, but on one, applicants photos altered to make them appear obese. When 153 managers completed IAT those with implicit bias against obese less likely to invite those applicants for interviews
Muriel has been diagnosed with narcissism. This diagnosis tells you Muriel has ______.
a high self-esteem a self-centered attitude an inability to care for others
Experimenter bias
a phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained
in one study, teachers videotaped talking to or about unseen students for whom they had high or low expectations
a random 10 second clip enough to tell viewers, both children and adults, who was a good or poor student and how much the teacher like them.
Social psychology is
a science that studies how situations influence us, with special attention to how people view and affect one another. It is the scientific study of how people think about, influence and relate to one another
In study of 53 nations, average self-esteem score was
above midpoint in every country. One of psychology's most provocative yet firmly established conclusions is the potency of the self-serving bias
In lab studies in which two participants play a game against each other, if one participant is told that the other person is going to be competitive and non-cooperative, this usually results in the first participant _____.
acting in a hostile, aggressive manner
Roles are
actions expected of those who occupy a particular social position.
Priming
activating particular associations in memory
Individualism flourishes when people experience
affluence, mobility, urbanism, economic prosperity, and mass media, and when economies shift away from manufacturing and toward information and service industries. Such changes occurring worldwide and is increasing globally.
Andy is an excellent basketball player. His average number of shots made per game would be his principle of ________.
aggregation
Social psychological principles have the ability to influence ______.
almost all aspects of our lives
Neuroscience has found that our automatic evaluation of social stimuli is located in the brain center called the ______.
amygdala
When chinese participants asked to think about mothers, brain region associated with self activated
an area that lit up for Western participants only when they thought about themselves
spontaneous trait inference
an effortless automatic inference of a trait after exposure to someone's behavior
Culture also influence attribution error
an individualistic western worldview predisposes people to assume that people, not situations, cause events. Internal explanations more socially approved. "you can do it, positive thinking western culture. You get what you deserve and deserve what you get.
What is narcissism?
an inflated sense of self
In 2000s, compared to previous decades, books published in the united states used the word get more and give less
and used I, Me, and you, more and we and us a little less. Pattern of increasing individualism appears in books in 8 other languages worldwide
When we minimize other influences upon our attitude statements and on our beahvior
and when the attitude is specifically relevant to the observed behavior. Third condition also exists, an attitude predicts behavior better when attitude is potent.
Jeff Greenberg offered the Terror management theory
argues that humans must find ways to manage overwhelming fear of death. if self-esteem only about acceptance, he counters, why do people strive to be great rather than accepted?
Dissonance theory does not explain the overjustification effect because being paid to do what you like should not
arouse great tensions
On subjective, socially desirable and common dimensions, most people see themselves
as better than the average person. Compared with people in general, most people see themselves as more ethical, more competent at their job, friendlier, more intelligent, better looking, less prejudiced, healthier and even more insightful and less biased in self-assessments
Intuition huge but also perilous.
as we cruise though life, we carry readily available mental images of plane crashes so people are afraid of flying more than driving etc, and many drive great distances to avoid the sky.
Random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
A means of measuring individual reaction times to how quickly people associate concepts is the implicit ______ test.
association
Self presentation theory
assumes that for strategic reasons, we express attitudes that make us appear consistent
Maria has never liked coffee but loves caffeine drinks. She is displaying a negative ______ toward coffee.
attitude
In situations where our attitudes are not well formed, self-perception theory explains
attitude formation as we act and reflect we develop more readily accessible attitudes to guide our future behavior
The implicit association test (IAT) measures people's implicit ______.
attitudes
dispositional attribution
attributing behavior to the person's disposition and traits
Self-serving attributions
attributing positive outcomes to oneself and negative outcomes to something else. One of the most potent of human biases. Might be for good reason: making self-serving attributions activates brain areas associated with reward and pleasure.
The theory of how people explain another's behavior by assuming it was caused by either internal or external reasons is identified as ______.
attribution
situational attribution
attribution to factors external to an actor, such as the task, other people, or luck
A mother recognizes her child's cry from the first sound over all of the other children on a playground. This ability is due to
automatic thinking.
In one experiment, researchers showed people a dozen pieces of information about each of four potential apartments. Between people who made instant decisions and those who were given time to analyze the information, the most satisfying decisions were made by those who were distracted and unable to focus consciously on the problem. This is an example of
automatic thinking.
If a mirror is put in front of a classroom where students are taking a final exam, their own self-______ may minimize cheating on the exam.
awareness
One study found that humble bragging usually
backfires, failing to convey humility or to impress others.
Several studies that followed people as they grew older found that people who had low self-esteem as teens more likely to later
be depressed. Suggesting that low-self esteem causes depression. Correlation between 2 variables is sometimes caused by 3rdfactor. Maybe people in low self-esteem also faced poverty, sexual abuse, or had parents who used drugs. All possible causes for later studies. Study that controlled for these factors found link between self-esteem and negative outcomes disappeared, low self esteem seemingly a symptom of tough childhood.
Attitudes tend to predict behaviors when the attitude is specifically relevant to the observed ______.
behavior
As Western children grow, they learn to explain other people's
behavior in terms of personal characteristics.
When a person's social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to validate their expectations it is indicative of _______.
behavioral confirmation
A century ago, William James identified we infer our emotions by observing our bodies and our ______.
behaviors
Self-monitoring
being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one's performance to create the desired impression
Western culture assumes your life will be enriched by
believing in your power of personal control.
Collectivistic cultures also promote greater sense of
belonging and more integration between self and others.
We are
bio-psycho-social organisms. We reflect the interplay of our biological, psychological and social influences
Social neuroscience is a combination of which two perspectives below?
biological social
Just as the area of a rectangle is determined by both its length and its width,
biology and experience both shape us.
Misattributions help explain why 23% of american women said they had been forced into unwanted sexual behavior
but only 3% of american men said they had ever forced a woman into a sexual act
According to Bargh's (2017) research on priming, if you see a word like "bread" flashed quickly, what word are you more likely to detect?
butter
Studies have shown that teachers who know students are in the gifted range will ______.
call on them more often for answers look and smile at them more set higher standards for them
In most trials, evidence of a confession is videotaped from an earlier police interview. The view in the tape usually focuses exclusively on the confessor, not other people in the room (such as police). This fact is sometimes called the _____ bias.
camera perspective
Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman said that the conjunction of 2 events
cannot be more likely than either one of the events alone.
A major advantage of experiments over correlational studies is ______.
cause can be inferred
A research study has found that young adults with low self-esteem had trouble escaping a tough ______.
childhood
Values enter the picture when social psychologists choose research topics
choices often reflect current events Study of prejudice in 1940s as fascism raged in Europe, the 1950s a time of look-alike fashions and intolerance of differing views gave us studies of conformity. the 1960s with riots and rising crime rates, inspired interest in aggression, 1970s feminist movement helped stimulate wave of research on gender and sexism. Recent decades have heightened interest in culture, race, and sexual orientation.
Jorge always tells people he's not religious, but he has a Christian bumper sticker on his car. If he were to feel uncomfortable due to the inconsistency between his stated attitude and his behavior, he would experience ______.
cognitive dissonance
Megumi thinks that everyone from the United States is arrogant, but she loves her American roommate and thinks the roommate is humble. If Megumi recognizes that these two cognitions are inconsistent, she might feel the tension of ______.
cognitive dissonance
Social psychologists have identified how behavior affects our attitudes through ______.
cognitive dissonance self-perception self-presentation
Social psychology lies at the boundary with sociology
compared with sociology (study of people in groups and societies) social psychology focuses more on individuals and performs more experiments. Compared with personality psychology, social psychology focuses less on differences among individuals and more on how people view and affect one another
One of the major themes in social psychology is that humans ________ their social reality. (Select all answers that can fit)
construct shape
We respond not to reality but to reality as we ______ it.
construe
The ______ of people's thinking and acting varies more from culture to culture than does the ______ of people's thinking and acting.
content process
Dissonance uncomfortably arousing. Leads to self-persuasion after acting
contrary to one's attitudes.
What are the two essential components of every social psychological experiment?
control random assignment
Belief in our superiority can motivate us to achieve
creating a self-fulfilling prophecy and sustain hope through difficult times
Which of the following is NOT an ethical principle that researchers are required to abide by when conducting research?
creating mundane realism for the subjects
According to research, differences such as preferred body size in mates, definitions of social justice, and whether you are expressive or reserved are based primarily on ______.
culture
Troy and Christa bought a new house after looking at several. After the purchase they started to look at the negatives of their purchase and the positives of another house. Troy and Christa are experiencing dissonance after a ________.
decision
Recent research (2010) on the impact of biological influences on social interactions demonstrated that a single dose of testosterone ________ trust, and a dose of oxytocin ________ it.
decreased increased
Alcoholics Anonymous has a slogan that "if three people say you have a tail, you should take a look." This constructive criticism is a method of using ______ pessimism.
defensive
Ms. Johnson, a teacher, believes that Sheila's poor spelling test grade is due to Sheila's lack of motivation and low ability. Ms. Johnson is making a _______ attribution for the test grade.
dispositional
An aroused state of uncomfortable tension is identified as ______.
dissonance
Vaneesha has felt much tension after failing statistics. She thinks of herself as really good at math and wants a future as a statistician. Vaneesha is experiencing ______.
dissonance
Peoples snap judgements:
do better than chance at guessing whether someone is outgoing, shy, straight or gay.
In laboratory games, hostility nearly always begets hostility. If someone believes an opponent will be noncooperative, the opponent often responds that way
each party's perception of the other as aggressive resentful and vindictive induces the other to display behaviors in self-defense, thus creating a self-perpetuating cycle.
In one experiment, those higher in narcissism were more likely to
emerge as the leader of a group of students they hadn't met before. Once groups meet more than few times, popularity of narcissistic leaders declines and group realizes the leader does not have best interest at heart.
An experiment found the result, that people who were randomly assigned to give up facebook for a week
ended the week happier than those who kept using it
Raj defines social justice as "those who earn more, receive more." This is an example of the concept of
equity.
Value judgements
evaluations based on moral or ethical standards rather than objective ones
General happiness after some time of an negative event is influenced by two things
event and everything else. (Gilbert and Wilson) in focusing on negative event, we discount importance of everything that contributes to happiness and overpredict our enduring misery.
Juror decisions, marketing, smoking, and helping behavior all illustrate how social psychology is applied to ______.
everyday life
Botoxed individuals have difficulty deciphering the emotions of others, because of their own frozen expressions. This is an example of
facial feedback effect.
Sally met Samuel at a party and really enjoyed his company. When Sally learned Samuel lived in a poor neighborhood, she began to develop ______ impressions of him.
false
When one has the tendency to believe that everyone agrees with his or her opinion and has the same general outlook on life, it's called the ______.
false consensus effect
On the first day of class you are the second person to enter the classroom. The other person does not acknowledge that you came in the door and you think, "how rude." The next few times you enter the classroom the other person says hello, smiles, and engages you in conversation and you find this person quite pleasant. Your initial impression was a(n) _____.
false impression
Students perceive themselves as
far more likely to get a good job than their classmates. far more likely to own a home than their classmates. far less likely to have a heart attack before age 40 than their classmates.
Dexter is studying teens at the mall. Dexter is conducting ______.
field research
Social psychology is a young science
first experiments reported little more than century ago, first social psychology textbooks did not appear until approximately 1900. 1930s, social psychology assume current form. Until ww2, did it begin to emerge as vibrant field. until 1970s and beyond did social psychology accelerate growth in Asia, first in India then Hong Kong and Japan, and recently China and Taiwan.
After more than 800 investigations of this tendency to retrofit our prior expectations, hindsight bias
has become one of psychology's best established phenomena
Cole sees himself as being attractive, smart, and athletic. This indicates Cole has ______ self-esteem.
high
When people view suspect confessing during a police interview with camera focused on suspect, they perceived it as genuine
if camera focused on detective, they perceived it more as coerced. Camera perspective influenced people's guilt judgments even when the judge instructed them to not allow this to happen.
Achieving experimental realism sometimes requires deceiving people with plausible cover story
if person in next room is not actually receiving shocks, experimenter does not want participants to know that. "It would destroy the experimental realism"
People easily misperceive random events as confirming their beliefs
if we believe a correlation exists, we are likely to notice and recall confirming instances. if we believe that premonitions correlate with events, we notice and remember any joint occurrence with premonition and events later occurrence. If we believe that overweight women are less happy, we perceive that we have witnessed such a correlation even when we have not. We ignore or forget all times unusual events do not coincide.
Our attitudes become potent
if we think about them
Specific self-perceptions do have some influence,
if you think you're good at math, you will more likely to better at it. Although general self-0esteem does not predict academic performance very well, academic self-concept does
The ______ presumes that our emotional state will "leak out" and others will notice.
illusion of transparency
Europe has given us a major theory of social identity.
in contrast, American social psychologists focused more on individuals, (how one thinks about others, in influenced by them, and relates to them.) Australian social psychologists have drawn theories and methods from both Europe and North America
Self-concern motivates our social behavior
in hopes of making a positive impression, we agonize about our appearance
Sometimes social comparison is based on
incomplete information
Illusory optimism
increases our vulnerability - because we believe we are immune to misfortune, we fail to take important precautions.
In an experiment, the variable that is manipulated to see whether it has an effect on behavior is called the ______.
independent variable
Children of the United States being given unique names is a modern change in society and an example of a growing change in __________.
individualism
Shania has entered middle school. She is making decisions on her own without consulting her parents for input. Shania is demonstrating ______.
individualism
Teens who are identifying themselves as unique individuals with their own traits and abilities are developing ______.
individualism
Powerfully evil situations sometimes overwhelm good intentions,
inducing people to accept falsehood's or comply with cruelty. Under nazi influence, many decent people became instruments of the Holocaust. Other situations may elicit great generosity and compassion. (Hurricans hit places and they were often overwhelmed with donated items and offers of assistance)
High self esteem has benefits like fostering
initiative, resilience and pleasant feelings. But self esteem does not cause better academic achievement or superior work performance.
A reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is lacking is called ______ justification.
insufficient
Theory
integrated set of principles that explain and predict observed events. Theories are scientific shorthand
Independent self is when one creates an identity as an autonomous self, whereas ______ self is the creation of identity in relation to others.
interdependent
Tom is an extrovert and therefore he loves going to parties and talking to people. Tom's personality has influenced his behavior, an example of behavior being changed by ______.
internal forces
More than psychologists realized until recently, thinking occurs offstage and out of sight
intuitive capacities revealed by studies explain automatic processing, implicit memory, heuristics, instant emotions and nonverbal communication.
Our system of heuristics allows us to use mental shortcuts to ______.
invent explanations make judgments form impressions
Values enter picture as object of social psychological analysis
investigate how values form, why they change, how they influence attitudes and actions. (None tell us which values are "right")
Fundamental attribution error is fundamental because
it colors our explanations in basic and important ways
Incompetence feeds overconfidence
it takes competence to recognize competence (Kruger and Dunning) Students who score lowest on tests of grammar, humor, and logic are the most prone to overestimating their abilities. Those who don't know what good logic or grammar is are often unaware that they lack it.
A reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is not sufficient is the definition of insufficient _
justification
Theory of planned behavior (ajzen and fishbein)
knowing people's intended behaviors and perceived self-efficacy and control. Asking people about their intentions to engage in a behavior often increases its likelihood. Ask people if they intend to floss teeth in next 2 weeks and they are likely to do so. Ask if people intend to vote in election and most will answer yes and do so.
Among Chinese students, half said they would stop dating someone if parents disapproved compared with
less than 1/3 of American students
Soren Kierkegaard put it
life is lived forwards but understood backwards
In one experiment people anticipated interacting with someone of a different race. When led to expect that the person disliked interacting with someone of their race, they felt more anger and displayed more hostility toward the person
likewise, whether someone expects partner to be in bad mood or in loving mood may affect how they relate to them, inducing them to confirm beliefs.
Gannon is especially prone to a high rate of experiencing impact bias because he has just ______.
lost his job
Kate and Tom are dating. Kate's car breaks down and she calls Tom to come pick her up because she is stranded. If Tom chooses to go and help Kate, this is likely to
make Tom like Kate more because he helped her.
People with low-self esteem also experience more problems later in life
make less money, abuse drugs, and more likely to be depressed and engage in acts of self-harm like cutting.
Mood-related thoughts may distract us from complex thinking about something else. Thus, when emotionally aroused, we are more likely to
make snap judgments and evaluate others based on stereotypes.
Studies of over 90k people across 22 cultures reveal that most humans are more disposed to optimism than pessimism.
many of us have what researcher Neil Weinstein terms an unrealistic optimism about future life events. in 2006-2008 worldwide poll, most people expected lived to improve more in next 5 years than they did in past 5 years.
Self-serving bias can contribute toward ______.
marital discord worker dissatisfaction bargaining impasses
Self-serving attributions contribute to
marital discord, working dissatisfaction and bargaining impasses.
Spotlight effect
means seeing ourselves at center stage, thus intuitively overestimating the extent to which others' attention is aimed at us
Sam is asked to testify in a court hearing as an eyewitness to a robbery. Sam's testimony is relying on his construction of ______.
memory
Schemes
mental templates by which we organize our worlds
Evolutionary psychologists ask how natural selection
might shape our actions when dating and mating, hating and hurting, caring and sharing. Nature endows us with an enormous capacity to learn and to adapt to varied environments. We are sensitive and responsible to our social context.
Attitudes tend to predict behaviors when we ________ other influences on our attitude statements and behaviors.
minimize
Repeated findings in experiments show that when witnessing an event and then repeatedly receiving misleading information about that event, an individual will incorporate the errors into his or her memory. This is referred to as the ______ effect.
misinformation
People underestimate predictions in their activity goals as a result of ______.
misremembering previous tasks not being realistic planning fallacy
Historically, sometimes soldiers must complete actions they think are unethical. If they rationalize and adjust their attitudes to fit their actions, and both the actions and attitudes continue to influence each other, this could eventually lead to ______.
moral numbness
Cultures can change over time and many seem to be growing
more individualistic.
College students who spent more time on facebook were
more likely to believe that everyone was having more fun than everyone else.
Even men convicted of violent crimes rated themselves as
more moral, kind and trustworthy than most people
Studies of how implanted ideas and images can prime our interpretations and recall illustrates home lessons
much of our social information processing is automatic. It is unintentional, out of sight, and happens without our conscious awareness, (system 1)
According to the principle of aggregation, Jane's strong sense of religious belief and spirituality indicate that she would ______.
never miss a weekly worship
When induced to give spoken or written support to something they doubt, people will often feel bad about their deceit
nevertheless, they begin to believe what they are saying (assuming they were not bribed or coerced into doing so) When there is no compelling external explanation for one's words, saying becomes believing.
Jennifer Crocker and Connie Wolfe said, When we feel good about domains, looks smarts or whatever, important to our self-esteem
one person may have self-esteem that is highly contingent on doing well in school and being attractive, another may have one that is contingent on being loved by god and adhering to moral standards. The first person will have high self-esteem when made to feel smart and good-looking, the second when made to feel moral
Harmful acts shape the self, but so do moral acts
our character is reflected in what we do when we think no one is looking.
Our self-concept makes use of our ability to know ______. (Select all that apply - at least two answers are correct)
our gender behaviors who we are our previous experiences
Evolutionary psychologists remind us
our inherited human nature predisposes us to behave in ways that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce. we carry genes of traits that enabled them to survive and reproduce. Our behvaior aims to send our DNA into the future.
Social psychology studies
our thinking, influences and relationships.
John is a leader in his career; he speaks as an expert in all areas of the company. John's impression of expertise is an example of the ______ phenomena.
overconfidence
In the spotlight effect, we intuitively ______ the extent to which others' attention is aimed at us.
overestimate
Impact bias
overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events. Faster than we expect, emotional traces of good tidings cease.
Stacy enjoyed playing with the neighbors' children. When Stacy turned 13 years old, the neighbors started bribing her with money to play with their children. Stacy began to feel confused about why she was performing the action—for fun, or for the money? This confusion is called ______.
overjustification
A correlation has been found of low self-esteem in people who have been faced with ______.
parental drug use personal sexual abuse poverty as a child
Studies presented people with appealing task with possible $30 prize and a dull task with no rewards
participants had to do one of the tasks and assign a supposed second participant to the other only 1/20 believed assigning the appealing task with no reward to themselves was the moral thing to do, yet 80% did so.
Fundamental attribution error occurs across varied cultures
people in Eastern Asian cultures somewhat more sensitive than westerners to importance of situations. When aware of social context, less inclined to assume others' behavior corresponds to traits
Ideological echo chambers
people often choose their news sources and Facebook friends to align with their beliefs
The best way to be more realistic about how long tasks will take is to look in the past
people underestimate how long something wil ltake because they misremember previous tasks as taking less time. Estimate how long each step in project wil ltake.
Self's capacity for action has limits, note Roy Baumeister:
people who exert self-control by forcing themselves to eat radishes rather than chocolates or suppressing forbidden thoughts, subsequently quit faster when given unsolvable puzzles. People who tried to control emotional response to upsetting movie exhibit decreased physical stamina, (Letting go of hand grip after less time, also become more aggressive and likely to fight with their partner) People who have exerted self-control on something else also become less restrained in sexual thoughts and behaviors. When asked to express intimacy with partner, those with depleted willpower more likely to passionately kiss their partner and even remove some clothing right there in the lab.
Abraham Maslow known for descriptions of self-actualized people
people who with their needs for survival, safety, belonging, and self-esteem satisfied, go on to fulfill human potential. (guided by own values)
When we assume that we make similar inferences when we observe our own behavior, we are demonstrating self-______ theory.
perception
Belief perseverance
persistence of one's initial conceptions, such as when the basis for one's belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives
In collectivist cultures, people less often perceive others in terms of ______ dispositions.
personal
Sondra is very shy and she hates giving speeches in class. This is an example of Sondra's behavior being influenced by ______.
personality
A teacher may wonder whether a child's underachievement is due to lack of motivation and ability (internal or dispositional attribution) or to
physical and social circumstances (external or situational attribution)
Our inner attitudes affect our outer behavior
political attitudes influence our voting behavior. attitudes over alcohol influence susceptibility to peer pressure to drink. attitudes toward poor influence willingness to help them
As time passes, narcissists antagonism and aggression toward others makes them less and less
popular with peers. Can be problematic on social media, where they are both more active and more popular.
Personal attitudes not the only determinant of behavior, the situation matters as well. Situational influences can be enormous enough to induce people to violate their deepest convictions.
predicting behavior is almost impossible. For example, people's general attitude toward religion doesn't do a very good job at predicting whether they will go to religious services during the coming week (attendance also influenced by weather or the religious leader, how one is feeling and so forth.) but religious attitudes predict the total quantity of religious behaviors over time across many situations. Findings define a principle of aggregation
social relations
prejudice aggression attraction and intimacy helping
Sara spends many dollars annually on clothes, cosmetics, and her hair to make a good impression on others. Sara's actions provide an example of self-______.
presentation
Barb was home alone watching a scary movie. Barb had trouble sleeping as all of the house sounds kept her awake. Barb was affected through _____.
priming
Unaware of hidden values, many people defer to the professional
professional psychologists cannot answer questions of ultimate moral obligation, purpose and direction and life's meaning
optimism beats pessimism in
promoting self-efficacy, health and well-being.
Hidden values seep into
psychology's research-based concepts
When everyone participating in a survey has an equal chance of being selected, it is called a ______.
random sample
Wilson and Gilbert say people neglect the speed and power of coping mechanisms which include
rationalizing, discounting, forgiving, and limiting emotional trauma.
In the construction of memories, research shows that ______.
recall is often biased by current knowledge and beliefs
The word role is borrowed from the theater and
refers to actions expected of those who occupy a particular social position. When enacting new social roles, may first feel phony but our unease seldom lasts.
Self-presentation
refers to our wanting to present a desired image both to an external audience and to an internal audience, (ourselves)
Susan Fiske suggests that we can expect future research to
reflect today's and tomorrow's issues, like immigration, gender fluidity, income inequality and aging.
Experience has taught us that when everything is going great, something will go wrong, and that when life is dealing us terrible blows, we can usually look forward to better things. This is most likely due to
regression toward the average.
many men believe women are flattered by
repeated requests for dates which women view more as harassment
Replication
repeating a research study, often with different participants in different settings to determine whether finding could be reproduced.
John is a 23-year-old male who is an atheist and a drug user. You are asked to guess what kind of music he likes. You guess heavy metal music. Your guess is based on the _____ heuristic.
representativeness
Perception and memory studies show that we are more aware of the
results of our thinking than of its processes. Creative scientists and artists often cannot report the though processes that produced their insights but they have superb knowledge of the results.
Contrary to notion that rewards always increase motivation, unnecessary rewards can have hidden cost
rewarding people for doing what they already enjoy may lead them to attribute their action to reward. This would undermine self-perception that they do it because they like it.
When Marta meets Dan for the first time, she tells him: "I am a school teacher. I'm married and have three children: Sally, Roger, and Evan. I love skiing." These statements are all part of her
self-concept.
Children and adults with strong feelings of ______ are more persistent, less anxious, and less depressed.
self-efficacy
Handicaps protect both
self-esteem and public image by allowing us to attribute failures to something temporary or external rather than to a lack of talent or ability
Behavioral confirmation is a form of ________ when individuals' social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations.
self-fulfilling prophecy
Protecting one's self-image with behaviors that create a handy excuse for later failure is called
self-handicapping.
Doing something that embarrasses us or makes us feel foolish in front of others and then justifying the behavior afterward exemplifies which theory?
self-justification theory
Most individuals continually monitor their own behavior and note how others react, and then adjust accordingly. This action is referred to as ______.
self-monitoring
President George W. Bush, in the years after launching the Iraq war, said that, "knowing what I know today, I'd make the same decision again." This statement is an example of ______.
self-persuasion
Taking credit for success but avoiding blame for failures, having unrealistic optimism, and believing that we're better than average are all examples of ______.
self-serving bias
Kevin also does not start his English term paper until the weekend before it is due; however, when he calls his classmate Samantha on Monday to see how she is doing on the assignment, he feels much better about his procrastination because he is already working on the final draft (and she is still struggling with the rough draft). What term would best describe Kevin's thinking?
social comparison
Ralph received a promotion at work, but he still isn't making as much money as Fran, who works in the same department with Ralph. Ralph feels like even though his title is higher than Fran's, his work isn't worth as much to the company because they aren't paying him as much as Fran. Ralph's thinking exemplifies
social comparison.
Europe has given researchers a major theory of _____.
social identity
Interdependent self is embedded in
social memberships. Conversation is less direct and more polite and people focus more on gaining social approval.
How the brain functions during aggressive situations is a question that is best investigated by ______.
social neuroscience
The subfield of ______ rests at the border between the field of psychology and the field of sociology.
social psychology
What is the meaning of human life, what should be our purpose, what is our destiny?
social psychology does not give answer, but method. Social psychology all about life, (your life, beliefs, attitudes, and relationships.)
In the 1980s, Marxist critics called attention to social psychology's competitive, individualist biases—specifically the assumption that conformity is bad and that individual rewards are good. This is an example of
social representations
Individuals who believe that social justice is defined as equality are more likely to have had their ideology shaped by
socialism
Social representation
society's widely held ideas and values, including assumptions and cultural ideologies. Social representations help us make sense of our world
Which of the following theorists did not name the phenomenon known as mundane realism in their 1985 research?
solomon Asch
As social creatures, we respond to our immediate contexts.
sometimes power of social situation leads us to act contrary to our expressed attitudes.
Self-schemas
specific beliefs by which you define yourself. Our perceiving ourselves, powerfully affect how we perceive, remember, and evaluate others and ourselves. (If being an athlete is one of the self-schemas, you will tend to notice others' bodies and skills. )
When we see ourselves as being on stage for others to observe, we are demonstrating the _____ effect.
spotlight
`Self-esteem can serve as a gauge of
status with others, growing higher when we are respected as well as liked.
A student may fear the failure of a major exam, so he or she will use self-handicapping behaviors such as ______.
staying out partying the night before the exam
Viewing things in a more immediate, realistic way often helps.
students in one experiment wildly optimistic in predicting test performance when test hypothetical, but surprisingly accurate when test imminent.
We know more than we know we know.
studies of unconscious information processing confirm our limited access to what's going on in our minds.
experimental research
studies that seek clues to cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or more factors (independent variables) while controlling others (holding them constant)
self-esteem
sum of all our self-views across various domains
The illusion of transparency
tend to believe our emotions are more obvious than they are
Fundamental attribution error (ross)
tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon others' behavior
Facial feedback effect
tendency of facial expressions to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger or happiness.
Self-serving bias
tendency to perceive oneself favorably.
"To feel our lives are not in vain, we must continually pursue self-esteem by meeting the standards of our societies." This type of thinking is reflective of
terror management theory.
A stranger goes straight to the front of a long line waiting to speak with a customer service representative at a department store. In applying the fundamental attribution error, you would most likely think
that stranger is a rude person.
Cognitive dissonance theory assumes
that to reduce discomfort we justify our actions to ourselves.
A teacher divides her class into groups of four students and randomly chooses one of them to write review questions for an upcoming exam. The student who writes the questions then quizzes the other three students in each group. Afterward, everyone in class agrees that the students who wrote the questions are the smartest. This error in logic is a result of not taking the situation into account, otherwise known as
the fundamental attribution error
"Yeah, I know he was assigned that position for the debate, but, you know, I think he really believes it." This type of thinking illustrates
the fundamental attribution error.
While watching Jeopardy, Tyler announces that he is really impressed with how smart Alex Trebek is. Tyler's perception that Alex Trebek actually knows all the answers to the questions is an example of
the fundamental attribution error.
Jenna likes Micah. When Micah stops Jenna in the hallway to ask her about a class assignment, Jenna is sure that Micah will know how she feels about him. What concept does this exemplify?
the illusion of transparency
Western literature, such as The Iliad and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, celebrates which of the following characteristics?
the independent self
When an individual construes one's identity as an autonomous self, this is known as
the independent self.
Which of the following terms did sociologist Charles H. Cooley create to describe our use of how we think others perceive us as a mirror for perceiving ourselves?
the looking-glass self
In studies of self-esteem, even low-scoring people respond in
the midrange of possible scores. Someone with low-self-esteem responds to statements such as I have good ideas with a qualifying adjective such as somewhat or sometimes.
Samantha has known for weeks that she has a major term paper due in her English class. She waits until the weekend before the paper is due to start the assignment, because she assumes that she will have plenty of time to write it if she spends all day Saturday and Sunday on it. By Monday, she doesn't even have her rough draft done. What term would best describe Samantha's thinking?
the planning fallacy
Carmela sees a middle-aged man in a suit walking out of a lawyer's office and thinks he is one of the lawyers at the firm. She is using
the representativeness heuristic.
self-handicapping
the strategy whereby people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so that if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming themselves
Self-serving bias involves
the tendency to take credit for something when succeeding and to blame others when one has failure experiences.
Planning fallacy
the tendency to underestimate how long it will take to complete a task
Attribution theory
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people
think about one another influence one another relate to one another
Heuristics are
thinking strategies that serve as mental shortcuts.
Social interaction is a careful balance of looking good while not looking too good.
this is particularly true in collectivist cultures, where modesty is default strategy to avoid offending others. When there was no risk of offense, Japanese participants self-enhanced as much as Americans.
Mark Leary observed the self social chameleons know often differs from self they show.
those who score high in self-monitoring less committed to relationships and more likely to be dissatisfied in marriages. Post more online and receive more likes from friends
For some people, conscious self presentation is a way of life, they continually monitor their own behavior and not how others react, then adjust social performance to gain desired effect
those who score on high scale of self-monitoring act like social chameleons adjust themselves and behavior in response to external situations. in doing such, express attitudes they don't really hold true and less likely to express or act on own attitudes.
In Festinger and Carlsmith's (1959) experiment in which they asked individuals to "lie" and tell the next participant how exciting the experiment turning knobs was, which group reported on a follow-up questionnaire the most satisfaction in their knob-turning experience?
those who were paid $1 to lie and had insufficient justification for their actions
In collectivistic culture, goal of social life is to harmonize with and support one's communities, not
to enhance one's individual self and make independent choices.
We see making a good impression as way to gain social and material rewards
to feel better about ourselves even to become more secure in our social identities.
Attribution theory analyzes how we explain people's behavior and what we infer from it.
we attribute people's behavior to internal cause (disposition or mental state) and sometimes external causes (something about the situation)
According to Daryl Bem's self-perception theory,
we examine our behavior to reveal our attitudes.
Tversky and Kahneman noted another way which illusion of control may arise
we fail to recognize the statistical phenomenon of regression toward the average
Dissonance theory successfully explains what happens when we act contrary to clearly defined attitudes.
we feel tension, so we adjust our attitudes to reduce it. It then explains attitude change.
Attitudes follow our behavior which means we often believe strongly in what
we have committed ourselves or suffered for.
Illusory intuition
we have great capacity for misrepresentations, fantasies, and false beliefs. Perception researchers study visual illusions for what they reveal about our normal information processing. Researchers want to give us a map of everyday social thinking with the hazards clearly marked
To understand social behavior
we must consider both, under the skin (biology) and between the skins (social) influences.
Daniel Gilbert and Timothy Wilson noted
we often Miswant
Racial and political behaviors help shape our social consciousness:
we stand up for what we believe and also believe in what we have stood up for
People have an irresistible urge to explain behavior
we want to attribute behavior to a cause and make it seem orderly, predictable and controllable. People react differently to a situation because they think differently.
In experiment, those who believed they killed 5 bugs
went on to kill significantly more bugs during an ensuing 20 second period.
self-concept
what we know and believe about ourselves
Dissonance theory cannot explain attitude changes that occur without dissonance
when people argue a position that is in line with opinion, they don't experience dissonance arousal yet still adjust their attitudes toward what they've expressed.
Self-interest colors our social judgment
when problems arise in close relationships, we attribute more responsibility to our partners than to ourselves. When things go well, we see ourselves as more responsible.
Fearing failure, people might handicap themselves by partying half the night before job interview or playing video games instead of studying before exam
when self-image is tied up with performance, it can be more self-deflating to try hard and fail than to procrastinate and have a ready excuse. If we fail while handicapped, we have an excuse and can cling to sense of competence. If we succeed under such conditions, it can only boost our self-image.
In study, Edward Jones and Victor harris had Duke university students read debaters speeches supporting or attacking Cuba's leader at the time, fidel castro
when told debater chose which position to take, students assumed it reflected person's own attitude. When students told that the debate coach was assigned position, students inferred that the debater had assigned leanings.
Attribution theorists pointed out that we observe others from a different perspective than we observe ourselves
when we act, environment commands out attention. When we watch another person act, that person occupies our attention and the environment becomes invisible.
Principles of social thinking, social influence and social relations have implications for human health and well-being, for judicial procedures and juror decisions in courtrooms, and for influencing behaviors that
will enable an environmentally sustainable human future.
Power of situation also appears in widely different views of same-sex relationships.
(where you live most likely affects if you oppose or accept such relationships)
Does our social behavior depend more on the situations we face or on how we construe them?
- Happily married people attribute spouse's acid remark to something external (bad day) Unhappy married couple will attribute remark to mean disposition and respond with counterattack.
Regarding the relationship between a person's attitudes and behavior, which of the following is not completely accurate?
A person's attitude will always predict their behavior.
______ refer to beliefs and feelings related to a person or an event and the resulting behavior tendency.
Attitudes
Icek Ajzen and Martin Fishbein pointed out, when the measured attitude is a general one and the behavior is very specific, we should not expect a close correspondence between words and actions.
Attitudes did not predict behavior in most studies, but attitudes did predict behavior in all 26 studies in which measured attitude was specific to situation. Attitudes general concept of "health fitness" poorly predict specific exercise and dietary practices, but an individual's attitudes about costs and benefits of jogging are fairly strong predictor of whether he or she jogs regularly.
______ management will be effective only when the authority is present, because people are unlikely to internalize forced behavior.
Authoritarian
Favorable and unfavorable evaluative reactions toward something is a description of a person's
Blank 1: attitude
According to Wicker (1969) people's expressed attitudes hardly predicted their
Blank 1: behavior or behaviors
When the persistence of one's initial conceptions are discredited, but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives, this persistence is identified as _ _.
Blank 1: belief Blank 2: perseverance
Research has shown that if we say it, we will (believe/disbelieve)
Blank 1: believe
Abby is participating in a survey. She was told that everyone in the survey had an equal chance of being selected. The type of sample that Abby is part of is a _ _.
Blank 1: random Blank 2: sample, assignment, selection, or sampling
When researchers repeat a study several times in different settings to see whether the results stay consistent each time, they are completing _ studies.
Blank 1: replication
Mrs. Anderson teaches her first-grade students the national anthem. This practice of publicly promoting patriotism in individual schoolchildren is an example of the power of ______.
a social movement
Confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
The beliefs we take for granted, known as social representations,
are often our most important yet least questioned convictions
AS we interpret our experiences and construct memories, our automatic system 1 intuitions
are sometimes wrong, and we display overconfidence
Many people assume that most potent social indoctrination comes from
brainwashing
Implicit association test (IAT)
computer-driven assessment of implicit attitudes. Test uses reaction times to measure people's automatic associations between attitude objects and evaluative words. Easier pairings and faster responses, taken to indicate stronger unconscious associations. One can measure implicit attitudes by assessing whether people take longer to associate positive words .
individualism
concept of giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications
Cullen murphy said
day after day social scientists go out into the world, Day after day they discover people's behavior is pretty much what you'd expect
Jennifer Crocker found that students whose self-worth contingent on external sources
experienced more stress, anger, relationship problems, drug and alcohol use, eating disorders than did those whose self-worth rooted in more internal sources like personal virtues.
Deception may be necessary to achieve
experimental realism
James Laird (1974)
experiments on facial expressions suggest a way for you to experience it.
Nisbett and Ross contended that laboratory procedures overestime our intuitive powers
experiments usually present clear evidence and warn people that their reasoning is being tested. Life does not do this.
Self-perception theory
Assumes that our actions are self-revealing: when uncertain about feelings or beliefs, we look to our behavior, much as anyone else would.
moods infuse judgements
good and bad moods trigger memories of experiences associated with those moods. Moods color our interpretations of current experiences and by distracting us, moods can also influence how deeply or superficially we think when making judgements
After the 9/11 attacks, it seemed obvious the United States had missed major signals that pointed to the impending disaster. This perspective reflects
hindsight bias
Errors in judging the future's foreseeability and in remembering our past combine to create
hindsight bias
experimental research, one or more factors are _ while other factors are held constant.
Blank 1: manipulated, independent, tested, changed, variable, or varied
Jill acts quietly in church but is a party animal when drinking with her friends at the bar. She changes her behavior to fit in with social expectations; thus, she is engaging in self-_
Blank 1: monitoring
Kendra is designing an experiment that will reflect everyday life, at least superficially. Kendra's experiment will reflect _ realism
Blank 1: mundane
The degree that an experiment is superficially similar to everyday life is called _ _
Blank 1: mundane Blank 2: realism
Having an inflated sense of self is identified as _
Blank 1: narcissism or narcissistic
Research in 1999 by Kruger and Dunning found that incompetence feeds
Blank 1: overconfidence
The tendency to be more confident than correct is identified as the _ phenomenon.
Blank 1: overconfidence
People often construct their social world to explain behavior and make it seem orderly, _ and _.
Blank 1: predictable Blank 2: controllable
Beliefs about sexual preference, marriage, and education all reflect a person's
Blank 1: values
Embodied cognition
Mutual influence of bodily sensations on cognitive preferences and social judgments. Eating alone can make one feel cold (social exclusion)
Would people be cruel if ordered?
Nazi Germany followed orders. Put prisoners on trains herded people into crowded showers and poisoned them. In an experiment with people ordered to administer increasing levels of electric shock to someone who was having difficulty learning series of words, nearly 2/3 of people fully complied
In book, Geography of thought, Richard Nisbett contends that collectivism also results in different ways of thinking.
Nisbett and Masuda conclude that East Asians think more holistically, perceiving and thinking about objects and people in relationship to one another and to their environment.
As self-perception theory implies, unanticipated reward does not diminish intrinsic interest
People still attribute actions to own motivations. When rightly administered, rewards may boost creativity.
The text notes that most research participants are from "WEIRD" cultures, which represent just 12 percent of humanity. What is a "WEIRD" culture?
Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic
Mine and body are one grand system
hormones affect how we feel and act, testosterone decreases trust, dose of oxytocin increases it. Feeling left out elevates blood pressure, social support strengthens disease-fighting immune system.
One of the most common errors in behavior prediction is underestimating
how long it will take to complete a task (planning fallacy)
Social thinking
how we perceive ourselves and others what we believe judgments we make our attitudes
A testable prediction is also known as
hypothesis
people imagine something they want and may be disappointed when they discover how much they require daily structure, intellectual stimulation, or regular infusions of poptarts.
impact bias may come into play
In a 2006-2008 worldwide poll (Deaton, 2009), most people expected their lives to
improve more in the next five years than it had in the past five years.
David prepares his cereal and accidentally puts the cereal away in the refrigerator and the milk in the cupboard. David's action is an example of ______ thinking.
impulsive automatic
Aaron's parents are going through a divorce, and his grades are going down. This is due to the physical and social circumstances in his life, a ______ attribution.
situational
Neuroscientists have explored brain activity that underlies our constant sense of being oneself
most studies suggest important role for right hemisphere. If one puts that to sleep (anesthetic to right carotid artery) you may have trouble recognizing your own face
Our self-esteem fuel gauge can ______.
motivate us to self-improvement motivate greater sensitivity alert us to social rejection
Leon Festinger proposed the theory that involved the idea
of arousal as central to dissonance.
Neuroscientists have identified brain centers that produce our automatic, implicit reactions
one area deep in the brain (amygdala, center of threat perception) is active as we automatically evaluate social stimuli. For example, White people who show strong unconscious racial bias on the IAT also exhibit high amygdala activation when viewing unfamiliar black faces
Teams of researchers formed international collaborative efforts to replicate results of published research papers
one effort sought to replicate 100 studies published in 3 prominent psychology journals, about half of the studies produced effects similar in strength to original study. Another replication effort (many labs project) involving more studies on each question found more encouraging results, with 85% of studies replicating. Such replication forms essential part of good science. Any single study provides some information, its on estimate. better is the aggregated data from multiple.
Independent self
one's identity as a unique individual with particular abilities, traits, values and dreams, remains fairly constant.
Which of the following is NOT a purpose of hypotheses?
provide scientific shorthand
Field research
research done in natural, real-life settings outside the laboratory
Scientists and philosophers agree
science not purely objective. Scientists do not simply read the book of nature, they interpret it using own mental categories. numbers do not speak for themselves, we interpret them
Jake's teacher kept telling him he could get an A in the class. His teacher helped Jake believe in himself and he did get the grade. Jake accomplished his ______-fulfilling prophecy.
self
A sense that one is competent and effective is called
self-efficacy.
What is the scientific study of how we think about one another?
social cognition
When we witness a peer's performance, we cannot resist implicitly comparing ourselves
we may privately take some pleasure in a peer's failure, especially when it happens to someone we envy and when we don't feel vulnerable to such misfortune ourselves
Research suggests that the interdependent self is embedded in _ _
Blank 1: Social Blank 2: Memberships
In what year did social scientists testify before the U.S. Supreme Court in favor of desegregating public schools?
1954
Social psychology faces 2 contradictory criticisms
1: that is is trivial because it documents the obvious. 2: that it is dangerous because findings can be used to manipulate people
In Twenge's (2017) research on texting, she found the average 18-year-old spends ________ hours a day texting.
2
_ psychology is the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another.
Blank 1: Social
Emphasis on perceived choice and responsibility implies decisions produce dissonance. When faced with important decisions, we are sometimes torn between 2 equally attractive alternatives
After making important decisions, you can reduce dissonance by upgrading the chosen alternative and downgrading the unchosen option.
The founding father of self-efficacy is ______.
Albert Bandura
Names also show shift to individualism
American parents now less likely to give children common name and more likely to help them stand out with an unusual name. Although nearly 20% of all boys born in 1990 received one of the most common names, less than 8% received such a common name by 2016, with numbers similar to girls. Today you don't have to be the child of a celebrity to get a name as unique as North ,Suri, or Apple
Thinking is partly automatic (System 1: impulsive, effortless, and without our awareness)
And partly controlled (system 2: reflective, deliberate, and conscious)
To some extent our attitudes matter. WE can think ourselves into a way of acting
And sometimes, behavior determines attitudes, we sometimes stand up for what we believe and we also come to believe in what we stand for.
I can watch myself and my actions just like an outsider
Anne Frank.
______ bias our perceptions and interpretations, and ______ bias our recall.
Before-the-fact judgments; after-the-fact judgments
______ is the phenomenon in which people cling to their initial beliefs and the reasons why a belief might be true, even when the basis for the belief is discredited.
Belief perseverance
Which of the following historical figures tested the idea that doing a favor engenders liking?
Benjamin Franklin
Paul Lazarsfeld reviewed studies and offered sample with interpretive comments:
Better educated soldiers adjusted less easily than less-educated (intellectuals less prepared for battle stresses than street-smart) Southern soldiers coped better with hot South Sea Island climate than northern soldiers (southerners more accustomed to hot weather) White low ranking soldiers more eager for promotion than black low-ranking solders (years of oppression take a toll on achievement motivation) Southern blacks preferred southern to northern white officers (southern officers more experienced and skilled in interacting with blacks) ********The opposites of all of this is true
The heart has its reasons which does not know:
Blaise Pascal said.
False impressions, interpretations, and beliefs can produce serious consequences. Even small biases can have profound social effects when making important social judgments
Cognitive biases creep into sophisticated scientific thinking. "No one can see their own errors"
Why do people observe themselves in self-enhancing ways?
Comparing ourselves with others requires us to notice, assess and recall their behaviors and ours. This creates opportunities for flaws in our information processing.
Which theorist proposed the concept of self-perception theory?
Daryl Bem
Julie Norem calls defensive pessimism
Dash of realism, can sometimes save us from perils of unrealistic optimism. Anticipates problems and motivates effective coping. "Be prepared for danger while staying in peace"
Nothing you focus on will make as much difference as you think
David schkade and Daniel Kahneman.
Experiments should have experimental realism
Degree to which an experiment absorbs and involves all participants
Popular song lyrics also became more likely to use
I and me and less likely to use We and Us between 1980 and 2007. Norm shifting from sappy love song of the 1980s Endless love 1981, to the celebration of the 2000s.
Implicit attitude researchers offered various IAT assessments online.
IMplicit biases are pervasive, 80% people show more implicit dislike for elderly compared with young People differ in implicit bias: depending on group memberships, conscious attitudes and bias in their immediate environment, some people exhibit more bias than others people often unaware of implicit biases.
Researchers tested character by giving children temptations when it seems no one is watching
In the dramatic experiment, Jonathan Freedman introduced elementary school children to an enticing battery-controlled robot, instructing them not to play with it while he was out of the room. He used severe threat with half of the kids and a mild with others, but sufficient to deter children. Several weeks later a different researcher with no apparent relation to earlier events, left each child to play in the same room with same toys. 3/4 of those who heard severe threat freely played with robot, and only a third of those given mild threat played with it. Mild threat strong enough to elicit desired behavior yet mild enough to leave them with sense of choice. Having earlier chosen consciously not to play with toy, only children with mild threat internalized their decisions. Moral action when chosen and not coerced affects moral thinking
Social relationships help define our sense of self
In varied relationships, we have varying selves
Which of the following are true about experimental realism?
It is the degree to which an experiment involves the participants. It may involve deception.
To avoid the camera perspective bias, upon whom or what should a confession videotape be focused?
It should focus equally on the suspect and the law enforcement officer.
William James proposed similar self-perception process for experienced emotion.
James suggested we infer our emotions by observing bodies and behaviors.
The naked intellect is an extraordinary inaccurate instrument
Madeline Engle
Another way to induce people to focus on their inner convictions is to make them self-aware, perhaps by having them act in front of a mirror
Making people self-aware promotes consistency between words and deeds.
Which of the following is an example of correlational research?
Measuring whether GPA and class attendance are related
We have tendency to enhance our self-images by overestimating or underestimating how much others think ad act as we do.
On matters of opinion, we find support for our positions by overestimating how much others agree. This is called the false consensus effect
Emotional reactions are often instantaneous, happening before there is time for deliberate thinking
One neural shortcut takes information from eye/ear to brains sensory switchboard (thalamus) and out its threat detection center (amygdala) before thinking cortex has had any chance to intervene.
Allen Wicker reviewed several dozen research studies covering a variety of people, attitudes, and behaviors. and WIcker offered a shocking conclusion:
People's expressed attitudes hardly predicted their varying behaviors. Students attitudes toward cheating bore little relation to the likelihood of actually cheating. Attitudes toward church were only modestly linked with weekly worship and attendance Self-described racial attitudes provided little clue to behaviors in actual situations. Many people say they are upset when someone makes racist remakes but when they hear racism like someone using N word, their are indifferent
Using the belief perseverance policy, consider a person who has a risk-prone personality trait. He or she would be most suited in which of the following occupations? (Select all that apply)
Police officer Firefighter
Which of the following are included in our personal self-esteem?
Possible selves Self-schemas Self-evaluation
Which topics are social psychologists likely to study?
Prejudice Attitudes Persuasion
Researchers have documented ways that people self-handicap. Fearing failure, people will:
Reduce preparation for important individual athletic events give opponent an advantage perform poorly at beginning of task to not create unreachable expectations. not try as hard as they could during a tough, ego-involving task
Insufficient justification
Reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is insufficient.
Lee Ross, Craig Anderson planted a falsehood in peoples minds and then tried to discredit it.
Research reveals it is difficult to demolish a falsehood after a person conjures up a rationale for it. Each experiment first implanted a belief either by proclaiming it to be true or by showing the participants some anecdotal evidence. Participants were asked to explain WHY it was true, and finally the researchers discredited the initial information by telling participants the truth: The information was manufactured for the experiment and half of the participants in experiment received opposite information. False belief survived 75% intact, because participants retained invented explanations for the belief, even if it was false, it was still believed to be true.
overjustification effect
Result of bribing people to do what they already like doing, they may see actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing.
Martha doesn't want her young son to touch the heating stove. The stove is too large to be moved out of his way, so he has to learn not to touch it—even when Martha isn't looking. Based on the concept of insufficient justification, which of the following approaches is likely to be most effective in helping the boy internalize the choice not to play with the stove?
She should use the threat of a mild punishment if he chooses to touch it.
Difficulty of determining cause and effect in correlational studies often prompts social psychologists to create laboratory simulations of everyday processes when this is feasible and ethical
Simulations akin to wind tunnels. aeronautical engineers do not begin by observing how flying objects perform in natural experiments. Variations in both atmospheric conditions and flying objects too complex. instead, construct simulated reality where they can manipulate wind conditions and wing structures. Due to simulated reality, experiments have 2 major advantages over correlational studies: random assignment and control.
Jonathon Brown and Keith Dutton argue that the bottom up view of self-esteem is not the whole story
The causal arrow goes the other way. People who value themselves in general way, those with high self, more likely to value looks, abilities and so forth, like new parents who loving their infant, delight in fingers toes and hair. Parents do not first evaluate infants fingers and then decide how much to value whole body.
Independent variables
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
dependent variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
In most situations, our system 1 snap generalizations "that's dangerous" are adaptive
The speed of these intuitive guides promotes our survival. The biological purpose of thinking is not to make us right, its to keep us alive in some situations haste makes error.
A student fails a test and the teacher tries to guess what happened. According to attribution theory, which potential causes below are dispositional (and not situational)?
The student is not intelligent. The student did not care about the test and thus didn't study.
Rosy retrospection
The tendency to rate past events more positively than they had actually rated them when the event occurred.
A ______ is an integrated set of principles that explain and predict observed events.
Theory
Self-perception theory proposed by Daryl Bem,
Theory when we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them as much as would someone observing us, by looking at our behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs. assumes that we make similar inferences when we observe our own behavior. When attitudes weak or ambiguous.
In subtle ways, experimenters words, tone of voice and gestures may call forth desired responses.
To minimize demand characteristics (cues that seem to demand certain behavior) experimenters typically standardize their instructions or even use a computer to present them.
Handful of unreliable findings, some researchers who have committed fraud by faking data, have raised concerns about the reproducibility of medical and psychological research
Today's science is placing greater value on replication studies. Researchers must precisely explain their stimuli and procedures so that others can match them. Many now file methods and detailed plan data in public, online, open science archive
Culture is composed of which of the following?
Traditions Ideas Attitudes
Within attribution theory, people explain others' behaviors by trying to find a cause for those behaviors. Which of the following are possible causes?
Traits Attitudes Motives
If every psychological event (thought emotion behavior) simultaneously a biological event, then we can also examine the neurobiology that underlies social behavior
What brain areas enable our experiences of love and contempt, helping and aggression, perception and belief? Do people who are shy (vs more socially secure) react differently seeing a friendly face? How do brain, mind and behavior function together as one coordinated system? What timing of brain events reveal about how we process information? Questions are asked by those in social neuroscience
Schemas are mental concepts or templates that intuitively guide our perceptions and interpretations
Whether we hear someone speaking of religious sects or sex depends on how we automatically interpret the sound
Value judgements often hidden within social psychological language:
Whether we label a quiet child as bashful or cautious, holding back or as an observer, conveys a judgment. Whether we label someone in guerrilla warfare a terrorist or freedom fighter depends on our view of the cause. Whether we view deaths of civilians as loss of innocents or collateral damage affects our acceptance of the death toll. whether we call information propaganda or education depends on our opinions. Whether we call public assistance welfare or aid to the needy reflects our political views. when "they" exalt their country and people its nationalism, when "we" do it, it is patriotism. whether someone involved in affair practicing open marriage or adultry depends on our personal values. "Brainwashing" is social influence we do not approve. Perversions are sex acts we do not practice
Most cultures native to Asia, Africa,, and Central and South America place greater value on
collectivism
Defining one's identity by the goals of group is a characteristic of
collectivism.
Many people motivated to maintain self-esteem
college students prefer boost to self-esteem to eating favorite food, engaging in sexual activity, seeing best friend, drinking alcohol or receiving paycheck.
In order for experimental realism to be achieved, ______.
deception may be necessary
Some languages promote external attributions instead of I WAS LATE , a spanish idiom says the clock caused me to be late
in collectivistic cultures, people less often perceive others in terms of personal dispositions. Less likely to spontaneously interpret a behavior as reflecting an inner trait. When told of someone's actions, Hindus in India less likely than Americans to offer dispositional explanations, (she is kind etc)_ and more likely to offer situational explanations (her friends were with her)
Principle of aggregation
the effects of an attitude become more apparent when we look at a person's aggregate or average behavior
Culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
Social psychologists experiment by constructing social situations that simulate important features of our daily lives. By varying just one or 2 factors at a time,
the experimenter pinpoints influence.
Which of the following terms best explains why we tend to presume that "others are the way they act" even when we don't make the same presumption about ourselves?
the fundamental attribution error
Eyewitness testimony is based on the concept that our construction of memory is ______.
exact
Counterfactual thinking
imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened but didn't
Young adults in China being labeled "The Me Generation" are demonstrating a cultural change with the growth of
Blank 1: individualism
A/an _ self is when you construe your identity in relation to others.
Blank 1: interdependent
______ is a region that traditionally places more importance on collectivism than on individualism.
Asia
