Social Studies Praxis

Why were the Spanish able to defeat the Aztec and Inca empires?

Aztec: The ruler, Montezuma II, thought that Cortez was a god wearing armor. He agreed to give the Spanish explorer a share of the empire's existing gold supply. Cortes and his men conquered them in 1521. The spanish had the advantage of superior weaponry. Cortes was able to enlist the help of various native groups. Also overtaken by disease. Inca: Ruler of Inca was Atahualpa was captured by the spanish. He was killed even though he paid ransom in silver and gold. Pizarro then captured it without a struggle.

Senate

100 members serving rotating six-year terms · Referral decisions easy to challenge · Committee consideration easily bypassed · Rules Committee weak, few limits on debate or amendments · Unlimited debate unless shortened by unanimous consent or by invoking cloture · Non-germane amendments may be introduced (riders) · Qualifications for Entering Congress o Must be 30 years of age o Must have been a citizen of the US for 9 years o Must be an inhabitant of the state from which elected · How does the president exert control over the bureaucracy? What are the regulatory functions of various government agencies and independent regulatory commissions?

House of Representatives

435 members serving two year terms · Speakers referral of bills to committee is hard to challenge · Committees almost always consider legislation first · Rules committee powerful; controls time of debate, admissibility of amendments · Debate usually limited to one hour · Non-germane amendments may not be introduced from floor · Qualifications for Entering Congress: o Must be 25 years of age (when seated not when elected) o Must have been a citizen of the US for 7 years o Must be an inhabitant of the state from which elected

What is the definition of price elasticity of demand? What is the relationship between total revenue and the price elasticity of demand?

A measure of the relationship between a change in the quantity demanded of a particular good and a change in its price. Price elasticity of demand is a term in economics often used when discussing price sensitivity. The formula for calculating price elasticity of demand is: Price Elasticity of Demand = % Change in Quantity Demanded / % Change in Price If a small change in price is accompanied by a large change in quantity demanded, the product is said to be elastic (or responsive to price changes). Conversely, a product is inelastic if a large change in price is accompanied by a small amount of change in quantity demanded. Total Revenue:Price elasticity of demand and total revenue are closely interrelated because they deal with the same two variables, P and Q. If your product has elastic demand, you can increase your revenue by decreasing the price of that good. P will decrease, but Q will increase at a greater rate, thus increasing total revenue. If the product is inelastic, then you can actually raise prices, sell slightly less of that item but make higher revenue. As a result, it is important for management to know whether its product has inelastic or elastic demand?

What happens when prices are set above the market equilibrium price? What happens when prices are set below the market equilibrium price?

Above: If the market price is above the equilibrium price, quantity supplied is greater than quantity demanded, creating a surplus. Market price will fall. Below: If the market price is below the equilibrium price, quantity supplied is less than quantity demanded, creating a shortage. The market is not clear. It is in shortage. Market price will rise because of this shortage.

What is the difference between accounting profit and economic profit?

Accounting Profit: A company's total earnings, calculated according to Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), and includes the explicit costs of doing business, such as depreciation, interest and taxes. Economic Profit: The difference between the revenue received from the sale of an output and the opportunity cost of the inputs used. This can be used as another name for "economic value added" (EVA).

What are the main reasons that a global culture emerged in the late twentieth century? What are the major elements and the consequences of this global culture?

After World War II, the isolationist policy was no longer feasible. Foreign diplomacy was a necessary evil that could no longer be ignored. The creation of NATO and the UN are prime example of how the global policy spread so rapidly. The introduction of the atomic bomb to the world and possibility of nuclear weapons made cooperation between countries paramount to avoid such a catastrophe ever again.

McCullock v. Maryland

Asserted national supremacy vis-à-vis state action in areas of constitutionally granted authority. Maryland had placed a prohibitive tax on the banknotes of the Second Bank of the United States. Supreme court found that since the bank was a lawful instrument of specific federal authority, the law creating the banknotes was constitutional.

What economic factors attracted Europeans and others to the Americans?

As the 1400s began, European societies were still recovering from a series of disasters. From 1314-1316, heavy rain and disease wiped out crops and livestock. In 1340s, an epidemic of plagues killed over 25 million people. By the end of the 1400s, Europe's population had rebounded from the plagues which increased stimulated commerce and encouraged the growth of towns. Monarchs had a powerful motive to encourage the quest for new lands and trading routes: they needed money to maintain standing armies and large bureaucracies. So,the monarchs of Portugal, Spain, France, and England began looking overseas for wealth. Spanish colonies were funded by the rulers. English colonies were funded by joint-stock companies- which allowed several investors to pool their wealth in support of a colony that would hopefully profit.

What is the core idea of democracy?

Believes in popular sovereignty- democracy governed by the people, so political leaders in a democratic society are supposed to listen to and heed public opinion. Democracies hold elections to allow the people to exercise their power over government. Majority Rule is the belief that the power to make decisions about government should reflect the will of most people. The rights of the minority must also be protected.

How does bicameralism affect the exercise of legislative power?

Bicameralism: believes that unlimited power vetted in an individual or group will be abused. Therefore, power must be limited. The only satisfactory method of limitation is to divide power between different bodies with some sort of veto over each other's actions between institutions.

How is the market price of a good determined?

By the laws of supply and demand

What are some of the major problems international organizations face?

Challenge in integrating developing countries on various measures. These are also facing health related challenges, such as infant mortality in developing countries. Some other challenges that international organizations are facing are in the field of intellectual property rights, trade in services and investment measures in relation to trade.

What is the law of diminishing returns? Why do diminishing returns occur?

Definition: used to refer to a point at which the level of profits or benefits gained is less than the amount of money or energy invested. Why it Happens: The simple answer is that there is a point where adding one more input (one more worker, one more assembly line, etc.) does not produce as much output as the last additional unit. It is the 'too many cooks' paradime. One cook can make 10 meals an hour. Two cooks can make 20....ten cooks make 100 meals, eleven cooks only make 109. We have hit the point of diminishing marginal returns. Once you add the eleventh cook, they start bumping in to each other, and the eleventh cook cannot increase production as much as adding the tenth cook did.

What are the laws of supply and demand?

Demand refers to how much (quantity) of a product or service is desired by buyers. The quantity demanded is the amount of a product people are willing to buy at a certain price; the relationship between price and quantity demanded is known as the demand relationship. Supply represents how much the market can offer. ..... The law of demand states that, if all other factors remain equal, the higher the price of a good, the less people will demand that good. people will naturally avoid buying a product that will force them to forgo the consumption of something else they value more. the law of supply demonstrates the quantities that will be sold at a certain price. But unlike the law of demand, the supply relationship shows an upward slope. This means that the higher the price, the higher the quantity supplied. Producers supply more at a higher price because selling a higher quantity at a higher price increases revenue.

What are the fundamental ideas and institutions that arose from the cultures of Egypt, Greece, and Rome?

Egypt: The Egyptians were fairly advanced for their time in medicine. They were able to recognize diseases, apply treatments, set broken bones, amputate limbs, and stitch wounds. Their shipbuilding was incredibly impressive in that they were able to build some the largest and sturdiest ships with minimal supplies; it was a very efficient system. Additionally, the Pyramids and the Sphinx are among the most recognizable structures in society. Their ship building and ability to build these massive structures show a brilliant engineering society. Their conception of algebra and geometry was highly advanced. Additionally, their math formed the foundations of the Pythagorean Theorem and the Golden Ratio. Greece: The Ancient Greek culture is essentially the basis for modern Western society. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are the fathers of philosophy and among the most recognizable names all over the world; their work is so widely known and so fundamental to any understanding of philosophy. The idea of a city-state stems from the difficult geography of Greece, forcing the city to form their own governments. Modern versions of this include Monaco and the Vatican City. Literature such as the Odyssey and the Iliad comes from ancient Greece and playwrights like Aristophanes and Euripides developed the comedy versus the tragedy dynamic in theatre. Also, the institution of a separate school for studying medicine and creating an ethics code behind the practice of medicine stems directly from Hippocrates, namesake of the Hippocratic Oath. Rome: Rome was one of the largest empires in the ancient world. The variety of government that the empire modeled (monarchy, republic, autocracy) are the three basic types of government structures in the world and are the topic of dominating political philosophy. The grandeur of the Roman Empire is an idea that men all throughout history have attempted to recreate, such as Napoleon or Hitler. The structure and function of each modern government in some way relates back to the institutions that Rome had modeled throughout their long history. More directly the structure of a democratic government (such as America's) comes directly from the Roman structure. The constitution, being at center of governments and over the world for hundreds of years also stems from the Roman evolution of a constitution.

What is the core idea of equality?

Everyone is considered equal under the law. Political equality means that everyone is treated in the same way in the political sphere. Everyone must obey the laws and everyone has the same rights. There is also an equality of opportunity.

What are explicit costs and implicit costs?

Explicit Costs: An explicit cost is a direct payment made to others in the course of running a business, such as wage, rent and materials, as opposed to implicit costs, which are those where no actual payment is made. Implicit Costs: In other words, an implicit cost is any cost that results from using an asset instead of renting, selling, or lending it. The term also applies to forgone income from choosing not to work.

Presidential Staff

Filled with party loyalists

What had been the role of Islam in African history?

First continent outside of Arabia that Islam spread into in the early 7th century Almost one-third of the world's Muslim population resides in this continent Generally Islam in Africa often adapted to African cultural contexts and beliefs systems forming Africa's own orthodoxies Islam has a large presence in North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Swahili Coast, and much of West Africa, with minority but significant immigrant populations in South Africa On the advice of the Prophet Muhammad in 614AD, sistent Muslims migrated to Abyssinia where they were protected by its king Al-Najashi who also accepted Islam later. Muslims then expanded to current Tunisia in 647AD during the reign of the third Muslim Caliph Othman bi Affan. The Conquest of North Africa continued under the Umayyad dynasty, taking Algeria by 680 AD and Morocco the following year and then traveled to the Horn of Africa and Mozambique. The expansion of Islam in Africa not only led to the formation of new communities in Africa but it also reconfigured existing African Communities and empires to be based on Islamic models. Islam is the predominant religion of the northern half of Africa, mainly concentrated in North Africa, the Horn of Africa and the Sahel, as well as West Africa. Nigeria is home to Africa's largest Muslim population

What are the sources of gain from trade?

Gains from trade refers to net benefits to agents from allowing an increase in voluntary trading with each other. In technical terms, it is the increase of consumer surplus plus producer surplus from lower tariffs or otherwise liberalizing trade. They result from: specialization in production from division of labor, economies of scale, scope, and agglomeration and relative availability of factor resources in types of output by farms, businesses, location and economies a resulting increase in total output possibilities trade through markets from sale of one type of output for other, more highly valued goods

How do markets adjust to changes in demand? How do markets adjust to changes in supply?

If the quantity supplied, Qs, is greater than the quantity demanded, Qd, at a price P0, then a surplus exists at P0. Because of this surplus, consumers will bid down the market price. As the market price decreases, the quantity demanded will increase and the quantity supplied will decrease until the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied, at which point the surplus is eliminated and a market equilibrium is established. An increase in supply S with constant demand D will decrease the equilibrium price P* and increase the equilibrium quantity Q*. Similarly, a decrease in supply S with constant demand D will increase the equilibrium price P* and decrease the equilibrium quantity Q*.

Miranda v. Arizona

Held that the Constitution's fifth amendment prohibition against self-incrimination applied to an individual in police custody or 'deprived of his freedom of action in any significant way.' In order to safeguard this right, the Court ruled that prior to being questioned suspects have to be informed of their right to remain silent, that anything they can say can be used against them in the court of law, that they have the right to the presence of an attorney, and that if they cannot afford an attorney one will be appointed prior to questioning if they so desire.

Brown vs. Board of Education

Held that the racial segregation of children in public schools violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. It put the constitution on the side of racial equality and galvanized the nascent civil rights movement into a full revolution.

What are the four sectors contained in a model of circular flow of income and products? How does the circular-flow model describe the operation of the market economy?

Household sector Firms or producing sector Government sector Rest of the world sector Each of the above sectors receives some payments from the other in lieu of goods and services which makes a regular flow of goods and physical services. Money facilitates such an exchange smoothly. A residual of each market comes in capital market as saving which inturn is invested in firms and government sector. Technically speaking, so long as lending is equal to the borrowing i.e. leakage is equal to injections, the circular flow will continue indefinitely. However this job is done by financial institutions in the economy.

What is the core idea of individualism?

Humans are fundamentally individuals who have the freedom to make choices and join. Rugged individualism is the view that we are responsible for our own lives and ultimately must rely only on ourselves.

What does a productive possibilities curve demonstrate?

In economics, a production possibilities curve is a graphical model that shows the trade-offs facing an economy with a given level of production technology and finite resources. While this model greatly simplifies the actual workings of a national economy, it effectively demonstrates the core causes of production limitations and the difficult choices that societies face due to those limitations. This model also assumes that the economy can only produce two types of goods. Due to resource limitations, the maximum amount of each commodity cannot be produced at the same time. Instead, a portion of the available resources can be dedicated to one product and the remainder to the other. The curve shows that in order to get more of one product, the economy must give up some amount of the other product by shifting available resources.

Circular-Flow of Income

In economics, the terms circular flow of income or circular flow refer to a simple economic model which describes the reciprocal circulation of income between producers and consumers. In the circular flow model, the interdependent entities of producer and consumer are referred to as "firms" and "households" respectively and provide each other with factors in order to facilitate the flow of income. Firms provide consumers with goods and services in exchange for consumer expenditure and "factors of production" from households.

What are the main ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau as they contribute to the development of forms of government and their institutions?

In his work, The Social Contract, he argued that "Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains," the chains resulting from man leaving the state of nature for the benefits of society. Only the people are sovereign, thus dispelling the notion that God appointed the King to rule over man. Moreover, this sovereignty is both indivisible and inalienable. Advocated direct, not representative, democracy.

What is the Iroquois Confederacy?

It comprises the Six Nations: Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca and Tuscarora. the Iroquois Confederacy is the decentralized political and diplomatic entity that emerged in response to European colonization.

What have been the most important ways that the Islamic world has influenced world history?

Made developments in medicine, geography, and mathematics. Muslims used herbs and foods to develop and prepare drugs. Learned through dissection and the study of anatomy Surgical standards, ideas of personal hygiene and how to correctly diagnose illnesses rose during the Islamic Empire. They first used exams in order to gain private rights to insure doctors and medical knowledge. Created the first school of pharmacy and an encyclopedia of drugs They were traders so they explored distant lands Took interest in astronomy, navigation, and maps and developed advancements. Made the most accurate maps Created the astrolabe which allowed observers to chart the positions of the stars and thus calculate their own position on earth. first mixed the Indian number system with the greek science of math. (Arabic)

What was manifest destiny and how did it influence the expansion of United States territory?

Manifest destiny: the belief that the United Sates destiny was to expand to the Pacific Ocean and into Mexican territory. They believed that this destiny was manifest (obvious)

What are the methods of economic organization? How do they differ?

Market Organization: A method of organization that allows unregulated prices and the decentralized decisions of private property owners to resolve the basic economic problems Sometimes market organization is called capitalism Command Economy: The method of organization that relies on public-sector decision making to resolve basic issues An economic system in which the government owns the income-producing assets and directly determines what goods they produce is called socialism In a democratic process, decision-makers have to consider how their actions will influence their election prospects. Otherwise, their tenure will be short.

Late-nineteenth-century immigration to the United States can be viewed in terms of creating a melting pot or a pluralist or multicultural society. What does this distinction mean, and why is it important?

Melting pot: a mixture of people from different cultures and races who blend together by abandoning their native languages and cultures.

Cabinet Departments

Positions often filled with Congressional approval · Serve almost entirely as an advisory position with ready access to the president · Don't have any power other than offering opinion

What is the core idea of unity?

Refers to American's support of the republic and democracy, even if they disagree with one another about policies.

What is the core idea of diversity?

Refers to the fact that Americans have many different cultural traditions and hold a variety of values.

How did Europe (ca. 1400-1750) contrast with medieval Europe? Consider religion, politics, and art.

Religion: The religion of medieval Europe was dominated by the Catholic Church. Europe from 1400-1750 was a time of great religious dissention. Lutheranism and Protestantism spread through Europe like wildfire. The religious demographic altered greatly and the amount of religious persecution also increased. The religious struggle greatly overlapped with the political issues. Politics: The politics were greatly intertwined with the religious strife that was occurring throughout Europe. The religious strife, bled into the political strife. Religious toleration in government was a hot topic, that was not often solved and ended leading to the division in countries all over Europe. England under the rule of Henry VIII is prime example of this struggle. Art: The art was very much affected by the Renaissance movement sweeping through Europe. The art was a call back to classics and reflected the science advancements and political events of the time. Religion in art took a back seat towards the more realistic mindset.

Why does the problem of scarcity force people to consider opportunity cost?

Scarcity and opportunity cost represent two interlinking concepts in economics as companies must often choose among scarce resources. In most cases, economic resources are not completely available at all times in unlimited numbers, so companies must make a choice about which resources to use during production. The opportunity cost represents the alternative given up when choosing one resource over another. Scarcity can force choices as resources begin to deplete. Opportunity cost carries the classic definition of selecting the next best alternative. Scarcity and opportunity cost can typically be the biggest drivers in choices made due to the inability of a company to continue producing certain goods in a long-term manner. Therefore, the concept of scarcity and opportunity cost dictates that individuals and companies will select the next best economic option when necessary.

What are the main ideas of John Locke as they contribute to the development of forms of government and their institutions?

Social contract theory ( the implied agreements that structure governments and social order), Individuals give up some rights to the government in order to preserve social order. It is social contract theory that provides the foundation for a government that rests on the consent of the governed, a principle critical to the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution.

What are some similarities and differences among the Russian, Mexican, and Chinese revolutions?

Some similarities include the aftermath of the revolutions, the countries all fell under an intense communist regime that lasted for many years during the 20th century. They were all in different parts of the world and once the communist regimes had ended in the countries, the way the countries responded to the modern world varied.

Which colonies were controlled by Spain, France, and England in North America?

Spain: Florida, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas o France: Areas beyond the thirteen colonies o England: Jamestown (Virginia), Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay Colony, Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware

How does the imposition of a tax affect a market?

Taxes reduce both demand and supply, and drive market equilibrium to a price that is higher than without the tax and a quantity that is lower than without the tax.

Why was England the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution?

The agriculture of England was essential to the development and economic well-being of England. The demand for crops and the benefits of being the greatest shipping country in the world helped to spurn the technological advances and spread them throughout Europe. England was in need of more efficient farming tools and methods and many people rose up to create the supply. From this competition came England's navy, which had overtaken the Dutch, and proceeded to capitalize off of the demand in other countries.

How big did the Roman Empire get, with what borders, at its largest? In comparison, how small was it when it fell? What were the main reasons for the success at its largest point and its gradual shrinking?

The Roman Empire extended through most of Northern Europe, completely surrounded the Mediterranean, to the Black Sea, to the Caspian Sea, stretching to the Persian Sea, through Egypt and down the Nile Valley. The Roman Empire did not fall in a day. It was a gradual decline. The Western half of the empire fell which led into the Middle Ages while the Eastern half of the empire continued to survive. The success was largely due to the military conquests of brilliant generals. The gradual decline of the empire was due to lack of strong leadership and economic decline.

Why was the First World War followed by the emergence of totalitarian governments?

With the perceived failure of democratic governments throughout the world, countries turned to other government types in hope of finding stability and success. After a world war the people of Europe, where the war had ravaged their home countries, wanted stability in their life and wanted it in the easiest way possible.

How did the banking system as it developed in the 1400s through the 1700s enable the Industrial Revolution to thrive?

The banking system allowed businessmen and a thriving entrepreneur system to develop. Small business could need loans and depending on how the small business grew a relationship with the bank started. A successful business would need a safe place to store the money and new businesses needed a place to start. The banking system arose out of a need for a financial safe house or start-up.

What is the core idea of Liberty?

The freedom for people to do what they want. Must be restrained to some level in order to create a stable society. There are therefore, limits to government power. This does include economic liberty. People should be free to do as they see fit in the economic sphere without government interference.

How did Enlightenment ideas affect the American, French, and Haitian revolutions?

The ideas of Rousseau, Locke, and Montesquieu were essential to the revolutions of America, France and Haiti. Rousseau foundational theories of a social contract created the possibility of government being in a relationship with the people and the people's right to alter it. Locke's theories of the branches of government inspired the systems that were created from these revolutions. Montesquieu took the ideas of Rousseau and Locke and dove into much greater detail with them. Additionally, Montesquieu coined the terminology we use in government and labeled the institutions that the revolutionists were fighting both for and against. Terminology such as monarchy, republic, and tyranny were classified and defined by Montesquieu.

Why are the First and Second World Wars called world wars?

World War I was initially called the Great War because the world have never seen such a conflict on such massive proportions. The war was fought literally all over the world and on multiple fronts. When World War II occurred, the world again witnessed the terror that came along with the Great War and therefore put them into the same category. The Great War was change to World War I and World War II was then named.

Marbury V. Madison

The supreme court announced for the first time the principle that a court may declare an act of Congress void if it is inconsistent with the Constitution. William Marbury had been appointed a justice of the peace for the District of Columbia in the final hours of the Adams administration. When James Madison, Thomas Jefferson's secretary of state, refused to deliver Marbury's commission, Marbury, joined by three other similarly situated appointees, petitions for a rite of mandamus compelling delivery of the commissions. The petition was denied.

What was the position of the Founding Fathers regarding slavery

They wanted to reduce tension regarding the morality of slavery (e.g. from religious principles), so they kept slavery but allowed the 3/5ths compromise and it affected tax rates for those who owned slaves. Many worked towards abolition in at least some northern states.

Does the caste system survive in India today? How has the caste system shaped India's social, cultural, economic, and political histories?

Though not in legal terms, the caste system is still heavily ingrained into Indian society. This discrimination continues to lead to violence throughout India. The social history is completely dominated by the classes that people are born into. The entitlement of the upper classes has caused great amounts of strife throughout India's modern history. Even after the Indian Supreme Court abolished the legality of the caste system in 1950, it still lives despite the numerous laws since the abolition to help level the social and economic playing field.

What are the definitions of total product, average product, and marginal product? How does each change when the quantities of inputs increase in the short run?

Total Product- The total quantity of output produced by a firm for a given quantity of inputs. Total product is the foundation upon which the analysis of short-run production for a firm is analyzed. The usual framework is to analyze total product when in a variable input (labor) changes, for a given amount of a fixed input (capital). Two related concepts derived from total product are average product and marginal product. Total product is the starting point for the analysis of short-run production. It indicates how much output a firm can produce according to the law of diminishing marginal returns. Average Product: The quantity of total output produced per unit of a variable input, holding all other inputs fixed. It is found by dividing total product by the quantity of the variable input. Average product, abbreviated AP also goes by the alias of average physical product (APP), so don't be confused by the extra term (physical). Compare this term with marginal product and average revenue product when you have a chance. If you haven't yet come across the term, then you really should spend some time with the law of diminishing marginal returns. The average-marginal rule is also worth a look. Marginal Product: Output that results from one additional unit of a factor of production (such as a labor hour or machine hour), all other factors remaining constant. Whereas the marginal cost indicates the added cost incurred in producing an additional unit of output, marginal product indicates the added output accruing to an additional input. Since marginal product is measured in physical units produced, it is also called marginal physical product. Marginal product lies at the very foundation of the analysis of short-run production, playing THE critical role in the explanation of the law of supply and the upward-sloping supply curve using the law of diminishing marginal returns.

Why do people engage in exchange?

Transactions are made in such a way that both the buyer and the seller are better off after the exchange than before it occurred.

The first government of the United States under the Articles of Confederation

Two levels of government shared fundamental powers. State governments were supreme in some matters while the national government was supreme in other matters. This formed a confederation. The National government had the power to declare war, make peace, and sign treaties. It could borrow money, set standards for coins and for weights and measures, establish a postal service, and deal with Native American peoples.

What are the main ideas of Thomas Hobbes as they contribute to the development of forms of government and their institutions?

War is a natural state because we are always competing for resources. Believed that people created governments, or societies, out of pragmatic self-interest: give up some rights in return for protection. Called for a strong central government that controls all parts of society: civil, military, judicial, and church.

What are the main ideas of Thomas Paine as they contribute to the development of forms of government and their institutions?

advocated independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain.

Supply and demand relationship:

as demand increases, so does the price. Consequently, the rise in price should prompt more CDs to be supplied as the supply relationship shows that the higher the price, the higher the quantity supplied. If, however, there are 30 CDs produced and demand is still at 20, the price will not be pushed up because the supply more than accommodates demand. In fact after the 20 consumers have been satisfied with their CD purchases, the price of the leftover CDs may drop as CD producers attempt to sell the remaining ten CDs. The lower price will then make the CD more available to people who had previously decided that the opportunity cost of buying the CD at $20 was too high.

Link to the Constitution

http://constitutionus.com/

Declaration of Independence

http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/print_friendly.html?page=declaration_transcript_content.html&title=NARA%20%7C%20The%20Declaration%20of%20Independence%3A%20A%20Transcription

What are The Federalist papers and what are the most important principles expressed in them?

o A series of 85 essays defending the constitution that appeared in New York newspapers between 1787 and 1788. They were written by federalist leaders alexander Hamilton, james madison, and john hay. They provided an analysis and an explanation of constitutional provisions, such as the separation of powers and the limits on the powers of majorities, that remain important today.

What were the push and pull factors that contributed to late-nineteenth-century immigration to the United States?

o About 45 % of immigrants since the 1960s have come from the western hemisphere, primarily Mexico and 30 % from asia. o In mexico the peso was devalued o Is causing a shift in the racial makeup of the United States.

The Addition of the Bill of Rights to the Constitution and the reason it was added

o Anti-federalists argued that since the constitution weakened the states, the people needed a national bill of rights. They wanted written guarantees that the people would have freedom of speech, of the press, and of religion. They demanded assurance of the right to trial by jury and the right to bear arms. Federalists insisted that the constitution granted only limited powers to the national government so that it could not violate the rights of the states or of the people. They also pointed out that the constitution gave the people the power to protect their rights through the election of a trustworthy leaders. In the end, the Federalists yielded to the people's overwhelming desire and promised to add a bill of rights if the states would ratify the constitution. By December 1791, 10 bill of rights were created.

How were the concepts of citizenship and democracy in ancient Greece similar to and different from contemporary United States concepts of citizenship and democracy?

o Athenian Democracy Citizens: 18 years, male, born of citizen parents Laws voted on and proposed directly by assembly of all citizens Leader chosen by lot Executive branch composed of a council of 500 men Juries varied in size No attorneys; no appeals, one-day trials o Both Political Power exercised by citizens Three Branches of government Legislative branch passes laws Executive branch carries out law Judicial branch conducts trials with paid jurors o US Democracy Citizens born in United States or completed citizenship process Representatives elected to propose and vote on laws Elected president Executive branch made up of elected and appointed officials Juries composed of 12 jurors Defendants and plaintiffs have attorneys; long appeals process

How did the United States Constitution come into being, including major points of debates and compromises (including the Great Compromise and the Three-Fifths Compromise)?

o Convention started in May 1787. Delegates from all states except for Rhode Island met. o Great Compromise: offered a two-house congress to satisfy both small and big states. Each state would have an equal representation in the Senate. The size of the population would determine its representation in the house of Rep. Voters of each state would choose members of the house. The state legislatures would choose members of the senate. o Three-fifths compromise: three- fifths of a state's slave would be counted as population o The convention gave congress the power to regulate trade but prevented it from interfering with the slave trade for at least 20 years. o The powers granted to the national government by the Constitution are known as delegated powers, or enumerated powers and included such powers as control of foreign affairs, providing national defense, regulating trade between the states, and coining money o Powers kept by the states are called reserved powers and included such powers as providing and supervising education, establishing marriage laws, and regulating trade within a state.

What conditions and problems are portrayed in Upton Sinclair's novel The Jungle?

o Demonstrated the sickening conditions of the meatpacking industry in Chicago. Caused national attention about working conditions and Theodore Roosevelt promised that these would be changed.

What are the major successes, failures, and legacies of the New Deal.

o Designed to alleviate the problems of the Great Depression. o Focused on three general goals: relief for the needy, economic recovery, and financial reform. o During the 100 days, Congressed passed more than 15 major pieces of new Deal legislation o Closed all of the banks to stop further withdrawals o Glass-Steagall Act- established the Federal deposit insurance corporation. Provided federal insurance for individual bank accounts of up to 5,000 reassuring millions of bank customers that their money was safe. o Federal Securities Act- required corporations to provide complete information on all stock offerings and made them liable for any misrepresentations. o Repealed prohibition and taxed alcohol. o Implemented programs in order to help farmers- AAA, sought to raise crop prices by lowering production, which the government achieved by paying farmers to leave a certain amount of every acre of land unseeded. o Provided multiple work programs: CCC- put young men aged 18 to 25 to work building roads, developing parks, planting trees, and helping in soil-erosion and flood-control projects. NIRA- provided money to states to create jobs chiefly in the construction of schools and other community buildings. o Forced the government to engage in deficit spending in which they spend more money than the government was receiving in revenue. o Some argued that the New Deal did not go far enough to help the poor and to reform the nation's economic system. Conservative critics argued that Roosevelt spend too much on direct relief and used New Deal policies to control business and socialize the economy. o Supreme court declared some of the acts unconstitutional so Roosevelt appointed six new Supreme Court Justices. o The American Liberty league opposed New Deal measures that it believed violated respect for the rights of individuals and property. o Created the WPA- a series of programs to help youths, professionals, and other workers. o Created the NYA- created specifically to provide education, jobs, counseling, and recreation for young people. o Created the social security system which had three major parts 1) old-age insurance for retirees 65 or older and their spouses 2) Unemployment compensation system 3) add to families with dependent children and the disabled. o Represented an opportunity for minorities and women. Native Americans received strong support from the new deal

What were the short- and long-term effects of the Compromise of 1877?

o Ended Reconstruction in the south o In order to make Hayes president, the republicans had to agree to certain demands of the democrats. They had to withdraw federal troops from Louisiana and south Carolina- two of the three southern states that the Republicans still governed. Second, the democrats wanted federal money to build a railroad from texas to the west coast and to improve southern rivers, harbors, and bridges. Third, they wanted Hayed to appoint a conservative southerner to the cabinet. The republicans accepted these terms and hayes was inaugurated.

What kinds of people were involved in the abolitionist movement, and in what ways?

o Harriet tubman- ran parts of the underground railroad o Harriet Beecher Stowe- wrote uncle toms cabin o John Brown- Believed that god had called on him to fight slavery. Caused the Pottawatomie Massacre and harpers ferry o The liberty party- political party whose purpose was to pursue the cause of abolition by passing new laws. o Free-soil Party- opposed the extension of slavery into new territories (not all abolitionist)

How did Jacksonian Democracy influence the United States social, political, and economic life?

o His appointees to federal jobs would serve a max of 4 year terms. o Practiced the spoils system- in which incoming officials throw out former appointees and replace them with their own friends o Indian removal act- the federal government provided funds to negotiate treaties that would force the Native Americans to move west. o States could not nullify the national government's orders o Vetoed to recharter the National bank

What are the fundamental ideas and institutions that arose from the cultures of India and China?

o India: urged religious tolerance, built roads to improve communication, used a calendar based on the sun instead of the moon, 7 week day and hours in the day, proved the earth was round, invented modern numerals, zero, and the decimal, created medical guides, and performed surgery. Affected styles in art, architecture, and dance throughout south and southeast asia. Indian influence was especially strong in Thailand, Cambodia, and on the Indonesian island of java. o China: Created civil service jobs, invented paper,collar harness for horses, perfected the plow, used assimilation after they conquered people

What are some of the basic approaches to foreign policy (e.g, isolationism, multilateralism)

o Isolationism: A policy of remaining apart from the affairs or interests of other groups, especially the political affairs of other countries o Multilateralism: in international relations, it is multiple countries working in concert on a given issue

What did Reconstruction plans and policies accomplish, and where did they fail?

o Lasted from 1865-1877. o Lincolns plan: favored a lenient plan. Wished to make the joining of the union as quick and easy as possible. Ten percent plan- the government would pardon all confederates-except high-ranking confederate officials and those accused of crimes against prisoners of war- who would swear allegiance to the Union. Then a confed state could form a new state government and gain representation in Congress. o Radical Republicans and Thaddeus stevens- wanted to destroy the political power of slaveholders. They wanted African Americans to be given full citizenship and the right to vote. Wade-davis bill- proposed that Congress, not the president, be in charge of reconstruction o Johnson's Plan: Presidential reconstruction. The remaining confed states could rejoin the union if it would meet several conditions. Each state would have to withdraw its secession, swear allegiance to the Union, annal Confed war debts, and ratify the Thirteenth amendment which abolished slavery. Failed to address the needs of former slaves in three areas: land, voting rights, and protection under the law. o The population and economy in the south was devastated.

How does a country's electoral system affect its political parties?

o No political party officially existed yet still formed o When you vote for president you are really voting for an elector who has pledged to represent that candidate. The electors chosen by each state are called the electoral college. They are a group of people who officially elect the president and vice president. Each state has as many votes in the electoral college as it has senators and members of the house of representatives. To be elected, a presidential candidate must put together enough states in the election to get a majority of the electoral college.

What were the advantages that each side, the North and the South, enjoyed before the Civil War began? What were each side's disadvantages? How did these shift during the war?

o North: had advantages in resources over the south- more fighting power, more factories, greater food production, and more extensive railroad system. Plan for the war was a three part plan 1) The union navy would blockade southern ports, so they could neither export cotton nor import much-needed manufactured goods 2) Union riverboats and armies would move down the Mississippi river and split the confed in two and 3) union armies would capture the confed capital at Richmond. (Anaconda Plan). Most industries boomed. Wages did not line up with prices and the standard of living declined. o South: had advantage of the cotton market, first-rate generals, a strong military tradition, and soldiers who were highly motivated because they were defending their homeland. They had a disadvantage because they had a tradition of local and limited government, and there was resistance to the centralization of government necessary to run a war. Refused to cooperate with the confederate government. Plan was mostly defensive. Throughout the war, slaves began to fight for freedom by joining the union. Decline in plantation system. Faced a food shortage and the blockade also caused a shortage in salt, sugar, coffee, nails, needles, and medicines. Morale also declined

Compare and contrast populism and progressivism.

o Populism: a late- 19th century political movement demanding that people have a greater voice in government and seeking to advance the interests of farmers and laborers. During the 1880s, farmers were overextended with debts and loans. The populist party called for bimetallism and free coinage of silver. Ended with the election of McKinley. o Progressivism: an early 20th century reform movement seeking to return control of the government to the people, to restore economic opportunities, and to correct injustices in American Life. Aimed to protect social welfare, promote moral improvement, create economic reform, and foster efficiently.

America's imperialism at the turn of the century as evidenced in the Spanish-American War, the building of the Panama Canal, Theodore Roosevelt's Big Stick Diplomacy and the Open Door Policy.

o Spanish- American War: Americans took an interest in buying cuba from Spain. The spanish blew up the U.S.S. maine which was sent to cuba to bring home american citizens in danger from the fighting and to protect American Property. U.S. declared war. Treaty of Paris signed which caused Spain to free cuba and turn over the islands of Guam in the Pacific and Puerto Rico in the West indies to the United states. Also sold the Phillippines to the US. o Panama Canal: Cut trading time between the Pacific and the Atlantic. Helped the Panamanian rebellion in order to gain Panama their freedom from the Columbians. In return, we were allowed to build the canal. o Theodore Roosevelt's Big Stick Diplomacy: o Open Door Policy: Open door notes- letters addressed to the leaders of imperialist nations proposing that the nations share their trading rights with the united states thus creating an open door. This meant that no single nation would have a monopoly on trade with any part of china. Reflected three deeply held beliefs: Americans believed that the growth of the us economy depended on exports 2) they felt the us had a right to intervene abroad to keep foreign markets open. 3) they feared that the closing of an area to American products, citizens, or ideas threatened US survival.

What were the major differences between the Federalists and Antifederalists?

o Supporters of the constitution were federalists because they favored the new constitutions balance of power between the states and the national government. Insisted that the division of powers and the system of checks and balances would protect Americans from the tyranny of centralized authority. o The anti federalists opposed having such a strong central government and thus were against the constitution. Countered with a long list of possible abuses of power by a strong central government. Also raised doubts that a single government could manage the affairs of a large country.

· What reforms did Susan B. Anthony, W.E.B. Du Bois, and Robert LaFollette Lead?

o Susan B. Anthony: leading proponent of women's suffrage, the right to vote. Founded the National Women Suffrage association in 1869 o W.E.B Du Bois: the first African American to receive a doctorate from Harvard. Agreed in the gradual approach to gain rights for blacks. Founded the Niagara movement, which insisted that blacks should seek a liberal arts education so that the African American communities would have well-educated leaders. Later disagreed with gradual equality and demanded that full social and economic equality for African American. The Niagara Movement became the NAACP o Robert LaFollette: Regulated big business. Did not want to smash corporations but merely to drive them out of politics and then to treat them exactly the same as other people. Major target was the railroad industry.

What were the weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation that eventually led to its being replaced by the Constitution? Why were the Articles written in this way in the first place?

o The articles created no separate executive department to carry out and enforce the acts of Congress and no national court system to interpret the meanings of laws. o The country under the confederation lacked national unity o The articles could not be amended without the consent of every state. o There was a huge debt that the congress has amassed during the Revolutionary War and congress lacked the power to tax

What were the political and economic causes and outcomes of the War of 1812?

o The british blockaded napoleon's Europe causing the americans to lose over 1,000 ships o The British also would seize Americans at sea and make them join the british navy (impressment) o America created the Embargo Act of 1807 in order to ban exporting products to other countries. o The british assisted and provided arms to Native Americans o The US did pretty good fighting in Canada but lacked navy advances. The Canadians burned the white house down. o Jackson became well-known o Treaty of ghent ended the war. In 1815, a commercial treaty reopened trade between the two countries . In 1818, a british-american commission set the northern boundary of the Louisiana Territory at the 49th parallel as far west as the Rocky Mountains. The two nations then agreed to a ten-year joint occupation of the Oregon Territory.

President

§ Aside from foreign policy issues he has very little power outside the executive branch. § Chief of State- be an inspiring example for the American people. Living symbol of the nation. § Chief Executive- boss for millions of government workers in the Executive Branch, deciding how the laws of the US are to be enforced and choosing officials and advisers to help run the Executive Branch § Chief Diplomat- decides what American diplomats and ambassadors shall say to foreign governments. Makes the foreign policy of the United States § Commander- in- Chief- In charge of the US. Armed forces: the Navy, AirForce, and marines. The president decides where troops shall be stationed, where ships shall be sent, and how weapons shall be used. All military generals and admirals take their orders from the president. § Chief Legislator - Can influence congress in lawmaking. Presidents may urge congress to pass new laws or veto bills they do not favor § Chief of Party- helps members of his political party get elected or appointed to office. § Chief Guardian of the Economy - Is expected to help run it smoothly

Race

§ Attitudes on issues of equality under the law, such as desegregated schools, have become notably more liberal among whites § Blacks believe there is more racism than whites do § Concern is that whites have not actually become as more liberal as they say. Whites may desire to give the socially correct response to interviewers

Comparing Parliamentary system to a Presidential one: Parliament

§ Every week the British Prime minister appears before the house of Commons and must answer questions put to him or her by the members of parliament. § Legislature hold supreme power § Prime minister is chosen by members of the legislature from among their own number and in practice is the leader of the majority party in the legislature. § If the prime minister loses the support of the majority in the legislature on a significant vote, he or she must resign, and elections are called immediately. § Elections may occur at any time but must be held at least once every five years

Importance for international organizations:

§ International organization assist member countries in promoting fair trade with each other § The aim of the international organizations is to enhance sustainable economic development in the world § The World Bank and Institute of International Finance are international organizations that provide monetary help to member countries § The purpose of the incorporation of international organizations is to provide food security to member nations § The endeavor of international organizations is to ensure environmental protection. § The protection of human rights is ensured by international organizations § Emergency/ disaster relief is taken care of § Helps member countries promote health care and facilities.

Class

§ More support among lower classes for increased government spending on retirement benefits, unemployment, and child care. § More support among upper class for science and technology spending and foreign aid § More support among lower classes for government policies to provide a guaranteed job, standard of living, and universal health care § Foreign policy: More support among lower classes for an isolationist viewpoint § Partisanship: lower classes tend to align with Democrats § Upper classes more likely to adopt more "liberal" viewpoint on equal treatment of women, abortion, gay rights, and criminal rights § Abortion: differences among education levels most evident for low income persons § Domestic spending: differences among education levels most evident for high income persons

Comparing Parliamentary system to a Presidential one: President

§ The president is elected directly by the people and is answerable to the voters rather than the legislature. § The separation of powers is offset by what are sometimes called checks and balances. § Elections are held at a set time.

Age

§ Younger people are more educated § As people age they become more conservative § Great events may shape people's beliefs and attitudes § Young people more supportive of increased government spending. On universal health insurance, nearly equal support among age groups, as young and old people need government insurance § On social issues: Young people are decidedly more liberal on abortion, gay rights, and race § Foreign affairs: Young people only slightly more liberal, though more internationalist at the same time § Young people decidedly more ideologically liberal

Party identification

· Black: 75% dem 17% Rep · Hispanic: 49% Dem 24% Rep · Asians; 38% Dem 35% Rep · Whites: 30% Dem 27% Rep

Independent Regulatory Commissions

· Entirely independent of presidential influence and almost always report to a specific House committee. · President has no power

Miscellaneous Independent Bureaucracies

· Includes things such as NASA · Does not fall under directly under the purview of presidential power

Government Corporations

· Operate primarily from Congressional approval · Include things such as the Post office and Tennessee Valley authority