Sociolinguistics - Repeating concepts

Garfinkle (1972) // General

Ethnomethodology: Aim is to uncover speaker's unconscious cultural knowledge and assumptions rising from it which affect how they interpret and react to their experiences. Speakers create their own events. Organization of conversation is examined to discover how speakers accomplish interaction. (ex: Adjacency Pairs)

Brown and Levinson (1978)

Notion of Face--politeness theory. Negative face--desire of individual to not be imposed on (Ss ask Prof "do you have a minute? I don't want to take up all of your time"). Positive face--desire of an individual to be liked and approved of.

Austin (1962) and Searle (1975) // General

Speech Act Theory originates from philosophers of language and attempts to capture possible functions of language by classifying the kind of action that can be performed by speech.

Richards (1980) // General

The need for langauge learners to know which topics have language specific conversational restrictions" -- Pedagogic implications -- relates to teaching sociolingusitic rules of target speech community to help avoid sociopragmatic failures

Pica (1985) // General

combination of group interaction and a task-based activity with an information gap that demands conveying and receiving meaningful messages in the L2.

Hymes (1962) // General

ethnography of speaking is the most influential and comprehensive framework for analyzing speech behavior in sociolinguistics. Hymes categorized speech acts and speech events as different units of analysis, both governed by rules of appropriate use. He also lists 16 components of speech represented by the acronym SPEAKING

Thomas (1983) // General

"1. Pragmalinguistic failure -- language learners translate an utterance from L1 into L2, but fail to get point across beacsue if L1 transfer 2. Sociopragmatic failure -- not knowing what to say and whom to say it to (I,e, in certain cultures it is taboo to ask certain q's EX Accepting American invitation is confusing for foreigners and creates misunderstanding (difficulties)"

Wolfson (1989) CH 5 // General

"Analysis of Speech behavior--Compliments and Invitations Compliments: American compliments follow strict patterns, yet compliments that break these patterns may seem more sincere. -So highly patterned that they are regarded as formulas. Only 9 patterns account for nearly all compliments. 2 verbs (like/love) and 5 ADJ (nice, good, beautiful, pretty, great). (Manes and Wolfson, 1981) **NP is/looks ADJ **I like/love NP **PRO is ADJ NP (That's a great rug!) -Focus on ability to do something or appearance -Those of lower status (e.g. workers) are not perceived as competent to compliment a boss. -Compliment response is often "self-praise avoidance" (Pomerantz, 1978). It means that we downplay the compliment by shifting credit "My mom gave it to me", invoking value, "I got it on sale", or expressing inadequacy, "I would've liked a bigger house, but..." Invitations: Americans DO NOT want to be refused, and the way they structure their invitations reflects this fear. (Wolfson, 1979) Assumption: the minimal, unambiguous invitation 1. Request for response 2. Activity 3. Time According to research, the process is more complicated and step-by-step. Lead #1: availability. "What are you doing Saturday?" Lead #2: expressive. "We never hang out anymore" (Most common in this data set) Lead #3: past tie. "Are we still having lunch this week?" -Interesting in American speech behavior: leads may occur on their own, without real invitation (e.g. Let's get together sometime)"

Brockhorst-Heng & Caleon (2009) // Attitudes and Policy

"Attitudes of Bilingual youth in Singapore -Attitudes of the youth can be cognitive, affective, or behavioral -Englsh-knowing bilingualism a defining features of Singapore -Diglossic parameters = English used for economy, law, government, education, work; Mother tongue is used for cultural rootedness and to identify -English seen as a langauge of upward mobility -Study involves primary school students with different MT (Chinese, Malay, Indian) and different SES -Matched guise, responds to statements in questionnaire e.g. ""speaking in the mother tongue/English makes me feel more..."" [matched guise means when one person speaks using different dialects, acting; used in reserach studies, followed with questions such as ""do you feel this person is smart?"" --Overall, more positive attitudes for MT in terms of solidarity --For Chinese and Indian children Code-Switching had comparable results with MT for both status and solidarity (may be covert prestige for Code Switching) --Somewhat surprisingly, Students rated users of english as lower in status than speakers using mother tongue --Ethnicity had greater impact than SES on attitudes -Malay SS were more inclined to view English as a lnaguage of in-group cohesiveness - expressed comparable attitudes for MT, CS, and English -Chinese Students were more likly to believe that the use of English does not dilute sense of cultural identity -Low SES = more likely to use MT as home language, also more positive atitufes towards languages -Suggest the need for pedagogy that supports the view of CS as creative and resourceful rather than due to deficiencies -Dislossia: two langauges, two seperate purposes (covo, business)"

Rickford (1999) CH13 // AAVE

"Attitudes towards AAVE -Teachers often have negative attitudes towards AAVE --> therfore teachershave low expectations from students --> stunded academic performance -Common goalL students should learn to read and write Standard English fluently because it leads to general success. Some add that bidialectal competence should be a goal. Implications for Teaching Langauge Arts to Speakers of AAVE -Bridge reading program uses AAVE to teach reading -Widely successful program, yet discontinued due to misunderstanding in community Classroom Strategies and Exercises Involving Social Dialects -Increase awareness and sensitivity to social/ethnic variation (film, books) -Elicit students' own experences with language"

Cargile, Takai, Rodriguez (2006) // AAVE

"Attitudes towards AAVE In Japan (90 women, 22 men) -Verbal guise technique (different speakers same variants); likert scale; linguistic analysis to check for the features --University students attribute lower status, but higher or equal attractivness, esp. w/ women --Students claim to be unfamiliar with AAVE dialect --Similar results to US college students"

Bell (2001) // Style

"Audience Design-gist: style shifting to express solidarity/intimacy with audience Radio broadcasters (2 audiences) a. Style is what an individual speaker does with a language in relation to other people; b. Style derives its meaning from the association of linguistic features with particular social groups; c. Speakers design their style primarily for and in response to their audience; d. Variation on the style dimension within the speech of a single speaker derives from and echoes the variation which exists b/w speakers on the social dimension; e. Speakers have a fine-grained ability to design their style for a range of different addressees, as well as for other audience members; f. Style-shifting according to topic or setting derives its meaning and direction of shift from the underlying association of topics or setting; g. As well as the responsive dimension of style, there is the initiative dimension where the style-shift itself initiates a change in the situation rather than resulting from such a change; h. Initiative style-shifts are in essence referee design, by which the linguistic features associated with a reference group can be used to express identification with that group."

Blum-Kulka (1983) // General

"Blum-Kulka (1983): study of native speakers of Hebrew and Canadian English who are learning Hebrew as L2: although certain forms could be translated word for word from L1 to L2, the meaning or illocutionary force of the utterance was often lost in their use of directives or requests. --transfer in gratitude"

Canale & Swain, 1980 // General

"Communicative Competence Grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence and strategic competence (e.g. circumlocution; what strategies you have to use when there is communicative failure)"

Wolfson (1989) CH2 // General

"Communicative Competence and Rules of Speaking -Rules of speaking and interaction are largely unconscious and culture-specific--major point -Labov's (1966) study demonstrated that New Yorkers were unconscious of their own speech. He found less pronunciation of "r" in lower class contexts. -Wolfson's (1976, 1982) study of verb tense used in American narratives shows that many native speakers used the historical present tense (e.g. "so a man walks into a bar") in narratives despite this form being thought of as non-standard usage (lower class) and incorrect by those who used it. Pedagogic implications -- So teachers need sociolinguistic research to tell us how speakers use the language since intuition of NS's is inadequate"

Grice (1975) // General

"Grice's maxims define a code of cooperative behavior (4 rules) of what interlocutors expect of speech and how it is interpreted: 1. Quantity: informative contribution, but don't give more than what is required 2. Quality: Do not say what is believed to be false or lacks evidence 3. Relation: Be relevant 4. Manner: Be brief and orderly; avoid obscurity and ambiguity"

Eckert & McConnell-Ginet (2007) // Gender

"Communites of Practice-CoP, social network, imagined communities Lave and Wegner (1991) definition of community of pratice: a construct that focuses on groups of people in virtue of their regular engagement in common practice (e.g. MA-TESL students). -CoP are sities for the construction of meaning-learning the practice of the community, where new things are learned/insight -emerge in response to objectives conditions, meaning that everyone in CoP is in it for the same goal -complex structures (all within the CoP come from different social/interactive/ect backgrounds, dialects, ect. to relate individuals to each other and to political economy Social practice emphasizes the social significance of what people do, especially socially regulated, repeated and interpreted collaborative doings. WE LEARN BEST TOGETHER"

Hoffman & Walker (2010) // Ethnolects

"Ethnic Orientation and Linguistic variation in Toronto Italian and Chinese immigrants Ethnicity and Linguistic variation (stronger ties to one's home culture resulted in more laguage transfer?) -mant possible explanations for ethnolects English in a Lutilingual context --Multilingualism and English in Tronto Results Based on Ethnic orientation questionnaire (ethnic ID, language, language choice, cultural heritage, EO and language practices of participants family, attitudes about importance of ethnic culture, experiences, and perceptions of discrimination) --Stable variation: (t/d)-deletion --Change in progress: The Canadian Vowel Shift (Italians participated more, High EO Chinese informants very low) Conclusions: --language transfer exists in first generation immigrants, but doesn't persist across generations --differences in Ethnic Orientation between communities may be explained by timelines of settlement and visible-minority status and generation (i.e. the Chinese immigrants moved in more recently and are more easily identifiable as "ethnic") -Ethnicity comes from self-ID --Language choices are based on degree of Ethnic Orientation and desire to express ethnic identity Ethnolects notes from Dr. McG: -participants in relative isolation from majority language -specific patterns of social interaction -local, regional power relationships (one's English and how it affects their ability to reach out in terms of government, schooling, etc. according to that level of English) -access to education -speaker's own sense of overt, covert prestige"

Rickford (1999) CH1 // AAVE

"Features of AAVE (Phonological and Grammatical) Grammatical featurs re more distinctive than phonological features: -Verbal Tense Marking: Habitual BE [he be late to class] -Absence of third person singular present [he walk] -Multiple negation [He don't do nothing] -Nouns and Pronouns: absence of possessive -s [John* house] Phonological features: word-final consonant consonant cluster reduction (""han"" for ""hand"" --Variation in AAVE, not all speakers, not all features used also --AAVE serves the communication purpose of its speakers therefore it continues despite criticism. [covert prestige]"

Schneider (2003) // World English

"Five phases of the evolution of World Englishes. (settles vs indigenous people) 1. Foundation-Settlers bring in Eng, identity distinct, contact is utilitarian, marginal bilingualism (pidgin) 2. Exonormative stabilization (Retain original)- settlers stabilize, Eng formally established in society, Indigenous seek to conform to secure status; shift identity of both; IDG develops bilingualism, Eng is considered asset/ standard; STL's Eng adopts IND vocab, code-switching occurs 3. Nativization- Settlers go native (ties with motherland weaken); gap reduced, both groups regard home; pressure on IDG to acquire ENG; some STLs adopt features of IDG language; complains of "corrupted" language emerge; marked local accent and heavy borrowing from IDG 4. Endonormative stabilization (looking inward to rely on local)- cultural self-reliance; gradual acceptance of local norms; learning to live with each other in a new nation; time of nation-building; recognize new language form (new local norm) 5. Differentiation- established nation; sub-groups with group-internal linguistic markers; regional speech variation; markers of ethnic pride Evolutionary model- how language evolves as a process of 'competition-and-selection' Histories and ecologies will determine language structures. "

Cullen (2002) // Teacher Talk

"For CLT, teacher talk should use "referential" (open-answer) questions; providing content feedback; use of speech modifications, hesitations, and rephrasing; attempt to negotiate meaning Avoid: "display" (close-answer) questions; form-focused feedback; "echoing" responses; sequences of predictable IRF However, in the classroom context, Teacher Talk has to be associated with pedagogical purpose and function, be suitable for the context."

Clyne (1981) // Register

"Foreigner Talk in Australia- Second Generation children of immigrants use FT w/ parents. -simplification -imitation -2nd gen children use FT w/ parents Phonology: influenced by L1 when children use to parents -Reflects their parents phonlogy -word stress, syntactic level, -replacing vowels with heritage -shortening -devoicing -aux deletion As English improves, FT becomes less directed to them -Like "code-switching""

Baker (2010) // Gender

"Four samples from corpra of British English: 1931, 1961, 1991, 2006 --Quantitative analysis from corpus showed some reductions in frequencies of male terms, especially decreases in male pronouns and Mr. --Qualitative analysis from corpus found both reductions and maintenances of gender stereotypes ---Maintenance: -lack of adjectives like successful and powerful being attributed to women - ""girl"" being used more often than boy to refer to adults - Limitation: corpus from written and published text (fiction, ect) rather than spoken or unpublished texts "

Cameron (2003) // Gender

"Gender and Language change Some studies have offered support for Labov's generalizations , other have not: -Dubois and Harvath (2000) Cajun English speakers in Louisiana: Cajun variants are maing a comeback among young men- -Men ""torchbearers"" for Cajun language and culture - Gal (1978) Austrian town where Hungarian-German bilingualism was in the process of moving to German monolingulism: linguistic choices among women showed who they preferred to marry (Hungarian represented peasant identity, German represented worker identity) e.g. it was wa period where Austria had Hungarian and German language, so women would speak German to show they preffered to marry German men; it may have been either a conscious or unconscious choice Lingureform : equal opportunites, prohibiting sex discrimination with gender-neutral occupational terms, nonsexist langauges by piblishers"

Green (2004) // AAVEE

"Gives history and draws the conclusion that AAVE is a distinct dialect with well-defined rules (grammatical patterns & vocab). -Labels for AAVE, coincide with social climate -Complex setences, (ex: didn't nobody ask me fo I be late for class) -Multiple negations and inversions in phrases -Ethnolect: relative isolation, pattern of social interation, local , refional power relationship, access to education, speaker's own sense of overt/covert prestige."

Matsuda (2003) // World Englishes

"Incorporating World English in Teaching EIL -Matsuda claims that the current inner-circle-only model of teaching EFL in Japan is not appropriate in light of curricular goals, learner needs and existing ideas about how to incorporate WE. -Nat'l curriculum specifies that target model should be intelligible in international communication -Lack of exposure to NNS models can create difficulty communicating in real situations in Japan. -Ss should be assessed based on their communicative effectiveness, rather than their conformity to NS models -Textbooks should include characters from outer and expanding circle countries. -Teacher training should include knowledge about the current landscape of the English language. -Also need for educating the general public who may be opposed to World English teaching. They should understand that we are not replacing inner-circle English with less-perfect varieties, but we are enriching the curriculum. -A more inclusive look at the English language will help us understand EIL."

Wolfram and Schilling-Estes (2005) CH6 // Dialects

"Inherent variability: when speakers sometimes produce one form, and produce another form at other times [ -in' versus -ing] e.g. "I ain't goin'" vs. "I'm going tomorrow" -Overt prestige: forms that are assigned their social evaluation on the basis of widespread recognition (i.e. these forms are prestigious for everyone/all social groups) -Covert prestige: forms that are valued apart from, or even in opposition to their social significance for the wider society (i.e. these forms are prestigious only in a certain social group). -Study: Labov (1966) NYC post-vocalic R value has changed over time. In the past, there was less significance to the r-choices, but now, the presence of "r" is more highly valued. -Changes from below: language changes that take place below the level of consciousness [northern cities vowel shift] -Changes from above: language changes that take place at the level of consciousness [adoption or rejection of r-lessness] -Eckert: jocks and Burnouts -Dialect may lead to judgements on intelligence, employability, sense of humor, or morality. -Historically, exposure to education and social contacts were the basis for determining social class and therefore to describe social dialects (Kurath, 1939). -Social class traditionally determined by status and power; also influence over events. Socioeconomic status=variety of measures -Group exclusive usage: one community of speakers uses a feature, but another community never does. [quotative "be like" occurs only in younger generations--She's like "where are you going?"] -Group preferential: distributed across different groups or communities of speakers, but members of one group are more likely to use it. [Women make more color distinctions than men??] Ethnicity: -Ethnicity somewhat difficult to define, but self-ID can be more useful than institutional parameters. Ethnicity seems to be a key player in dialect choices. Ethnicity is a more powerful determinant of dialect than social class. -Study: Huffines (1984) English of Pennsylvania Dutch characterized by transfers from German (lexical, syntactic, and phonological) -Study: Rickford (1999) AAVE -Study: Labov (1966) NYC vowel system--ethnic differentiation more powerful than social differentiation. -Study: Mendoza-Denton (1999) studied chicano English among teenage girls and found that some girls pronounced -ing as -eeeng to signal greater social distance from European Americans and the Chicanas who associated with them (p. 198) -Study: Poplack (1978) gender: 6th grade Puerto Rican children in Philadelphia: girls more likely to acquire vowel traits of European Americans, boys more likely to acquire features associated with African American English "

Tannen (1994) // Gender

"Interruption in Conversation Cooperative vs. Obstructive Tannen (1994) interruption as cooperation rather than intrusion and dominance -intruption isn't always bad. Dominate can be the silent one in married couples complementary schismogenesis: people with differing conversational styles do not to adapt to each other and the interaction gets worse and worse, which frustrates both people"

Wolfson (1989) CH3 // General

"Investigating Spoken Interaction ethnomethodology: investigating everyday interaction. ethnography: situations and uses the patterns and functions of speaking in its own right. Performatives: verbs that perform an act purely through speaking. -An utterance that has the significance of an act is an "illocutionary act". "Illocutionary force" of an utterance may promise or warn--this force can be lost in translation from L1 to L2, especially in the case of indirect speech acts. -Direct Speech Act: form and function coincides (Ex: "close the door" = close door -Indirect Speech Act: form and function do not coincide (Ex: "Can you open the door?) Politeness: 1. Power (higher social position= more polite) 2.Social distance (more=more polite) 3.Threat you're imposing (bigger = more polite) negative politeness is expressing the DISTANCE between positive politeness is expressing the CLOSENESS between"

Schilling-Estes (2002) // Style

"Investigating Stylistic Variation -intra-speaker variation: variation in the speech of individual speakers (ex: shifts into and out of different registers, dialects, genres depending on audience, purpose of communication, etc...) -inter-speaker variation: variation across groups of individuals; investigated across different speaker groups -code-switching: switching between different languages rather than varieties of a single language -Variationist investigations have become both broader and deeper, qualitative as well as quantitative Three approaches to stylistic variation: 1. Attention to speech -Labov (1972): Sociolinguistic interviews, casual vs. formal speech, paralinguistic channel cues (tempo, pitch, volume, breathing rate, laughter); attention to speech triggers shifts in style -hypercorrect behavior in lower middle class (insecure, upward mobility) -Limitations: difficult to separate casual from careful speech, difficult to quantify attention to speech, level of formality can't be neatly correlated with attention to speech in spoken styles, views speakers as passive respondents 2. Audience Design -Proposed by Bell (1984) -Responsive dimension: Rickford and McNair-Knox (1994) "Foxy" study: Foxy used more AAVE with AA interviewers -Initiative dimension: Coupland (1980) travel assistant shifted style when she changed the purpose of her conversation -Limitations: reliance on responsive dimension, too unidimensional, left with the question of what it is about audience members that speakers are responding to 3. Speaker Design -Style is not reactive but a resource in active creation of speaker identity -People define themselves in relation to others Studies: -Coupland (1985, 2001): radio announcer uses style to accomplish different purposes (p. 389) -Arnold et al. (1993): California adolescent "Trendy" using intonational resources to craft individual as well as social group style -Campbell-Kibler et al. (2000): gay activist lawyer constructs "gay" as well as "not too gay" style to demonstrate professional competence in a radio debate -Limitations: beyond the range of what can comfortably be analyzed using quantitative techniques, not sure if findings can be generalized to larger community"

Biber and Conrad (2009) // Register Genre, and Style

"LINGUISTIC: -adjacency pairs -repetitions (repairs and co-constructed speech) -contractions -shortcuts (deletions of subject) -attention getter -use of pronoun "you" -yes/no and WH questions -use of imperatives -semi-modals and modals -lots of lexical verbs (not be) -adverbs and pronouns -short simple clauses with subject and verbs -that and what compliment clauses -Verbs like see, hope think, know and guess Situational: P R C S P C T (PROSPECT) Participants (addressor(s)/addressee(s)) - social char., self/other, onlookers? Relations among participants- status / power / shared knowledge / interactiveness Channel - mode (speech / written), medium (taped, email, face-to-face) Setting - time and place shared by participants? / private, public / time period Production circumstances- real time / planned / edited Communicative Purposes - report / inform/ persuade / entertain / how-to / summarize / factual Topic - "domain", workplace, daily activity, domestic, legal, ed., sports, entertainment, etc."

McGroarty (1996) // Attitudes

"Language Attitudes, Motivation and standards Extrinsic/Intrinsic motv. -Orientation less important than intensity of motivation (integrative means fitting in/the desire to do so; instrumental means how can you contribute to the society like getting a job; extrinsic means, intrinsic means) -Many different factors bear on motivation; affective factors, context of instruction, personality, anxiety, etc. -Attitudes about language and lang varieties affected by: peer group membership (Labov, 1972: AA teenagers)/social identity, community norms, gender (see pages 13-15) -Trad classrooms, teachers support standard lang use. Prescriptive norms more highly associated w/ literacy instruction. -Social relationships and inequities are often reinforced in classroom situations. -Teachers display more negative attitudes towards ss who display non-standard lang features. (Ford, 1984) -Students and parent attitudes shaped by schooling experiences and learning context. -Parents often want children to learn bilingual skills, but don't want non-standard varieties taught in schools. School is where you learn standard or prestige variety. -"Language policies...embody and shape attitudes towards language" (27). -Legislators may not have prof lang expertise or ed, & attitudes about lang & lang ed may not be informed or accurate. -More local & decentralized policy decision making = more conflict. Ts need to be trained in conflict resolution as part of prof repertoire. T's need to take part in policy decision formulation. - Bi-dialectal skills (pg. 20) = there's no consensus on whether or not the AAVE should be used in school"

Spolsky (2009) CH 13 // Policy

"Language management A theory of language management: postscript or prolegomena 1) Language practices and beliefs Spolsky says that people attempt to control or "change other people's language practices or beliefs." Practices (choices among languages, varieties and variants) Beliefs (values they assign to those languages, varieties, and variants) 2) Domains Values, roles, locality, socio-political units 3) Accommodation a. When you try to correct a problem, either by repeating, or restating in other words, or in some circumstances by trying another language. b. Improve proficiency in the appropriate variety or language by taking some action to learn it from a book, a tape, or in a course. c. parents and caretakers in the family domain; teachers in the school domain because of their authority and duty. 4) Complex linguistic conflict Multilingualism, values. Pragmatic needs of members of the domain, but also from beliefs coming from perceptions of practices in other domains. Values between family tradition (membership in a religious or ethnic group)/wider domain (workplace, school, government 5) Domains Religious Workplace Public linguistic space School Courts, hospitals, police stations Military language management Governments managing language Activism and pursuit of minority rights Beyond the nation-state: organizations and rights Agencies for language management CLT approach: Low profile teachers What are some of the features for teachers who focus on student centeredness? Frequent pair work or small group problem solving, students responding to authentic samples of English, extended exchanges on high interest topics, and the integration of the four basic skills, namely speaking, listening, reading, and writing "

Spolsky (2009) CH 6 // Policy

"Language policy in schools -Many children find a gap between -language of home and school -being encouraged to speak at home vs. being expected to be quiet at school -Relationship between school and religion -access sacred texts -School works toward monolingualism in language associated with literacy -Students vary -younger=more likely to use language pattern of the home -beliefs about language and values assigned -Schools must build on pre-school beliefs -Teachers vary -Cultural value of teachers vary -T have varying beliefs about language -T are also not good at separating belief from practice -Other participants -administrators (principals, dept heads, deans, chairs, owners, managers.... -non-academic support staff (bus drivers, cleaners, secretaries, etc...) -Self-managed school -rare -Locally managed school -Ex: Navajo schools 1970's, Amish schools -Externally managed school -Ex: religious schools, school board with authority over several schools -Different levels of externally managed schools: local, city-wide, regional, national, federal, imperial *conflicts among these levels is common -Managing teachers/quality of education: No child left behind -Immersion vs. submersion -additive vs. replacive bilingualism -Debate about teaching in Ss first language vs. Ss weaker language -Ss are expected to "pick it up" -Another consideration is level of development -Ex: Navajo needed lexicon for math -Ideological concerns -Schools reflect ideologies of those who control them -Language in school is key component in natl lang policy -Functions -Transitional vs. maintenance programs -Choice of language is one issue; choice of variety of that language is another issue -Foreign languages -when to start teaching, what variety? -Tools of language management -Teachers, managing admission"

Preston (1998) // Dialects

"Langugae Myths NYC vs. Southern Accent -Non-linguists tend to classify or perceive their own dialects as standards or as not having a dialect. So, folk lingusits often measure their own dialects against their own. -Perceptions and stereotypes are associated with different regional varieties Lingusitic insecurity --> people who rank their own variety as undesirable / incorrect"

Wolfson (1989) CH7 // General

"Miscommunication sociolinguistic/ pragmatic transfer: Transfer of pragmatic rules form L1 to L2: (DIFFICULTIES) (Ex: English speakers apologize more than Hebrew speakers) Clyne (1977) communication breakdrown: the speaker's intention is not understood by the addressee (caused by linguistic factors) communication conflict: such a misunderstanding can lead to an actual friction between the interlocutors. (caused by nonlinguistic factors) -> both CB and CC are attributed to cross-cultural,social, individual differences. --transfer in apologies"

Janda (1985) // Simplified Register

"Note taking -Ten features identified for Note-Taking: 1. abbreviation/ symbols 2. article omission 3. pronoun omission 4. interrogative-auxilliary "do" 5. finite copula omission 6. phrase / multi-word group omission 7. combining sentences 8. participialization of relative clauses (switch "which" with "-ing" 9. nominalization 10. passivization Situational characteristics: Functional purposes: surface brevity Newspaper writing, academic prose, and fiction, research articles, editorial"

Preston (1986) // Dialects

"Perceptual dialectology -Particpants draw maps of US dialects (South, NYC, Texas, Cali, Northeast): the perceptual boundaries of nonlinguist informants on regional distinctness do not correspond with the map of traditional dialect boundaries, The maps shown to be of value in calculating attitudinal facotrs and may be of importance in determining the existence and scope of ""speech community."" The worse areas in terms of langauge use (most non-standard) were NYC, south, and Hawaii. Participants may have misunderstood directions to evaluate the dialects NObody could decide what constitues the midwest Differences between evaluate (make a judgement good or bad and describes (list characterisitcs in a non-biased way)? -p. 239: much of langauge attitude study misleading b/c where are the geographical boundaries of mid-west? South? ect?"

Labov (1990) // Gender

"Propsed the following generalization: -In Stable varieties, men use nonstandard more -Change from above (deliberate langauges use), women perfer incoming prestige -Change from below (unconsious language use), women are innovative **Gender Paradox (Labov 2001), women conform to overtly prescibed norms, but confomrs less when norms are not overtly prescribed. Women lead more changes, but don't know why. "

Wolfram and Schilling-Estes (2005) CH5 // Dialects

"Regional Dialects -Traditional approach: looks at pronunciation, grammar, and vocab used in frames and eliciation in questionnaires -Perceptual dialectology: new approach to study regional dialects. Participants draw maps (this is from Preston, 1986) -Discourse completion task: usually for cross-cultural communication. Elicit reposnses within context of dialogue. Isogloss: geographic boundaries of different dialect variants. -Northern cities vowel shift --long vowels are moving forward then upward then upward, short voweks moving downward and backward. -Southern voel shift (Labov, 1994) speech is diverging rather than converging Dialect diffusion: Changes in American English are initiated in upper working and lower middle class groups, then spread to other classes -Wave (contagiopus diffusion, straightforward) and hierarchical (cascade diffusion=larger cities first, then smaller cities. Also, changes begin in large, heavily populated cities which have historically been cultural centers. --Women and young speakers are quick to adopt a new speech form. "

Ferguson (1983) // Register

"Register: Sports Announcer Talk Syntactic Characteristics 1. Simplification: sentence-initial noun phrase or noun phrase plus copular; post-nominal copula 2. Absence of sentence initial subject- "running into first base"- you care about the action, not the subject) 2. inversions: predicate precedes the subject; typically the subject is player's name, the verb is copula or - less often - a verb of motion such as come or go "holding up at third is Murphy" 3. result expressions: for + noun and to + verb ("for the win") 4. heavy modifiers ("Shumpert, shooting guard") 5. tense use: simple present and present progressive ("Kobe drives") Situation: Audience- Channel- monologue/dialogue Relations among participants- shared knowledge between announces and audience Production- radio / TV Setting- Public Communicative purposes- Report inform/ explain / entertain Topic- sports, specific topics Shortening of words Omission of finite forms and copula Omission of articles, Omission of multi-word groups and entire phrases Motivational function is to catch the real-time speech production Low use of pronouns. Wide audience"

Rickford (1999) CH14 // AAVE

"Rickford claim that Sociolingusitcs and AAVE have unequal realtionship. Sociolinguistics learns from AAVE. Not a lot of research. Contributes of the African-American Speech Community to Sociolinguistics -Variable rules -Analysis of AAVE tense-aspect markers -Relation to central socio concepts -Analysis of narratives and speech events - Diachronic issues Contributions of sociolingustics to the African-American speech community -Intro of AA linguists to the field -- NOT MANY -The representation of the African-American speech communities -Less discrimination in prisons, courts, and workplaces -AAVE studies have had an influence on elementary education (e.g. bridge programs)"

Wolfson (1989) CH1 // General

"Sociolinguistic Relativity - different speech communities have their own rules for speaking specific to their community, Not universal across groups. -Pragmatic = Language in use; underlines speech act -Cultural norms for speech behavior vary across cultures and also within them. (w/in culture ex: Keenan, 1974 -- women in Malagasy communication sentiments directly that men do not) Pedagogic Implication -- to be communicatively competent L2 learners need to learn through sociocultural interaction and exposure w/ native speakers, may not be able to teach rules explicitly (controversial) "

Wolfson (1989) CH6 // General

"Speech Behavior and social dynamics Rules of speaking, interaction in middle class -Bulge Theory (Wolfson, 1989) If we know someone really well, or a stranger = brief and direct contact -we have more complex, longer interactions with people who do not have a fixed relationship with us. -People with whom you are acquainted, but not really well = indirect, complicated interactions -Expressions of gratitude do not fit with the bulge theory -Americans do not usually want to accept compliments to show that we're all equal/no one's better than anyone (DIFFICULTIES) Primary Speech group= often share same space (e.g. sorority); Secondary Speech group= people you may hang out with from time to time, but you do not share space and/or not as close with the members of your primary group L2 Pedagogy Language teachers belong to speech communities, students belong to others. Whose rules do we teach? (Matsuda, 2003)"

Hyme (1972) // General

"Speech Community Community sharing rules for the conduct and interpretation of speech, and rules for the interpretation of atleat one linguistic variety"

Rickford (1999) CH1 // AAVE

"Stressed BIN = remote past (a long time ago) --Research finds that some people wanted to associate with AAVE, while others found a stigma in the non-standard form. --Researchers should be critical of elicited intuitive data. Intuitions are useful, but can be misleading."

Wardhaugh (2010) // Gender

"Summary of Research 1. Linguistic Features --phonological differences, e.g. American Lnaguage --voice quality in the workplace --morpho and vocab (women use color words (Lakoff, 1973)) --Grammatical patterns (women use rising intonation, hedging) 2. Women focus on affective functions of interaction (the thought process before words come out of the mouth) 3. women are always shopping for the more prestigious linguistic forms, but not likley to give up the old clothes (old form)"

Wolfson (1989) CH 4 // General

"The Sociolinguistics Behavior of English Speakers Speech Acts (Hymes, 1972)- minimal unit of speech that has rules in terms of where and when they may occur; has cultural info embedded in it. Forms of Address: Systematic: English tends to do the 0 title (to negotiate what to call each other); Depends on social difference; reciprocal pattern (I'll address you how you address me). Studies: Brown & Gilman, 1960- informal vs. formal you (TLN & FN); Ervin Tripp, 1969- typical title patterns (e.g. Dr. + Last name); Brown & Ford, 1965- no naming (reciprocal) Terms: reciprocal pattern, title last name (TLN), first name (FN); no naming (0 title) Disapproval: Systematic: depends on social difference in terms of directness vs. indirectness (complaining is related) Studies: D'amico-Reisner, 1983/5- adult to adult scolding (rhetorical vs. response expected questions). Terms: indirect (for people with equal status) vs. direct disapproval (for lower status & people of familiarity); rhetorical questions; response-expected questions Apologies: Systematic: Say why whatever happened, offer compensation. Difficulties in comparing cross-culturally; different types: repair damage, provide compensation. Studies: Owen, 1980- ritual (limited #/formulaic) or substantive remedies (more creative); Borkin & Reinhart, 1978- Excuse me (remedy of past or forthcoming breach of etiquette) & I'm sorry (Expression of regret & dismay) Terms: Accounts (present why & offer details/compensations) Refusals: Systematic: (p.100) 3 major strategies for refusing people of equal status to be used in order: 1) expression of positive expression; 2) expression of regret; & 3) excuse, reason, or explanation Studies: Beebe et al, 1985- direct vs. indirect refusal. Terms: Categories: 1) refusals to requests, 2) refusals to invitations, 3) refusals to offers, 4) refusals to suggestions; limitations with DCT research Requests: Systematic: 6 categories: 1) needs statements, 2) imperatives, 3) embedded imperatives, 4) permission directives, 5) non-explicit question directives, 6) hints. Studies: Ervin-Tripp, 1986- # of social factors influenced requests: greater age, social status, physical distance, tension, and the specialness of request in terms of the addressee's usual obligations to the speaker; Blum-Kulka, 1982/3- Israeli Hebrew- most important factors conditioning request forms are degree of social difference & power between interlocutors; Fraser et al, 1980- English speakers are more direct and less differential in requesting strategies than Spanish speakers Expressions of gratitude: Systematic: Thanking sequence: both thanker and giver to create mutual satisfactory interaction. Studies: Eisenstein & Bodman, 1986- 1) expression of gratitude is mutual, 2) expressions are much longer than thought before, 3) length dependent on perceived indebtedness; Smith, 1985- expression of thanks used by NNS (respond with silence, ok, and you're welcome) and NS (silence, mhm, and you're welcome); Grief & Gleason, 1980- gender differences—women were more likely to thank than men under laboratory conditions Telephone use conventions Systematic: (p.95) rules for self-identification openings are variable across culture. Studies: Schmidt, 1985- examined 3 interactions between 2 people German identifies self w/o request, Americans verify they have reached the right party by saying the same with a rising terminal, Egyptians unwilling to be first to be identified; Clark & French, 1981- analyzed telephone goodbyes of Urban-Americans: we agree no further topics will be raised, relationship will continue, & exchange goodbyes Greetings: Systematic: Formulaic ritual. Studies: Krivonos & Kanapp, 1975- college age men's most common nonverbal greetings including nonverbal (head gestures, mutual glances, & smiles) & verbal (topic initiation, verbal solute, & reference to interlocutor); Wessler, 1984- interaction amongst status equals who are well acquainted were not initiated by formulaic greeting but by a comment or a question related to shared information Partings: Systematic: ambiguous because they require creative generation of new forms. Studies: Kanapp, et all, 1973- verbal vs. nonverbal behavior with partings in American society—laboratory study—findings: verbal behavior differed occurring to status & reinforcement of status occurred between status equals but not among unequals); Schmandt, 1985- spontaneous leave taking situations; indicated the most variable entity was expectations of future interaction. Terms: closing vs. pre-closing "

Tannen (2005) // Conversation Style

"Theoretical background: (1). Conversation style (2). Universality of politeness and rapport: a. Lakoff's (1973) three rules of politeness b. Durkheim's (1915) and Goffman's (1967) religious rites and deference concept c. Brown and Levison's (1987) negative and positive politeness (3). Pragmatic synonymy vs. pragmatic homonymy (4). Gumperz's (1982) ways we signal our communicative activities and the function of contextualization clues across cultures; its usefulness and limitations (5). High-involvement vs. high-considerateness Conversational features in Tannen: MOLPEF -Machine gun questions -overlapping (cooperative/obstructive) -latching -persistence (topic continuation) -expressive phonology (high pitch and intonation) -fast paced -mutual revelation devices Narrative strategies -Narrative -Story round -Story cluster -Framing -Thematic cohesion -Expressive and understated evaluation and response -Intonation as an indicator of style -Cooperative and impatient prompting -Conversational control habits and stereotyping and implications for L2 teaching and learning summary of style features and discourse coherence 1. Subjective knowing & objective knowing 2. Rhythm and conversation 3. Surface linguistic structures and conversation 4. Indirectness and ellipsis 5. Figures of speech 6. Imagery and detail and subjective knowing Three theoretical frameworks characterizing Tannen's analysis of Conversational Style: 1. Ambiguity and polysemy 2. The interplay of power and solidarity 3. The linguistic framing of meaning in interaction Tannen (2005) The thanksgiving diner book High involvement style vs. high considerateness style. MOBFLEPP -Machine gun questions and responses -Overlapping -Backchanneling -Fast-paced -Limited tolerance for silence. -Expressive phonology and intonation -Persistence- -Prompting (cooperative vs. impatient) All of this is done to establish the feeling that the speakers are very interested in what each other has to say, create bonds and maintain friendship. However, individuals who do not use this style of speaking (see above) or who use it to a lesser degree find these people obnoxious, overbearing, and monopolizing."

Bobda (2010) // World English

"Word Stress in Cameroon and Nigerian Englishes Strategies to cope with the complexity of English word stress This article compares word stress among Cameroonian and Nigerian English learners to Received Pronunciation (RP). Word stress placement in the 2 accents is predictable and can be explained by phonological rules. English stress is difficult to learn and employ, even though there are rules that govern it. "

Cohen and Olshtain (1983) // General

"apologies: among the native speakers of Hebrews, American English, and Russian, the use of apologies was the most frequent among the native speakers of American English. --transfer in refusals"

Cohen and Olshtain (1981) // General

"apologies: compared Hebrew and English. Native speakers apology forms are highly pattered; NNS deviate from native speakers norms due not only to their L1 transfer but also their lack of proficiency in L2."

Eisentein and Bodman (1986) // General

"gratitude (native speakers highly formulaic--meaning knowing the adjaceny pairs etc--, using routines, almost always include the same info. NNs very different. Only similar to NS 30%, 70% different. Difficulties not only with syntax and lexicon but with the formulas or conventionalized routines. ->advanced level learners have considerable difficulty in attempting to perfom ""formulaic speech routines."" -teaching implication"

Beebe et al (1985) // General

"refusals: Unlike English speaking Americans, Japanese did not apologize or express regret in responses to those of lower position both in English and in their native language; (the status of the addressee is an important factor) -> pragmatic/ sociolinguistic transfer c.f) Americans were sensitive to status equals vs. status equals. (A Bulge Theory) -Unlike other types of transfer, pragmatic transfer may well increase with learners' ability to express themselves. (the more fluent the speaker, the more the potential for inappropriate speech behavior.) --Transfer in requests"

Ferguson (1975) // Simlified register

Baby Talk

Hymes (1967, 1972) // General

Communicative Competence refers to the ability of native speakers to use their langauge resources in ways that are both linguistically accurate and sociolinguistically appropriate. TESOL practitioners have implemented this concept into teaching by making materials more authentic and based on the functional use of the target langugae.