Sociology 134 Final

What are the key ideas in the assigned excerpt from "The Forest and the Trees"?

"One thing":"We are always participating in something bigger than ourselves, and if we want to understand social life and what happens to people in it, we have to understand what it is that we're participating in and how we participate in it." Social systems (social arrangements) create "paths of least resistance" (Monopoly example) Thinking of social systems as "just people" results in defensiveness to critiques of system We can't reduce social systems to "kinds of people" "Good people" may participate in or benefit from bad systems.This may not make them "bad people," but it involves them in the system's negative consequences.

What does it mean to say that people "do" gender?

--Gender is something that people "do" --People can do gender creatively, but particular institutions or interactions may prescribe gender being done in specific ways

What is occupational segregation and how does it contribute to the pay gap? How are the meaning of men's and women's work reflected in the ideas of a "family wage" and "pin money"?

--Occupational segregation --Around 4 in 10 of both men and women work in traditionally gendered jobs --Women's work is less valued than men's: Male-dominated professions tend to pay more than female-dominated professions of similar skill level --IT managers earn 27% more than human resource managers Janitors earn 22% more than maids and housecleaners --Jobs requiring nurturing skills are the most underpaid --A recent analysis estimated that differences in types of work men and women account for half the pay gap (Blau & Kahn 2016) Historically, employers (and unions) believed that men, but not women, needed a "family wage" (vs."pin money") As more women enter a profession, perceptions of its value and required skill decrease Examples of pay decreases in professions that feminized between 1950-2000 (Levanon, England & Allison 2009) Recreation workers in parks & camps: 57% pay decrease Ticket agent: 43% pay decrease Designers: 34% pay decrease Housekeepers: 21% pay decrease Biologists: 18% pay decrease Computer programing gained in pay and prestige as it moved from a female to a male job

The corset was given as an example of a beauty-enhancing technology.What did the corset do? When was it most popular? How did it serve as a rite of passage? What arguments were made by proponents and opponents of the corset?

--Provided conical shape to torso --Popular in 16th century Elizabethan era --Helped a woman get a husband --Health problems: social ills - premature aging Doctors warned against the many health problems caused by corsets Fainting couches were a standard furniture item The corset industry connected "corsetless evil" to communism and other social ills and claimed that it would result in premature aging

What are some ways that average male and female work patterns differ? How do these contribute to the pay gap?

--Women's great involvement in child/elder-care creates a seniority gap --Women's choices may be constrained by education, home-work conflict and the family wage gap --Many jobs are designed for unencumbered (male) worker with no child care responsibilities ---Mandatory overtime, afterwork training programs, expectation of putting in time in office, etc. work against mothers (and fathers who are primary caregivers), who receive a "mommy (or daddy) tax" --Most of the pay gap is not explained by different work choices and human capital (education, training)

List and explain each of the four factors that contribute to the pay gap.

1. Different work patterns Human capital & work choices --Women's great involvement in child/elder-care creates a seniority gap --Women's choices may be constrained by education, home-work conflict and the family wage gap --Many jobs are designed for unencumbered (male) worker with no child care responsibilities ---Mandatory overtime, afterwork training programs, expectation of putting in time in office, etc. work against mothers (and fathers who are primary caregivers), who receive a "mommy (or daddy) tax" --Most of the pay gap is not explained by different work choices and human capital (education, training) 2. Occupational segregation + work devaluating --Occupational segregation --Around 4 in 10 of both men and women work in traditionally gendered jobs --Women's work is less valued than men's: Male-dominated professions tend to pay more than female-dominated professions of similar skill level --IT managers earn 27% more than human resource managers Janitors earn 22% more than maids and housecleaners --Jobs requiring nurturing skills are the most underpaid --A recent analysis estimated that differences in types of work men and women account for half the pay gap (Blau & Kahn 2016) 3. Occupation-wide pay discrimination --Women are paid less than men for the same jobs --Of 108 professions with enough data (2009) for comparison, women are paid more in only four: other life, physical, and social science technicians (102.4%), bakers (104.0%), teacher assistants (104.6%), and dining room and cafeteria attendants and bartender helpers (111.1%) 4. Promotion gap

Give examples illustrating: (1) historical variation in beauty standards, (2) achieving beauty standards may require effort, time, money & pain, and (3) new beauty-enhancing technology may create new expectations.

1. Historical variation in beauty standards i.16th century: flat chest and 13 in waist - corsets ii.17th century: large bust and hips; pale complexion iii.19th century: tiny "wasp waist," full hips, and bust b.achieving beauty standards may require effort, time money, and pain i.corsets: fainting couches, premature aging, ii.foot surgery (to fit in high heels) iii.China: break legs and separate them every day for years (to be taller) iv.Plastic surgery c.New beauty-enhancing technology may create new expectations i.Plastic surgery ii.Wealthy can better afford to be beautiful iii.corsets

What is the trend in CEO salaries? How does it compare to the trend for other workers' salaries?

2011: average CEO pay (S&P 500): $12.9 million 380 times pay of average worker (was 107x in 1990)

What is the male-female pay gap? How has it changed over the past four decades? How does gap differ by race and education level?

2014:Women made around fourth-fifths of what men made Median annual earnings (full-time, year round workers): Men $50,443, women $39,668. (78.6%) Median usual weekly earnings (full-time, weekly workers): Men $872, women 720 (82.5%) --The gap is shrinking --Gap holds for different races, education levels, & jobs

What is the pay gap between white and black households? How has it changed over the past several decades?

66.3%; Slightly closed in the past 40 years

Describe and explain Corinne Moss-Racusin et al's study of pay discrimination, including its research method, design, and findings.

A 2012 study by Yale researchers (Moss-Racusin et al.) had science faculty evaluate a job application for a laboratory manager position "Male" applicants were rated as more competent, more deserving of being hired, and deserving a higher salary ($4000 more) than "female" applicants with identical credentials Male and female faculty had similar levels of bias

Define absolute poverty, relative poverty, poverty line, poverty rate. How does the government define poverty? Why has that approach been criticized? Who are the near-poor?

Absolute poverty: inability to afford the minimal requirements for sustaining healthy existence Relative poverty: individual's economic position compared to the living standards of the majority in society In the U.S., relative poverty may involve "food insecurity," health problems, lack of access to health care, shorter lifespan, lack of educational opportunity Poverty line: amount of yearly income a family requires to meet its basic needs, according to the federal government 2017 poverty line: one person: $12,060; two people: $16,240; family of three: $20,420; family of four: $24,600 Poverty rate: percentage of people whose income falls below the poverty line 2015 poverty rate: 13.5% = 43.1 million Americans in poverty Poverty is created by structural factors, but biographical factors shape who becomes poor.

What was Adam Smith's argument about how capitalism is supposed to work?

Adam Smith argued that the capitalist economy should be organized so that if each person follows their individual self- interest, others will benefit (the "invisible hand") Smith also described (and warned against) the ways that capitalism doesn't work this way

Define, explain and give examples of borderwork.

Barrie Thorne conducted ethnographic research on gender interactions in elementary schools. When elementary school students are away from school, relaxed cross-sex interactions are common In school, children engage in cross-sex "border work" Borderwork: cross-sex activity that strengthens boundaries between girls and boys E.g., contests, rituals of pollution ("cooties"), playground invasions Borderwork also illustrates inequality of boys and girls

What are some of the complications of the U.S. racial system? Explain the one drop-rule, miscegenation, passing, and process of "becoming white." Why is each significant for understanding the U.S. racial system? What is Loving v.Virginia?

Because the white-black distinction was so important, the boundary between whiteness and non-whiteness need to be established and enforced The "one-drop rule"—one drop of black blood (i.e., any percentage of ancestry) makes someone black— was intended to preserve white purity The "one-drop rule" continues to shape the way we think about race Miscegenation: racist term for marriage or sexual relations between a man & a woman of different races First North American anti-miscegenation law was Virginia's in 1691 In 1967, Loving v.Virginia outlawed anti- miscegenation laws Because the white-black distinction was so important, non-white people and groups have attempted to become white Because of the one-drop rule, many blacks throughout U.S. history have looked white enough to "pass" as white; this has resulted in a large percentage of whites with black ancestry New immigrant groups, e.g., Irish, Slavs, Italians, Jews, have been successful in becoming white

How does sociology address the question of the differences between men and women? How does it address the question of whether "nature" or "nurture" is more important in understanding gender differences/inequality? What do sociologists emphasize as the primary source of gender inequality?

Biological differences don't explain social differences The Western belief in dimorphism (existence of only two types of bodies) isn't universal (or supported by biology) Gender meanings differ historically and culturally Femininity and masculinity in the West both have histories --Manhood in the U.S. changed from "useful man" to "self-made man" --During the 20th Century's "crisis of masculinity," manhood became the opposite of femininity rather than the opposite of boyhood Men and women are more alike than different Gender differences between men and women are usually average differences Many alleged differences between men and women aren't supported by research The terms of the "nature" vs."nurture" debate tends to emphasize socialization as the primary way society shapes us Gender socialization: process through which one learns how to act according to the rules and expectations of a particular culture regarding gender

How do different work patterns contribute to the black-white pay gap?

Blacks are more likely to get lower paying jobs whereas whites will more likely have opportunities to make more therefore creating a gap.

Why did the boys in Pascoe's study call each other "fags"? Why is this significant?

C.J. Pasco conducted ethnographic research in a California high school on how boys do masculinity Boys can be called fags for any "non-masculine" behavior E.g., being stupid, incompetent, dancing, caring about clothing, being too emotional "Fag" is not a static identity that sticks to particular boys. It is a "fluid identity" that boys struggle to avoid by passing it to others. Anyone can be labeled a fag. Calling someone else a "fag" indicates you are not a fag. By continually repudiating "fags," boys assure themselves of their masculinity.

How can capitalist firms make money without producing and/or selling valuable goods or services?

Capitalists may make money through corporate welfare, speculation, or fraud

How can corporations make money from fraud? Give examples.

Companies can make money by stealing from customers, overstating the value of their company, selling worthless or nonexistent products, and so on. Enron executives engaged in complicated schemes to create the illusion of profit where none existed and avoid taxes. During 2000, the top 200 executives averaged $7 million in pay. Enron also contributed to an electricity shortage in California; energy traders bragged about it on tape ("All the money you guys stole from those poor grandmothers in California?" "Yeah, Grandma Millie man." "Yeah, now she wants her f-----g money back for all the power you've charged right up, jammed right up her a—for f-----g $250 a megawatt hour."). The scandal resulted in 34 criminal charges, the loss of employees' pensions and the destruction of Arthur Andersen.The chairman (Ken Lay) and CEO were both convicted of fraud. Bernie Madoff defrauded investors of $65 billion in a Ponzi scheme and was sentenced to 150 years in prison in 2009. Wells Fargo bankers created 2 million unauthorized bank and credit card accounts in the 2010s. 5,300 bankers were fired.

How do conservative and liberal approaches to poverty differ? How are they similar?

Conservative approaches tend to focus on poverty as an individual failing. Thus, government programs are criticized because they keep people from changing themselves However, government programs (supported by liberals) also focus on individuals Some programs (e.g., job training) focus on improving people's competitive advantage within the system Other programs (e.g.,TANF, food stamps) alleviate suffering, but also don't address economic system Individual characteristics help explain who is poor, but not the amount of a society's poverty

What are some personal consequences of beauty standards? What are some of the advantages and the costs of meeting them?

Discrimination in many institutions Grade school teachers judge cute children more intelligent Beauty may result in better treatment in the criminal justice system Beautiful people are considered more competent by personnel interviewers (but beautiful women may be considered less capable for managerial positions) --Medical side effects of achieving beauty --Dissatisfaction with bodies --Appearance may play a large role in age --discrimination

Explain what rent-seeking is and give examples? Why might established capitalists prefer rent-seeking to a free market?

Economists use the term "rent-seeking" to describe manipulating economic environment, e.g., through government action, to produce value for the company, such as through tariffs, tax breaks, exclusive licensing, creating barriers to entry. Often called "corporate welfare." Established capitalists tend to want markets to be less free ("pro- business" agenda) at the expense of other corporations and consumers

Why is education so important for understanding the reproduction of inequality? What is the reproduction of inequality?

Education is a key way that inequality is reproduced, i.e., individuals' class standing is linked to their parents'

How does race differ from earlier approaches to human differences? In what way is race a "modern" approach? Explain the claim that race and racism have always been connected.

For many societies, the most important distinction is between "us" and "them E.g., Greeks vs. barbarians Race is a modern approach to human differences connected to other modern developments, including science, capitalism, colonialism, and modern weaponry Race and racism have always been connected Defining non-white people as inferior is part of the ideological foundation for colonialism and slavery

What were the findings of Ford and Beach's 1951 study of beauty standards in "primitive" societies? Why are they significant?

Ford and Beach's 1951 study of "primitive" societies found no universal standards; cultures don't have the same values.

What is the "glass ceiling" and the "glass escalator"? How do they contribute to the male-female pay gap?

Glass ceiling Women held 13.5% (697 out of 5,161) Fortune 500 executive officer positions in 2009 Women held 15.2% of Fortune 500 corporate board seats in 2009- A condition in which a qualified person within the hierarchy of an organization is held at a lower level because of some form of discrimination (once you reach a certain level it is hard to crack; whether the discrimination is intended or not is the question. The way it is being done is part of natural history) - It is most often present to prevent women from advancing to leadership positions in the workplace Glass escalator Christine Williams' research on men in female- dominated professions (nurses, teachers, librarians, social workers) found they were pushed upwards A condition in which a man in a conventionally female dominated occupation is promoted more rapidly with lesser qualifications (not elevator because you cannot see each floor, but with escalator you can)

What does the example of sickle-cell disease illustrate about the interaction between biological and social processes?

In the United States, sickle-cell disease is more common in blacks (1-in-500) than whites This is a result of an interaction between a biological process (the sickle cell mutation arose independently in areas with malaria) and a social process (forced migration of Western Africans to North American)

What are the patterns of income inequality shown on the graphs shown during lecture? Is income inequality in the U.S. going up or down? How does income inequality in the U.S. compare to other industrialized nations? How does income inequality compared to Americans' perceptions of it? To what people would like it to be?

Income inequality in the U.S. has been increasing for the past three-plus decades. It is higher than in other industrialized nations. - A small minority controls most of the nations wealth. - We have one of the two highest income inequality rates (tied with Argentina) - The wealthy take up more than Americans think. - They would like to be fairly equal.

Explain Max Weber's concept of "life chances."

Max Weber thought of class stratification in terms of "life chances" Your place in the stratification system (e.g., your class, race or gender) may not determine your access to valued resources, but it affects your chances Different stratification systems offer different opportunities (chances) for mobility

How does the essay about "The Rules" illustrate white privilege?

My daughter is only 6 years old, yet I find myself teaching her 'the rules' without even knowing it. 'The Rules' are do's and don'ts for African Americans living in a racist society. My parents taught me 'the rules' because they knew what the world was like for African Americans.... Here are some of 'the rules' my parents taught me, and I now that I am a parent, I teach my daughter." — Michelle Johnson 1. Don't touch anything when you go into stores. 2.Always ask for a bag for the items you purchased. 3. Know who you are.You can't do everything they do. 4. Go where you say you are going and come straight home. 5. Recognize that if you choose a boyfriend of another ethnic group, you might face criticism and even violence from others.

Be familiar with the racial taxonomies shown in class and their significance.

Nazis believed that "Aryans" were the master race Other white people (Slavs, Jews, Romani) were considered racial inferiors, but Japanese were "honorary Aryans" South African apartheid had four categories (White, Black, Colored, Indian) Apartheid was designed to support white minority rule Race determined where a person could live, work, go to school

For what reasons is income inequality rising?

One of the reasons for rising income inequality is the rising salaries of corporate executives.These have gone up faster than worker salaries. Rising salaries for Wall Street and other executives Growing gap between people with and without college educations decline in labor movement tax rates and other government policies

According to the Adlers' study, how did popularity factors differ for boys and girls? What is the significance of this?

Patti & Peter Adler studied friendship and popularity among elementary school students Students' culture includes criteria for popularity Boys and girls have different criteria for popularity Boys' popularity factors: athletic ability,"coolness," toughness, savoir-faire (social and interpersonal skills), interest in and romantic success with girls Academic success can be a negative factor Girls' popularity factors: family background (financial, laissez- faire attitude), physical attractiveness, social skills (precociousness, ability to form elite social groups) Popularity standards involve gender inequality Boys focus on developing autonomy, while girls develop a culture of compliance and conformity The status of girls is influenced by the status of boys they date, but not vice versa

What does it mean that poverty isn't just an individual attribute? How is poverty a consequence of our economic system? Give specific reasons.

Poverty isn't just an individual attribute Poverty is one end of the income distribution. It's a consequence of how we organize our economic system. Our system encourages the accumulation of wealth Most people rely on their labor to make a living Efficient management of companies (formal rationality) may involve eliminating workers or paying them little Divorce and marriage rates can affect poverty rates Single-parent families have the highest rate of poverty Our health care system can lead to medical bankruptcies Racism and sexism result in higher rates of poverty among targets of discrimination Individual cases of people falling into poverty are connected to larger forces

What is race? What is its connection to biology? Why is it a social construct? What does it mean to say that race has no "scientific" basis?

Race: category of people labeled and treated as similar because of some common biological traits, such as skin color, texture of hair, and shape of eyes. These traits are culturally determined Race has no "scientific" basis, e.g., DNA Biological variability exists, but doesn't conform to our "race" categories; racial characteristics aren't transmitted as complexes

Define and explain racism, personal racism, implicit racial bias, and institutional racism. Give examples of institutional racism.

Racism: belief, attitudes or actions based on the idea that humanity is divided into distinct races that are different in their social behavior and innate capacities and that can be ranked as superior or inferior. Personal racism: individual's expression of racist attitudes or behaviors. Can be either prejudice (attitudes) or discrimination (unfair treatment). Implicit racial bias: attitudes about race people have without awareness or conscious intent. Institutional racism: laws, customs, and practices that systematically reflect and produce racial and ethnic inequalities in a society, whether or not the individuals maintaining these laws, customs, and practices have racist intentions --ex: Some race-neutral policies that may produce different results that differ by race: "Redlining" (denying services by neighborhood) of housing loans, supermarket placement, pizza delivery, etc. "Legacy" admissions policies Drug sentencing laws, e.g., 100-to-1 rule Cosmetology licensing laws (as applied to African hair braiding) Hiring through existing social/professional networks

What evidence was presented during lecture about the existence of racial hiring discrimination? Be familiar with the studies discussed in class, including their research methods and findings.

Research has shown that white and black candidates get treated differently Audit studies by Devah Pager found that significant racial differences in callbacks Milwaukee study (2003): white non-criminal (34% received callbacks); white criminal (17%); black non-criminal (14%); black criminal (5%) New York City study (2009): #1: white (31.0% callbacks), Latino (25.2%), black (15.2%); #2: white felon (17.2%); Latino non-felon (15.4%), black non-felon (13.0%) Bertand & Mullainathan (2004): white names (9.7% callbacks); black names (6.5%)

Experiments suggest that people make judgments about others based on whether they conform to beauty standards? What are the findings of these studies? How does gender affect these judgments?

Research method: people asked to make judgments about people in photographs People judge beautiful people more sexually responsive, warm, sensitive, kind, interesting, strong, poised, modest, sociable, outgoing, curious, complex, perceptive, confident, assertive and happy More positive predictions are made about the lives of beautiful people: happier marriages, better jobs Some negative traits perceived by women about attractive women: more vain, egotistical, materialistic, snobbish, likely to get divorce, likely to cheat on spouse

Define sex and gender. What is the difference?

Sex: biological maleness or femaleness Gender: psychological, social and cultural aspects of maleness and femaleness --Since gender is a social construct, it varies by place and time

Define social mobility.What is intergenerational mobility?

Social mobility: movement of people or groups from one class to another Mobility can be upward or downward An important aspect of a stratification system is the pattern of intergenerational (parent-to- child) mobility

What is the significance of athletic differences between men and women?

Some of the largest differences between men and women are in athletic ability, e.g, few women can dunk a basketball WNBA players average 6-feet-0; NBA players 6-feet-7 Female college basketball players average a 19- inch vertical leap; male players average 28- inches An average male in his 20s can out jump 95% of females Differences seem to be related to physical changes that happen at puberty

How can corporations make money from speculation? What are production management and speculative management?

Speculation: corporations can manipulate stock prices (and executive salary/stock options) through mergers, internal reorganizations, lay-offs, etc. that damage long- term profitability Production management: management designed to create profit by creating/ selling valued goods/services Speculative management: management designed to create profit through manipulating the value of company stock or other financial instruments

Why do black families tend to start with less economic, social and cultural capital? Be familiar with the gaps in education and wealth and differences in family composition.

Starting with less wealth, human, social & cultural capital Household composition: blacks have a greater chance of growing up in a female-headed household Education gap: whites have on average higher levels of education (however, the race gap grows at higher levels) Wealth gap: whites have on average higher levels of family wealth Discrimination Resulting in different work patterns Rising income inequality exacerbates the gap

What is stratification? What is its connection to the social construction of reality? What are the three key categories of people by which resources are stratified? What are the three key resources that are stratified?

Stratification: ranking system for groups of people that perpetuates unequal rewards and life chances in society. Through stratification, society categorizes people and distributes valued resources based upon these categories Key categories include race, class & gender Key resources in income/wealth, prestige & power

What is significant about the "Gibson girl"?

The "Gibson girl" images of illustrator Charles Dana Gibson are considered the first national standard for feminine beauty

How has race been significant in U.S. history? What is race's role in the U.S. Constitution? What was the significance of the Dred Scott case?

The U.S. racial system has focused on the white-nonwhite dichotomy. Slavery for blacks and non-citizenship for Indians was built into the U.S. Constitution Slaves ("all other Persons") counted as 3/5 of a person for purposes of Congressional Representation (Article 1, clause 3) (and in the electoral college) The fugitive slave clause (Article 4, clause 3) provided for returning escaped slaves Congress prohibited from banning the slave trade before 1808 (Article 1, section 9) The Dred Scott ruling (1857) established that blacks are "beings of an inferior order, and altogether unfit to associate with the white race, either in social or political relations, and so far inferior that they had no rights which the white man was bound to respect."

Be familiar with each of the three studies of gender in schools, including their research method, design and key findings.

Three ethnographic studies set in schools: Gender Play: Girls and Boys in School (1993) by Barrie Thorne Peer Power: Preadolescent Culture and Identity (1998) by Patti & Peter Adler Dude,You're a Fag (2007) by C.J. Pascoe Each illustrates how children learn how to negotiate gendered institutions and do gender

Why might Western standards of beauty be becoming international ones? What does the evidence from Fiji suggest?

Western standards are becoming international standards through movies, television and other media. A 1999 study of Fiji found that eating disorders had increased fivefold since TV arrived in 1995.

What are the official U.S. race categories used on the 2010 census? How have those categories changed over time? What is the one official ethnic group?

White Black Indian Asian Hawaiian other Latino or not latino

Define racial transparency and white privilege. Be familiar with the examples of white privilege given in class and how each illustrates the concept.

White people in the U.S. can act as though they are "colorless" (not having a race) Racial transparency: tendency for the race of a society's majority to be so obvious, normative, and unremarkable that it becomes, for all intents and purposes, invisible. White privilege: term coined by Peggy McIntosh to describe "an unearned package of unearned assets that I can count on cashing in each day, but about which I was 'meant' to remain oblivious"

How is beauty connected to stratification? How does gender affect socially constructed beauty standards? Race? Social class?

Women and men have different beauty standards Attractiveness is prerequisite for femininity, not masculinity Female beauty standard requires more time and money to achieve U.S. beauty standard idealizes Caucasian features and devalues those of other races However, black women have more satisfaction with their bodies than white women, possibly because of racial variation in beauty standards Wealthy can better afford to be beautiful

According to lecture, how do sociologists conceptualize capitalism? What does it mean that sociologists study capitalism as a historical system?

free markets, free enterprise Karl Marx also described how capitalism works in practice, highlighting the advantages capitalists have over laborers More recent sociological analyses (e.g., Immanuel Wallerstein's) show the importance of non-free exchanges in capitalism Wallerstein views capitalism as a historical system where the "endless accumulation of capital" has been the fundamental economic objective

What are the primary reasons for the black-white pay gap?

less wealth, social, and cultural capital discrimination different work patterns income inequality

How does rising income inequality exacerbate the white-black pay gap?

whites tend to make more than blacks due to being more represented in serious positions. and blacks get payed less in general.