Sociology Exam 2

professional autonomy

having the authority to make decisions and the freedom to act in accordance with one's professional knowledge base.

How did "regular doctors" argue that their medi- cine was better than their com- petitors?

"Regular doctors" in history often referred to practitioners of conventional or allopathic medicine, and they asserted the superiority of their practices over other healing traditions through several arguments: 1. **Scientific Basis:** Allopathic medicine claimed a scientific foundation, emphasizing that their treatments were based on scientific principles and evidence. They argued that their approaches were supported by empirical research and were more reliable and effective. 2. **Educational Standards:** They highlighted the rigorous educational standards and training required to become a doctor in their tradition. Regular doctors argued that their extensive and standardized education provided a depth of understanding and expertise superior to that of other healing traditions. 3. **Use of Modern Techniques and Tools:** Allopathic medicine often incorporated the latest medical advancements, surgical techniques, and tools. Regular doctors argued that these modern methods were more advanced and effective compared to the traditional or alternative healing practices of their competitors. 4. **Professional Regulation:** Advocates of conventional medicine often stressed the importance of regulatory bodies and licensing requirements. They argued that these standards ensured the competence and trustworthiness of practitioners, positioning their medicine as more legitimate and safe. 5. **Results and Efficacy:** Regular doctors often cited the efficacy of their treatments based on clinical outcomes and patient recovery rates. They highlighted success stories and empirical evidence to support the effectiveness of their treatments.

Under what cir- cumstances are "risk factors" dis- eases?

"Risk factors" themselves are not diseases but rather con- ditions or behaviors that increase the likelihood of devel- oping a particular illness or health condition. These factors can significantly contribute to the onset, progression, or severity of certain diseases. For instance: 1. **Hypertension as a Risk Factor for Heart Disease:** High blood pressure (hypertension) is a risk factor for heart disease. While hypertension is not a disease itself, it significantly increases the risk of developing heart-related conditions such as heart attack, stroke, or heart failure. 2. **Obesity as a Risk Factor for Diabetes:** Obesity is a known risk factor for type 2 diabetes. While obesity is not a disease, it substantially increases the likelihood of developing diabetes due to the impact of excess body weight on insulin resistance and glucose metabolism. 3. **Smoking as a Risk Factor for Lung Cancer:** Smoking is a well-established risk factor for lung cancer. It's not a disease, but it significantly elevates the chances of devel- oping lung cancer due to the harmful substances present in tobacco smoke.

Heroic Medicine

(A cure for overstimulation) - a therapeutic method advocating for rigorous treatment of bloodletting, purging, puking and sweating to shock the body back to health after an illness caused by a humoral imbalance

What contribu- tion does Par- sons' concept of a sick role make to our under- standing of sick- ness in soci- ety? What are the weaknesses of that concept?

**Contributions:** 1. **Norms and Expectations:** The concept highlights that being sick isn't just a biological condition; it involves a social dimension. It outlines the rights (e.g., exemption from normal responsibilities) and obligations (e.g., seek- ing treatment to get well) of individuals in society when they're sick. 2. **Role Adjustment:** It addresses the idea of a tempo- rary role change in society, where the sick person is ex- pected to work towards recovery to return to their normal roles and responsibilities. 3. **Social Function:** The sick role serves a social func- tion by allowing for the temporary suspension of certain duties while expecting the individual to seek help and work towards recovery. **Weaknesses:** 1. **Oversimplification:** The concept doesn't account for the diversity in experiences or the variations in cultural and social expectations around illness. It assumes a uniform response to illness, which might not be accurate for all individuals or societies. 2. **Neglects Chronic Illness:** The sick role model largely applies to acute, short-term illnesses, and it might not effectively represent the experiences of those with chronic conditions, long-term disabilities, or mental health issues. 3. **Patient Agency:** It doesn't give much consideration to the agency and decision-making ability of the patient. It assumes patients will always seek treatment, which might not always be the case due to various reasons, including cultural beliefs or healthcare access. 4. **Inadequate for Contemporary Society:** The concept was developed in the mid-20th century and might not fully address the complexities of illness in today's diverse and rapidly changing societies.

Disease

**Disease:** Refers to a biological or pathological condition characterized by specific symptoms and physical or biochemical abnormalities. Diseases are often identified through medical diagnosis and involve a specific physiological deviation from the normal functioning of the body. For instance, diabetes, tuberculosis, or influenza are diseases.

Illness

**Illness:** Encompasses the subjective experience of feeling unwell or experiencing symptoms of a disease. It's a person's perception or experience of being unwell, and it might not always align with a medically diagnosed disease. For example, a person experiencing pain, fatigue, or discomfort might consider themselves "ill" even if they haven't received a specific medical diagnosis.

sickness

**Sickness:** This term often refers to the social or cultural implications of being unwell. It includes the social and cultural aspects of experiencing illness, including how a person's condition affects their role within society, work, and social interactions. Sickness incorporates the broader impact of an individual's health condition on their daily life and social functioning.

Flexner Report

- A study published in 1910 by the Carnegie Foundation that evaluated medical education in the United States and prompted major changes in the way physicians were educated • Reinforced more biomedical and hands on clinical work : • Most schools run for-profit and owned by only one or two doctors unaffiliated with college or university • Laboratory work and dissection not necessarily required .• Unqualified instructors • State governments did not regulate the profession .• "Quack" accurately described most doctors .• Only Johns Hopkins held up as "ideal - this report changed medical schools by increasing standards, partnering with hospitals for clinical training, and closing schools that could not afford to update and maintain facilities. - closed a lot of black medical schools saying black physicians should only serve black patients

How does racial discrimina- tion contribute to racial health in- equity?

- Access to healthcare : Discrimination can limit access to quality healthcare services for certain racial or ethnic groups Stress and Mental Health: Experiencing racial discrimina- tion can lead to chronic stress, which has been linked to various health problems. - Health Behaviors: Discrimination can influence health behaviors. Individuals who face discrimination may be more likely to engage in unhealthy coping mechanisms such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, or poor dietary habits, which can negatively impact their health. - Environmental Factors: Discrimination can contribute to residential segregation, leading to minority populations being concentrated in areas with limited access to healthy food, safe environments, and quality education. These en- vironmental factors can significantly impact overall health outcomes. - Quality of Care: Discrimination can affect the quality of healthcare received. - Economic disparities : Discrimination in employment and education can contribute to economic disparities, which in turn affect access to resources that are crucial for main- taining good health.

What is the relationship be- tween medicine and power? What kinds of right do physicians have that most oth- er professions do not have?

- Doctors need power to fulfil their professional obligations to multiple constituencies including patients, the community and themselves. Patients need power to formulate their values, articulate and achieve health needs, and fulfil their responsibilities - Decision-making authority: Physicians have the power to diagnose, treat, and make critical decisions about a patient's health. This authority extends to prescribing medications, performing procedures, and determining the course of treatment. - Access to confidential information: Doctors have access to highly sensitive and confidential information about their patients. They are bound by ethical and legal obligations to maintain patient confidentiality, which provides them with a level of trust and authority. - Legal immunity and protection: In certain situations, physicians are granted legal protections, such as in cases of malpractice if they act within the standards of care or in emergency situations. - Influence in healthcare policies: Physicians often hold significant influence in shaping healthcare policies and practices, leveraging their expertise to impact healthcare laws, regulations, and institutional protocols. - Professional autonomy: In many cases, physicians have a degree of professional autonomy, allowing them to make decisions based on their expertise and judgment, al-though this can vary depending on the healthcare system and specific practices.

In the con- temporary Unit- ed States, how much prestige do physicians enjoy relative to oth- er professions? How much does the public trust physicians?

- In the contemporary United States, physicians continue to hold significant prestige compared to many other pro- fessions. The medical field is generally highly respected for the specialized knowledge, extensive training, and the vital role physicians play in society. - The level of trust in physicians is also relatively high. Many surveys and studies indicate that doctors are among the most trusted professionals in the United States. The public often holds physicians in high regard due to their role in promoting and preserving health, providing care during times of illness, and the perceived expertise they bring to medical decision-making. Trust : - Specialization and Expertise: Certain medical specialties might enjoy more prestige than others. For example, sur- geons and specialists in fields like cardiology or oncology might be held in higher regard due to the complexity of their work. - Quality of Care and Patient Experiences: Trust and pres- tige can be influenced by the quality of care provided and patients' experiences. A doctor who consistently delivers excellent care and maintains strong patient relationships tends to be held in higher esteem. - Media and Public Perception: Media portrayal, including news stories, TV shows, and movies, can influence public perception. Positive or negative coverage of the medical profession can impact trust and prestige. - Social and Economic Factors: Socioeconomic factors can also play a role. Accessibility to healthcare, insurance coverage, and disparities in healthcare delivery can affect how the public perceives the medical profession.

What are some problems medicalization can cause?

- Increase in C-sections - the medical gaze may translate into a state of constant bodily surveillance and monitoring. - ""pathologizing"" and gendering normal life events into disorders or risks that seemingly necessiate medical intervention (pregnancy, menstrual cycle) - aesthetic surgery serves as a potent example of this aspect of medicalization with consumers actively seeking out these procedures from medical doctors?

American Medical Association

- Is a professional lobbying group of physicians and medical students - promote the science and art of medicine and the betterment of public health - Is a professional lobbying group of physicians and medical students - promote the science and art of medicine and the betterment of public health

What does med- ical education in the United States look like now?

- Medical schools around the country are revamping their curricula to help students take advantage of new data analytics tools, team-based models of care, and quali- ty improvement techniques known to enhance outcomes and increase the efficiency of care. - For instance, the emphasis in medical care has shifted from treating acute conditions to managing more chronic illnesses, and physicians now increasingly treat problems related to aging. - Schools also include enhanced instruction on topics such as disease prevention and health promotion, population health, addiction, communication skills, social determi- nants of health, emergency preparedness, and medical informatics, among others Medical education in the United States typically follows a well-structured path: 1. **Pre-medical Education:** Students usually complete a bachelor's degree with a focus on pre-medical course- work, including biology, chemistry, physics, and other prerequisites. While many students pursue traditional pre-med degrees, others come from various academic backgrounds. 2. **Medical College Admission Test (MCAT):** Aspiring medical students need to take the MCAT, a standardized test that assesses their readiness for medical school. The scores, along with academic performance and other fac- tors, contribute to the medical school application. 3. **Medical School:** Medical school generally spans four years. The first two years typically focus on classroom and laboratory-based learning, covering fundamental sci- ences and basic clinical skills. The second half involves clinical rotations, where students work in various medical specialties within hospitals and clinics. 4. **United States Medical Licensing Examination (USM- LE):** Students take this multi-step examination during and after medical school. It's a prerequisite for obtaining a medical li

Homeopathic physicians posed an existential threat to "allopathic" physicians. What happened to homeopathic physicians?

- Samuel Hahnemann (1755-1842): It was based on the principle of "like cures like," where substances that cause symptoms in healthy individuals are used in highly diluted forms to treat similar symptoms in sick individuals. 1. Scientific Advancements: Allopathic medicine, based on evolving scientific knowledge, started making significant advancements in understanding diseases, anatomy, and physiology. The rise of evidence-based medicine and the development of effective treatments led to increased trust in allopathic practices. 2. Regulation and Education: Allopathic medicine became more regulated and standardized, with the establishment of medical schools, licensing requirements, and the imple- mentation of evidence-based practices. This standardized education and regulation contributed to the professional- ization and acceptance of allopathic medicine. 3. Criticism and Skepticism: Homeopathy faced increasing criticism from the scientific community due to the lack of scientific evidence supporting its principles. The rise of the scientific method and demand for empirical evidence to support medical claims contributed to a decline in the credibility of homeopathy. 4. Government Regulations: With the establishment of formal medical boards and regulations, homeopathy faced increasing scrutiny and challenges in meeting the regula- tory standards set for medical practice. This impacted its acceptance and legitimacy in the healthcare system

Barber surgeons

- The barber-surgeons were the first health care professionals who focused on the health care of soldiers during times of both peace and war. They were able to treat wounds, conduct minor and even major surgeries and perform amputations. - Performed bloodletting, teeth pulling, cutting out hangnails, setting fractures, giving enemas, lancing abscesses, MINOR SURGERIES

Parson's sick role

- Theory that a person who is sick is excused from their societal responsibilities (deviant) - Parsons saw illness as a form of deviant behaviour within society, the reason being that people who are ill are unable to fulfil their normal social roles and are thus deviating away from the consensual norm. 1) The sick person is not morally culpable for his/her sickness 2) The sick person is excused from performing his/her normal duties 3) The sick person is not expected to be able to recover from his/her sickness alone 4) The sick person is expected to seek expert help to overcome his/her sickness example: sick leave, medical reach out

homeopaths

- a medical system based on the belief that the body can cure itself. - micro-dilution medicine : plants, minerals, herbs etc.

Nostrum-Dealers

- a medicine, especially one that is not considered effective, prepared by an unqualified person. - Health care fraud KA, snake oil salesmen

How is illness a state of deviance?

- any act or behavior that violates the social norms within a given social system? - being ill can disrupt normal social functioning and is generally viewed as undesirable by both individuals and society - such a perspective goes beyond a purely biological definition of disease as an abnormality of the body

What kinds of sickness are not explained by the sick role?

- applies only to acute diseases which are generally temporary and can overcome with a physician's help - Chronic diseases do not fit model well, since they are incurable and exemption from social roles is not feasible

How does social inequality affect the stigma asso- ciated with BMI?

- body size affects people differently based on race/class/gender - white women experience more discrimination for being obese than white men - African Americans are money likely to be considered personally responsible for their weight gain than whites - discriminating against obesity might be a socially-acceptable way to discriminate

Populism

- in the 1830s Populism is a range of political stances that emphasizes the idea of "the people" and often juxtapose this group with "the elite" - The belief that the government policies should be determined by the will of the masses, rather than any elite - close to the idea of democracy

environmental racism

- race is the most significant predictor of a person living near contaminated air, water, or soil. - A person's zip code is a huge determinant of a person's environment - Example: Black people live mostly near polluted areas and in air with toxic chemicals Racism as a "Fundamental Cause of Disease" - Drives various societal factors that perpetuate racial inequalities in health - Operates almost invisibly through systems - Should be recognized as a fundamental cause of racial inequality in health, akin to SES

Lay expertise

-Individuals without formal credentials or training who have expertise on an issue, often through experience -Examples include the Cumbrian sheep farmers, AIDS patients, or the bee keepers (in colony collapse disorder) -Significance: Lay experts often have different kinds of knowledge than traditional experts, and different assessment of risk. This can prove crucial to solving a scientific problem

Medicialization

-is the process by which human conditions and problems come to be defined and treated as medical conditions - makes a non medical issues a medical issue and assigns a pathological name to it and a medical specialty arises

Why did the AMA lobby for licens- ing laws?

.The American Medical Association (AMA) advocated for licensing laws for several reasons: 1. **Standardization and Quality Control:** Licensing laws were pushed by the AMA to standardize medical education and practice. They aimed to ensure that physicians met certain educational and professional standards, which in turn was believed to uphold the quality of medical care. 2. **Professionalization and Authority:** By advocating for licensing laws, the AMA sought to establish itself as the authority in the medical field. Licensing laws enabled the AMA to have a say in setting the standards for medical education, practice, and ethics, reinforcing the organization's status as the gatekeeper of the medical profession. 3. **Public Safety and Trust:** The AMA argued that licensing laws were necessary to protect the public from unqualified practitioners. They believed that regulating who could practice medicine would safeguard patients from potentially incompetent or unscrupulous individuals posing as physicians. 4. **Market Control:** Licensing laws also served to control the number of practicing physicians. By limiting the supply of doctors, the AMA aimed to maintain higher professional standards and control competition within the medical profession, which in turn could potentially increase physicians' earning power. Overall, the AMA's lobbying for licensing laws was driven by a desire to professionalize medicine, standardize educational requirements, maintain control over the medical profession, protect public health, and exert influence over the supply of physicians in the market.

How did tech- nologies assist regular doctors in their efforts to become authori- ties in medicine?

1. **Diagnostic and Imaging Technologies:** Technologies like X-rays, MRIs, CT scans, and other diagnostic imaging tools have revolutionized the way diseases are diagnosed. These tools have allowed doctors to visualize internal structures and identify illnesses more accurately, enhancing their diagnostic capabilities and reinforcing their expertise in understanding and treating diseases. 2. **Medical Equipment and Tools:** The development of advanced medical equipment and tools has empowered physicians to perform intricate surgeries, carry out minimally invasive procedures, and conduct complex medical interventions. This expertise in using sophisticated tools has solidified their position as the authority in medical interventions. 3. **Electronic Health Records (EHR):** The transition from paper-based records to electronic health records has streamlined patient information management. This has improved communication among healthcare profession- als, enhanced patient care, and increased the accuracy and efficiency of medical practice, showcasing doctors as efficient and organized authorities in managing patient information. 4. **Telemedicine and Telehealth:** The emergence of telemedicine has extended the reach of doctors beyond their physical locations. This technology allows for remote consultations, diagnoses, and even treatments, showcasing their adaptability and authority in leveraging technology for patient care. 5. **Research and Information Access:** Technologies have given doctors access to vast amounts of medical literature, research, and information. This continuous ac- cess to the latest findings and medical knowledge has empowered doctors to stay updated

What is pop- ulism and how did this under- mine physicians' authority in the mid-19th centu- ry?

1. **Distrust of Elites:** Populism often fosters distrust towards established authorities or elites. During the mid-19th century, this sentiment extended to physicians, who were seen as part of an elite group within society due to their specialized knowledge and social status. 2. **Alternative Medicine and Healing:** The rise of pop- ulist movements sometimes involved a push for alternative forms of medicine or healing. This challenged the authority of conventional physicians who relied on scientific and established medical practices. It also led to the promotion of alternative healing methods that weren't always based on scientific evidence. 3. **Lack of Access to Healthcare:** Populist movements often focused on issues related to healthcare access. This highlighted disparities in healthcare, leading to criticism of the medical establishment for its perceived failure to address the healthcare needs of ordinary people. 4. **Social and Political Unrest:** The mid-19th century was a period of significant social and political change, in- cluding industrialization and urbanization. Populist move- ments emerged as a response to the rapid societal changes, often questioning existing power structures, in- cluding the authority of medical professionals.

Be able to ex- plain how physi- cians' efforts to consolidate pow- er also meant that they exclud- ed some kinds of people from becoming physi- cians.

1. **Educational Requirements:** As medicine professionalized, educational requirements became more standardized and demanding. This meant that individuals without access to quality education, either due to socioeconomic barriers or discriminatory practices, found it increasingly challenging to meet the rigorous educational standards set for medical school admission. 2. **Financial Barriers:** The cost of medical education soared as it became more formalized. This financial burden excluded individuals from lower-income backgrounds, limiting access to those who couldn't afford the expensive education required to become a physician. 3. **Discriminatory Admission Policies:** Many medical schools and professional organizations implemented discriminatory admission policies that excluded individuals based on race, gender, or other factors. Women, minorities, and individuals from marginalized communities faced significant barriers to entry, often due to institutional biases and discriminatory practices. 4. **Hierarchical Structures:** The professionalization of medicine entrenched hierarchical structures within the medical field. As a result, individuals from non-traditional backgrounds or those without connections to established medical professionals found it challenging to navigate and integrate into a field that often operated through established networks and connections. 5. **Cultural and Social Biases:** The professionalization of medicine occurred within the broader societal context, where cultural biases and societal norms influenced who was considered suitable for the medical profession. These biases often excluded women, minorities, and individuals from certain social or cultural backgrounds.

Read through Williams et al's article on racial health inequali- ty - what kinds of interventions might help nar- row these kinds of inequalities?

1. **Health Education and Promotion:** Implementing tar- geted health education campaigns to raise awareness and provide information within communities about preventive care, disease management, and healthy lifestyle choices. 2. **Improving Access to Healthcare:** Ensuring equal access to quality healthcare facilities, services, and health insurance for marginalized or underserved communities. This might involve expanding healthcare coverage, en- hancing community health centers, and reducing barriers to access. 3. **Cultural Competence in Healthcare:** Training health- care professionals to understand diverse cultural perspec- tives, communicate effectively with patients from different backgrounds, and provide culturally sensitive care. 4. **Policy Changes:** Implementing policies aimed at addressing social determinants of health, such as hous- ing, employment, education, and environmental condi- tions that impact health outcomes. 5. **Community Engagement and Empowerment:** En- couraging community involvement and participation in healthcare decisions, empowering local leaders, and col- laborating with community organizations to address spe- cific health needs and disparities. 6. **Research and Data Collection:** Conducting further research to understand the root causes of health dispari- ties, collecting and analyzing data specific to racial health inequalities to inform targeted interventions. 7. **Workforce Diversity:** Increasing diversity within thehealthcare workforce, including doctors, nurses, and pub- lic health officials, to reflect and better serve diverse com- munities. 8. **Economic and Social Support:** Programs aimed at addressing economic disparities, providing social sup- port, and addressing systemic issues contributing to racial health inequalities.

How are racial categories con- nected to the economic foun- dation of the United States? What does this have to do with healthcare in the United States?

1. **Historical Economic Exploitation:** The economic history of the United States includes the exploitation of African Americans through slavery, the dispossession of Native American lands, and discriminatory labor practices against various racial groups. This historical exploitation and the economic foundation built on such practices have perpetuated racial inequalities that persist today. 2. **Racial Disparities in Wealth and Income:** Racial minorities, especially African Americans and Hispanics, continue to face economic disparities, with lower average incomes and less accumulated wealth compared to white Americans. This economic inequality affects their access to quality healthcare, often leading to disparities in health outcomes. 3. **Impact on Access to Healthcare:** Economic disparities intersect with racial categories, leading to inequalities in access to healthcare. Racial minorities are more likely to be uninsured or underinsured, impacting their ability to. seek timely and quality healthcare. 4. **Healthcare Delivery and Quality:** Economic disparities influence the quality of healthcare services available to different racial groups. Racial minorities often receive lower-quality care, face barriers to accessing healthcare facilities, and encounter disparities in treatment options and outcomes. 5. **Social Determinants of Health:** Economic disparities contribute to social determinants of health, such as housing, education, and employment opportunities. Racial minorities are more likely to live in neighborhoods with limited resources, facing environmental and social conditions that impact their health.

Does the rela- tive poverty of Black Americans explain racial

1. **Social Determinants of Health:** Poverty is a crucial social determinant of health. It affects access to health- care, quality of living conditions, educational opportuni- ties, and employment, all of which influence health out-comes. Black Americans, as a group, often face higher rates of poverty, which can lead to limited access to qual- ity healthcare, unhealthy living conditions, and increased stress, impacting their health. 2. **Structural Racism:** Racial health disparities are deeply rooted in historical and ongoing systemic racism. Black Americans experience structural barriers and sys- temic biases that affect their opportunities for econom- ic advancement, education, and healthcare access. Dis- crimination and disparities in socioeconomic opportunities contribute significantly to health inequities. 3. **Healthcare Access and Quality:** Even when consid- ering socioeconomic status, Black Americans often face disparities in healthcare access and quality. They might re- ceive lower-quality care or have less access to healthcare facilities compared to their white counterparts. 4. **Environmental and Community Factors:** Black com- munities are often disproportionately exposed to environ- mental hazards, inadequate housing, and limited access to healthy food and recreational spaces, which can impact health outcomes. 5. **Stress and Mental Health:** Chronic stress resulting from systemic racism, discrimination, and socioeconomic challenges can lead to adverse mental health outcomes, which, in turn, can impact physical health.

Explain why poor persons become ill more often and die younger than wealthier persons. Assume that over the next 20 years both men and women increas- ingly adopt be- havior patterns now associated with the oth- er gender. What changes would you expect to see in the health of men and women? Explain your answer.

1. Shift in Health Behaviors: If men adopt behaviors tradi- tionally associated with women (e.g., seeking preventive care, focusing on mental health, embracing healthier di- ets), it might lead to improved health outcomes, potentially reducing certain health disparities. 2.Reduction in Certain Health Disparities: Assuming these behavioral changes are health-promoting, it might help address some specific health disparities. For instance, if men adopt behaviors traditionally associated with women, it might lead to reductions in conditions that are more prevalent among men, such as heart disease and certain injuries. 3. Complexity of Factors: However, changes in health be- haviors alone might not address all disparities. Socioeco- nomic factors, access to healthcare, and broader social determinants of health continue to play significant roles in shaping health outcomes.

What era is typ- ically defined as the "golden age" of medicine?

1950-1960

Who were mid- wives and how did physicians' efforts to profes- sionalize affect their profession?

A trained health professional who helps healthy women during labor, delivery, & after the birth of their babies. Mid-wives may deliver babies at birthing centers or at home, but most also deliver babies at hospitals 1. **Medicalization of Childbirth:** As medicine profes- sionalized, childbirth moved from being a natural, commu- nity-centered event to a more medicalized process. Physi- cians advocated for the hospitalization of childbirth and the use of medical interventions, challenging the traditional role of midwives in home-based or community settings. 2. **Legislation and Regulation:** Physicians sought to regulate and standardize medical practice, leading to the establishment of laws and regulations that favored the professionalization of medicine. Some of these regulations limited the scope of practice for midwives, aiming to cen- tralize childbirth in hospitals under the care of physicians. 3. **Stigmatization and Marginalization:** With the rise of medical authority, the role of midwives was often devalued and marginalized. Midwifery was seen as less legitimate compared to the medical care provided by physicians, and midwives faced challenges in practicing their profession. 4. **Educational Standards:** Physicians pushed for high- er educational standards in the healthcare field, favoring a more formal, science-based approach to medical educa- tion. This move led to the decline of traditional midwifery practices, as formal medical education became the stan- dard for professional recognition.

Racism

An organized social system in which the dominant racial group, based on an ideology of inferiority, categorizes and ranks people into social groups called "races" and uses power to devalue, disempower, and differentially allocated valued societal resources and opportunities to groups defined as inferior. PREJUDICE + POWER

How much debt do medical stu- dents accrue on average?

As of 2021, 76% to 89% of medical school graduates leave school with an average of $203,062 in total education debt, according to the Association of American Medical Colleges.

What physical or biological char- acteristic can be used to identify race?

Attempting to use physical or biological characteristics to identify race is not scientifically accurate or meaningful. The idea of race is a social construct, not a biological reality. Genetic diversity exists among individuals within and across populations, but it doesn't align neatly with the socially constructed concept of race.

What is the drop-out (attri- tion) rate of med- ical school? Giv- en this, what is the biggest ob- stacle to becom- ing a doctor?

Attrition Rates• Medical school has around a 4-6% attrition rate total which means that when you're accepted to med- ical school you have a 95% chance of becoming a doctor. The biggest obstacle to becoming a doctor encompasses various challenges that aspiring physicians face through- out their journey: - Academic Rigor: Medical education is highly demanding, requiring a substantial time commitment and a rigorous academic workload. The volume and complexity of mater- ial can be overwhelming, leading to academic challenges. - Emotional and Mental Strain: The intense pressure and stress of medical school can lead to mental health issues. Balancing academic demands with personal well-being can be a significant obstacle for many students. - Financial Burden: Medical education is expensive, and the cost of tuition, along with living expenses, can be a considerable obstacle. Student debt is a major concern for many aspiring doctors. - Length of Training: The extensive length of medical edu- cation and training (often over a decade) can be daunting. This duration can lead to burnout and can also affect personal and professional plans. - Competitive Nature: The competitive nature of medical school admissions and the continuous need to excel aca- demically throughout the program can create a high-pres- sure environment.

What other kinds of healers might people go to in the 18th and 19th century?

Competitors Homeopaths - Microdilution medicine Midwives - Women who assisted local women in birth Apothecaries - Local purveyors of medicines Nostrum Dealers - AKA, snake oil salesmen Barber-Surgeons - Performed bloodletting, teeth pulling. Regular Doctors" were often a last resort.

contested illnesses

Contested illness refers to medical conditions or diseases whose existence, causes, or appropriate treatments are a subject of debate, disagreement, or skepticism among healthcare professionals, patients, or the broader society. These conditions often lack consensus within the medical community, and their legitimacy or classification as a distinct illness may be disputed. Examples of contested illnesses include: 1. **Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS) / Myalgic Encephalomyelitis (ME):** This condition is characterized by extreme fatigue, cognitive difficulties, and other symptoms. Its etiology and even the legitimacy of the illness have been subjects of debate, leading to controversy in diagnosis and treatment. **Fibromyalgia:** A condition characterized by wide- spread pain and tenderness in the body. The nature of the condition, its diagnostic criteria, and even its existence as a distinct illness have been debated in the medical community. Contested illnesses often lead to challenges in diagnosis, treatment, and societal understanding. They can also influence public perceptions, research funding, and healthcare access for affected individuals due to the lack of consensus within the medical community. The contested nature of these conditions makes it difficult for patients to receive appropriate

What does it mean to say that disease and ill- ness are cultur- al?

Describing disease and illness as cultural acknowledges that the understanding, experience, and management of health and sickness are influenced by cultural, social, and contextual factors. Here's what it means: 1. **Perception and Interpretation:** The way people per- ceive and interpret symptoms, conditions, and overall health can be influenced by cultural beliefs, norms, and values. Cultural contexts shape how individuals under- stand and explain their health status. 2. **Health Practices:** Cultural backgrounds influence health practices, including traditional medicine, dietary habits, healing rituals, and approaches to seeking and receiving medical care. Cultural beliefs often impact treat- ment choices and adherence to medical advice. 3. **Stigma and Social Responses:** The social response to certain illnesses or diseases can be influenced by cul- tural beliefs and values. Stigma and discrimination related to specific health conditions are often culturally deter- mined. 4. **Meaning and Significance:** The meaning and sig- nificance attached to certain health conditions may vary across cultures. For example, some cultures may view mental health conditions differently, impacting the way they are treated or addressed. 5. **Doctor-Patient Relationship:** Cultural differences can affect the doctor-patient relationship, communication, and understanding of health issues. Cultural competence is crucial in providing effective healthcare.

How might diag- nosis be contest- ed?

Diagnosis can be contested or subject to debate for sev- eral reasons: 1. **Changing Diagnostic Criteria:** Evolving medical knowledge and research often lead to updates in diagnos- tic criteria. This can result in debates or disagreements about the validity of new criteria, potentially impacting the identification of certain conditions. 2. **Overdiagnosis and Medicalization:** There's ongoing debate about the expansion of disease definitions, poten- tially leading to overdiagnosis or medicalization of normal variations. This raises concerns about unnecessary label- ing and treatments for conditions that might not require medical intervention. 3. **Subjectivity in Diagnosis:** Diagnoses often rely on subjective judgments or interpretations, especially in con- ditions with less objective testing. This subjectivity can lead to different opinions among healthcare professionals. 4. **Controversial Conditions:** Some conditions are con- troversial or contested within the medical community. Chronic conditions like chronic fatigue syndrome or fi- bromyalgia have faced challenges due to unclear diagnos- tic criteria, leading to debates about their legitimacy. 5. **Sociocultural Influence:** Cultural and societal norms can influence the perception and identification of certain conditions. Debates arise when cultural perspectives or societal beliefs clash with medical diagnostic criteria. 6. **Patient Advocacy and Experience:** Patients or advo- cacy groups might contest certain diagnoses due to their experiences, suggesting that diagnostic criteria don't fully capture their symptoms or the impact on their lives.

What usually comes first diseases? or the drugs to treat diseases? Why

Drugs to treat diseases come first

Elizabeth Black- well was the first woman to be- come a physi- cian in 1849, but the American Medical Asso- ciation's efforts to professional- ize medical ed- ucation made it more difficult for women to be- come physicians. Why?

Elizabeth Blackwell's accomplishment as the first woman to earn a medical degree was groundbreaking. However, despite her pioneering role, the American Medical Asso- ciation (AMA) and the broader professionalization of med- ical education did present challenges for women entering the field: 1. **Admission Policies:** The AMA, along with many medical schools, established admission policies that were often discriminatory against women. Some medical schools outright refused to admit women, while others imposed higher standards or limited spots available for female students. 2. **Social Barriers:** The professionalization of medicine coincided with societal norms and gender biases that viewed medicine as a male-dominated field. This mindset led to resistance against accepting women into medical schools and the medical profession at large. 3. **Limited Opportunities for Training:** As medical education became more standardized and formalized, the opportunities for women to receive quality medical training decreased. This limitation made it significantly more challenging for women to gain the necessary education and credentials to become physicians. 4. **Resistance to Change:** The existing medical establishment, often male-dominated, resisted the entry of women into the field. There was a widespread belief that medicine was not a suitable profession for women, perpetuating the barriers to their entry and professional growth.

Assume that 20 years from now,African Americans are as likely as whites to graduate from college. Why and in what ways would you expect the health of the African American population to improve? Why and in what ways would you expect it to remain the same?

Expected Health Improvements: 1. Increased Access to Healthcare: Higher education oftenleads to better job opportunities and improved access to health insurance, which could result in increased access to healthcare services for African Americans. 2.Improved Health Literacy: College education generally enhances health literacy, which may lead to better health-seeking behaviors, increased awareness of preventive care, and a better understanding of managing chronic conditions. 3. Reduced Stress: Higher educational attainment may provide better economic stability, potentially reducing stress related to financial insecurity, which can positively impact mental health and overall well-being. 4. Lifestyle and Health Behaviors: College graduates tend to have healthier lifestyle behaviors, such as regular exercise and healthier dietary choices. This shift could con- tribute to improved health outcomes within the African American population. Potential Continuation of Challenges: 1. Structural Barriers: While educational attainment is crucial, structural barriers like systemic racism, income in- equality, and disparities in access to resources may persist. These barriers can hinder the translation of educa- tional gains into improved health outcomes. 2. Persistent Socioeconomic Disparities: Even with in- creased college graduation rates, economic disparities may continue to exist, affecting access to quality health- care, housing, and other social determinants of health. 3. Historical Health Inequities: Long-standing health dis- parities and their underlying causes, deeply rooted in his- torical and systemic racism, may persist despite increased educational achievement. 4. Environmental and Community Factors: Segregation and disparities in community resources and environmen- tal factors might persist, impacting health o

How is fatness stigmatized?

Fatness is stigmatized in various ways, both overt and sub- tle, within social, cultural, and even healthcare contexts. Some common ways fatness is stigmatized include: 1. **Societal Bias:** Cultural norms often prioritize thin- ness, associating it with beauty and health. This can lead to negative attitudes and discrimination against individuals with larger bodies. 2. **Media Portrayal:** Media representations often per- petuate stereotypes and negative perceptions about larg- er bodies. These representations can reinforce societal biases against individuals who do not conform to the 'ideal' body type. 3. **Employment Discrimination:** Studies have shown instances of discrimination against overweight or obese individuals in the workplace, affecting hiring practices, promotions, and wages. 4. **Healthcare Bias:** Some healthcare providers might exhibit bias or provide suboptimal care to individuals with larger bodies. This bias can lead to delayed diagnoses, inadequate treatment, or assumptions about health based solely on weight. 5. **Everyday Interactions:** Fat individuals might face microaggressions, teasing, or unwelcome comments from others, affecting their self-esteem and confidence. 6. **Social Exclusion:** Stigmatization often leads to social exclusion or marginalization, impacting one's sense of belonging and mental health.

Is fatness deviant? What makes it deviant?

Fatness, in and of itself, is not inherently deviant. However, societal norms and perceptions often label fatness as deviant due to cultural ideals surrounding body size and beauty standards. Several factors contribute to fatness being perceived as deviant: 1. Cultural Beauty Standards: Many societies prioritize thinness as the ideal body type, associating it with beauty and health. This societal emphasis on thinness can lead to the labeling of larger bodies as deviant. 2. Social Norms: Deviance often implies deviation from societal norms. When a person's body size does not conform to the perceived ideal, it might be labeled as deviant. 3. Stigmatization and Discrimination: Stigmatization of larger bodies can lead to the perception of deviance. This stigma often results in discrimination, which further reinforces the idea of fatness as deviant. 4. Historical and Media Influence: Historical biases, coupled with media representations, contribute to the perception of larger bodies as outside the norm. Negative portrayals and stereotypes in media reinforce the idea of fatness as deviant.

How did Erving Gofman define stigma?

Goffman defined stigma as a mark of disgrace that sets a person apart from others, identifying them as differ- ent and often devalued within a particular social context. He articulated the concept of stigma in his seminal work, "Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity," published in 1963. 1. **Abominations of the Body:** These stigmas are based on physical traits perceived as different or unappealing. Examples include physical deformities, scars, or disabili- ties. 2. **Blemishes of Individual Character:** Stigmas associ- ated with a perceived flaw in a person's character, such as addiction, criminal history, or behaviors that deviate from societal norms. 3. **Tribal or Societal Stigmas:** These stigmas are at- tached to an individual based on their association with a specific group or community, such as ethnicity, nationality, religion, or social status. Goffman emphasized that stigmatization doesn't residewithin the stigmatized individual but rather in the social in- teractions between the stigmatized person and others. He highlighted the role of social context in labeling and mar- ginalizing individuals, impacting how they are perceived and treated within society.

How might a BMI consid- ered "over- weight" be con- sidered healthy?

Here are some instances where a BMI considered "over- weight" might be associated with good health: 1. **Muscle Mass vs. Fat:** BMI doesn't differentiate between muscle and fat. Individuals with higher muscle mass, such as athletes or bodybuilders, might have a higher BMI due to muscle but possess lower body fat percentages. In these cases, a higher BMI might not necessarily indicate poor health. 2. **Metabolically Healthy Obesity:** Some individuals categorized as overweight by BMI might not exhibit the typical health risks associated with obesity. This group, often termed metabolically healthy obese individuals, may have lower risks for conditions like diabetes or heart disease despite their higher BMI. 3. **Other Health Indicators:** Focusing solely on BMI might overlook other crucial health indicators. Blood pressure, cholesterol levels, waist circumference, and overall lifestyle factors are more comprehensive indicators of health beyond BMI. 4. **Genetic and Ethnic Variations:** BMI classifications might not equally apply across different ethnicities or genetic backgrounds. Some populations might have different body compositions or fat distributions, impacting the interpretation of BMI. 5. **Overall Health and Fitness:** A person's overall health involves more than just their weight. Factors like diet, physical activity, mental well-being, and overall fitness level are critical components of good health and might not align directly with BMI.

How does hous- ing segregation harm health?

Housing segregation has significant implications for health due to its connection to various social, economic, and environmental factors: 1. **Quality of Housing:** Segregated neighborhoods of- ten have disparities in housing quality. Minority communi- ties might face inadequate housing conditions, including issues like mold, poor ventilation, lead paint, and pest in- festations, which can lead to respiratory issues, allergies, and other health problems. 2. **Access to Healthcare Services:** Segregated neigh- borhoods often have limited access to quality healthcare facilities. This can result in delayed or inadequate medical care, leading to poorer health outcomes. 3. **Environmental Hazards:** Minority communities are more likely to be located near environmental hazards like industrial sites, waste facilities, or areas with poor air and water quality. Exposure to these environmental hazards can lead to various health issues, including respiratory problems and increased risks of chronic diseases. 4. **Stress and Mental Health:** Housing segregation can contribute to chronic stress due to discrimination, lack of economic opportunities, and living in neighborhoods with higher crime rates. Chronic stress can impact mental health, leading to anxiety, depression, and other mental health issues. 5. **Access to Resources:** Segregated neighborhoods might have limited access to essential resources such as quality schools, employment opportunities, and healthy food options, affecting overall well-being and health out- comes. 6. **Community Infrastructure:** Segregated neighbor- hoods often lack adequate community infrastructure, like parks, recreational areas, and safe spaces for physical activity. This limitation can impact opportunities for physi- cal exercise and community engagement, affecting overall health.

How was med- icine (by this, I mean med- icine practiced by "regular doc-tors") practiced in the 18th cen- tury? Where were "regular doctors" trained?

In 1910:• Too many medical schools.• Most schools run for-profit and owned by only one or two doctors, unaffili- ated with college or university• Laboratory work and dis- section not necessarily required.• Unqualified instructors• State governments did not regulate the profession. • "Quack" accurately described most doctors. - In the 19th century, any one could be a doctor with just a few months training! - The locations of training were not as structured and standardized as modern medical schools. Apprentice- ships and informal medical education often occurred in the offices or clinics of practicing physicians, or in smaller, less formal educational settings. The training was more hands-on, experiential, and reliant on mentorship and di- rect observation of medical practice.

Medical Paternalism

In a sociological context, medical paternalism refers to a practice within healthcare where medical professionals assume an authoritative role, making decisions for patients based on their professional judgment and without necessarily involving the patient in the decision-making process. This approach was more common historically, where doctors, as authorities in their field, made decisions without much input from patients. It was based on the assumption that medical professionals knew what was best for the patient's health, often without considering the patient's preferences, values, or autonomy.From a sociological viewpoint, medical paternalism raises ethical concerns and is seen as a reflection of power dynamics within the healthcare system. It often neglects the patient's agency, preferences, and rights in decision-making, potentially undermining patient autonomy. This approach can lead to a lack of respect for patients' beliefs, cultural values, and personal wishes, potentially eroding trust between patients and healthcare providers. Sociologically, medical paternalism has been subject to critique, leading to shifts in healthcare toward more pa- tient-centered approaches, shared decision-making, and respecting patient autonomy. Modern healthcare systems increasingly emphasize the importance of informed consent, patient empowerment, and collaboration between healthcare professionals and patients in decision-making processes. This evolution aims to balance medical expertise with patient values and preferences, acknowledging the importance of patient autonomy within the healthcare context.

Liscensing laws

In the context of professions like medicine, law, engineering, and others, licensing laws set the criteria necessary to become a licensed practitioner. This often includes educational requirements, examinations, supervised practice or apprenticeships, and continuing education to maintain the license. From a sociological perspective, licensing laws have several implications: 1. **Professionalization:** Licensing laws contribute to professionalizing certain fields, setting standards for education and practice. This can create a distinct professional identity and status for those within the licensed profession. 2. **Regulation and Quality Control:** Licensing laws aim to regulate professions, ensuring that practitioners meet certain standards of knowledge, skill, and ethics. This helps protect consumers and ensures a minimum level of quality in service provision. 3. **Barriers to Entry:** Licensing laws can create barriers to entry, making it more challenging for individuals from certain socio-economic backgrounds to enter these professions. Educational and financial requirements can limit access for some individuals. 4. **Social Stratification:** Licensing laws can contribute to social stratification, as they may reinforce inequalities by favoring those who have easier access to the required education and resources. 5. **Public Trust and Confidence:** Licensing laws can enhance public trust in professions by providing a structured system for qualifications and standards, thereby fostering confidence in the expertise of practitioners. Overall, while licensing laws serve to ensure professional standards and protect the public, they can also create barriers to entry and contribute to social stratification within certain professions.

What does diag- nosis do for pa- tients?

It directs treatment and allows prognostication

What does di- agnosis do for physicians?

It provides payments and insurance reimbursements

What is diagnosis?

It's a shorthand, organizing symptoms into something general. It directs treatment/allows prognostication, provides ex- planations, enables bureaucratic processes, payments, insurance reimbursements

What was med- ical education like in the 18th and 19th centu- ry? What kind of education did a person require to become a doc- tor?

Medical education in the 18th and 19th centuries was notably different from today's rigorous, standardized, and lengthy educational process. During that time, the path to becoming a doctor was less formal and less regulated. It typically involved the following: 1. **Apprenticeships:** Many aspiring doctors in the 18th and 19th centuries entered the field through apprenticeships with established physicians. They would learn by assisting practicing doctors, observing their methods, and gaining practical experience in diagnosing and treating patients. 2. **Medical Schools:** While there were a few medical schools, they were limited in number and scope. These schools varied widely in their curriculum, and their programs were not as standardized or regulated as they are today. 3. **Limited Formal Education:** Formal education requirements to become a doctor were minimal compared to contemporary standards. Many students might have had some basic education in subjects like Latin, mathematics, and natural sciences, but the educational prerequisites were not as stringent as they are today. 4. **Lack of Standardized Curriculum:** Medical education lacked a standardized curriculum. Students received varied instruction and learning experiences, and the quality of education could differ significantly between different institutions or under different practitioners. 5. **Emphasis on Practical Experience:** The emphasis was often on practical experience rather than formal classroom education. Students learned by observation, hands-on practice, and direct mentorship from experienced physicians.

How does med- icalization al- ter our defini- tion of "normal health" and "nor- mal emotions"?

Medicalization can alter our definitions of "normal health" and "normal emotions" by redefining what is considered within the medical realm and what falls outside of it. This process can have several implications: 1. **Expanded Definition of Illness:** Medicalization can broaden the range of conditions and experiences clas- sified as "illnesses." What was once seen as a variation of normal health or a common emotional response might become classified as a medical condition. This shifts the boundary of what is considered within the realm of "normal health." 2. **Pathologizing Normal Variations:** Medicalization may pathologize certain variations or fluctuations in health or emotions. For example, experiencing sadness or stress in response to life events might be seen as normal emo- tional reactions. However, medicalization can label these responses as symptoms of mental health disorders, po- tentially leading to overdiagnosis and overmedication. 3. **Standardized Definitions:** Medicalization often leads to standardized definitions and diagnostic criteria for con- ditions. This can result in the medical community and society at large adopting a particular set of criteria as thestandard for determining what constitutes "normal health" and what is considered a deviation. 4. **Social and Cultural Influence:** Medicalization can be influenced by social and cultural factors. What is consid- ered normal health or normal emotional responses can vary across cultures and societies, and medicalization can reflect the prevailing cultural norms and values. 5. **Impacts on Identity:** The process of medicalization can impact how individuals perceive their own health and emotions. It might lead some to view their experiences through the lens of medical conditions, affecting their iden- tity and self-perception.

What is medicalization? why is it a concern ?

Medicalization is the processes by which human conditions and problems can be treated as medical issues, often calling for medical intervention, diagnosis, or treatment. It involves viewing non-medical issues through a medical lens, framing them as suitable subjects for medical intervention or control. 1.) Overemphasis on medical solutions : medicalization can prioritize medical interventions over other social, psychological, or cultural approaches to issues. This might limit the consideration or alternative 2.) 'Expanding Pharmaceutical Influence:* With medicalization, there's often an increase in the use of medications to address various Issues, potentially leading to overprescription and over-reliance on pharmaceutical solutions. 3.) 'Impact on Personal Autonomy:* Medicalization may restrict personal autonomy by framing certain issues as purely medical, overlooking individual perspectives or self-management strategles This can reduce a person's control over their own health and well-being. 4. 'Social and Ethical Implications:* The medicalization of certain conditions can have social and ethical implications, influencing societal perceptions and the allocation of resources based on medical, rather than social or cultural perspective

What are some of the benefits from medicalization?

Medicalization, despite Its concerns, offers several benefits: I 'Improved Understanding and Treatment:' It' enhances Understanding and management of certain conditions by providing a structured approach to diagnosis and treatment 2 'Advancements In Healthcare:* Medicalization drives advancements in medical science and technology, leading to innovations In treatments, medications, and medical devices 3. 'Standardization and Consistency:* It helps establish standardized protocols and procedures for addressing health issues, ensuring consistency in diagnosis and 4 'Increased Awareness and Research:* It can lead to increased awareness and research funding for conditions that were previously overbooked facilitating greater understanding and support for affected individuals 5 'Legitimacy and Recognition: Il provides legitimacy and recognition (o certain conditions or experiences reducing stigma and encouraging support and acceptance within society 6.) Patient and Advoacy Support : Medicalization often leads to the formation of patient advocacy groups and support networks, offering resources and information to individuals affected buy specific conditions

occupational prestige

Occupational prestige, within sociology, refers to the social status, respect, and perceived esteem associated with a particular occupation or profession within a society. It's a measure that assesses how a specific occupation is valued or esteemed relative to others. The concept of occupational prestige is influenced by various factors: 1. **Social Recognition:** Occupations that are perceived as having higher levels of skill, education, and importance are typically associated with higher prestige. For instance, professions like doctors, lawyers, or engineers often carry more prestige due to their specialized knowledge and social contributions. 2. **Income and Education:** Occupations that require higher levels of education, specialized training, and offer higher financial compensation often tend to be associated with higher occupational prestige. 3. **Cultural Values:** Societal values and cultural perceptions impact the prestige of certain occupations. For example, in some cultures, professions like teaching or caregiving might hold higher prestige due to the value placed on education or social welfare. 4. **Historical and Social Context:** The historical con- text and societal changes can also influence occupation- al prestige. For instance, certain professions might have gained or lost prestige over time due to shifts in societal needs or changes in the economy. Measuring occupational prestige allows sociologists to understand social hierarchies and perceptions regarding different professions within a society. This can also shed light on factors such as social mobility, inequality, and the distribution of status and power within a given community or culture.

pharmaceutical Reason/Pharmaceutical

Pharmaceutical determinism is the concept that attributes a significant or exclusive role to pharmaceutical or medical interventions in determining health outcomes. It implies that the use of medications or medical treatments is the primary or sole factor in shaping an individual's health, potentially overlooking or minimizing the influence of other non-medical factors on health and well-being. An example of pharmaceutical determinism could be seen in scenarios where health issues or conditions are solely addressed with medications, without considering other contributing factors. For instance: 1. **Overreliance on Medications:** In cases where mental health issues like depression or anxiety are solely treated with medication without considering therapy, lifestyle changes, or addressing underlying causes. 2. **Chronic Disease Management:** A focus on treat- ing chronic conditions, such as high blood pressure or diabetes, primarily through medications, without sufficient emphasis on lifestyle modifications, dietary changes, or stress management. 3. **Preventative Healthcare:** Overemphasis on prescription medications as the sole preventative measure, neglecting the importance of exercise, healthy eating, and lifestyle changes to prevent disease. Pharmaceutical determinism oversimplifies the complexities of health by emphasizing the impact of pharmaceuticals while disregarding the multi-dimensional nature of well-being, including the influence of social determinants, lifestyle factors, genetics, and environmental elements. Addressing health comprehensively often requires a holistic approach that acknowledges and integrates various factors beyond medication.

Race

Primarily a social category, based on nationality, pheno-typic or other markers of social difference, which captures differential access to power and access in society

When was race invented? What does it mean to say that race was "invented"?

Race was created in the 17th century. 1. Emergence of Racial Categories: The idea of race as we recognize it today began to take shape during the European exploration and colonial expansion, particularly during the 16th and 17th centuries. As European powers encountered diverse populations in different parts of the world, they categorized and hierarchized people based on physical appearances, cultural differences, and geograph- ical origins. 2.Social and Political Context: The creation of racial cate- gories was influenced by the social, economic, and polit- ical dynamics of the time. These categories were used to justify and maintain power structures, including justifying colonization, slavery, and other forms of oppression. 3. Pseudo-Scientific Justifications: In the 18th and 19th centuries, scientific theories such as phrenology and eu- genics were used to reinforce and legitimize the con- cept of race. These pseudoscientific theories purported differences in intellectual capacities, behaviors, and moral characteristics among racial groups. 4. Continued Social Construction: The idea of race evolved and adapted over time, influenced by historical events, so- cial norms, and power dynamics. Racial categories were not fixed but evolved to suit societal needs and power structures.

How are racial categories creat- ed? Are they bio- logical? What de- fines a racial cat- egory?

Racial categories are social constructs that have been historically created and defined by societies, not by in- herent biological differences. The criteria defining racial categories often vary across cultures and societies, and they are not based on specific, inherent biological charac- teristics. Key points about racial categories: 1. Social Construction: Racial categories are social con- structs developed by societies to categorize and differen- tiate groups of people based on perceived physical char- acteristics, geographical origins, cultural traits, or ances- try. These categories have changed over time and differ among cultures and historical contexts. 2. Not Biologically Defined: Racial categories are not bio- logically distinct. Human genetic variation does not align with traditional racial categories. Skin color, facial features, and other physical traits used to define race are not exclu- sive to any particular racial group. 3. Complexity of Human Variation: Human genetic diversi- ty is complex and continuous, and it does not neatly fit into discrete racial categories. Most genetic variations occur within populations, not between them, and there is more genetic diversity within racial groups than between them. 4. Historical and Social Influence: Historical, cultural, and social factors have shaped the creation and definition of racial categories. These categories have been used to maintain power dynamics, justify social hierarchies, and facilitate exploitation or discrimination throughout history. 5. Perpetuation and Changes: Despite their lack of biolog- ical basis, racial categories have significant social impact. They perpetuate social inequalities, affect access to re- sources and opportunities, and influence how individuals are perceived and treated in society.

What factors explain racial disparities in health?

Racial disparities in health are complex and stem from a combination of social, economic, and systemic factors: 1. **Social Determinants of Health:** Access to quality healthcare, educational opportunities, safe housing, employment, and a clean environment significantly impact health outcomes. Racial minorities often face barriers to accessing these resources, leading to disparities in health. 2. **Economic Inequities:** Racial minorities frequently experience economic disparities, leading to limited access to healthcare, healthy food, safe neighborhoods, and other essential resources that influence health outcomes. 3. **Healthcare Access and Quality:** Racial and ethnic minorities often face challenges in accessing quality healthcare due to factors such as insurance coverage, proximity to healthcare facilities, cultural barriers, and biases within the healthcare system. 4. **Discrimination and Bias:** Experiences of discrimination and bias in society, including within healthcare settings, contribute to stress, mental health issues, and physiological effects that impact overall health. 5. **Environmental Factors:** Racial minorities are more likely to live in neighborhoods with environmental hazards, inadequate infrastructure, and limited access to healthy living conditions, which can affect health outcomes. 6. **Cultural and Behavioral Factors:** Cultural norms, language barriers, and differing health behaviors can impact health outcomes and access to care.

How do racial health disparities reduce US life ex- pectancy?

Racial health disparities significantly impact life expectan- cy in the United States, contributing to differences in health outcomes between racial and ethnic groups. Several fac- tors contribute to the reduction in life expectancy for cer- tain racial groups: 1. **Higher Rates of Chronic Diseases:** Racial minorities, such as African Americans and Hispanics, often experi- ence higher rates of chronic diseases, including heart dis- ease, diabetes, and certain cancers. These health condi- tions can lead to earlier mortality, reducing life expectancy. 2. **Healthcare Access and Quality:** Racial disparities in access to healthcare services and the quality of care contribute to differences in health outcomes. Limited ac- cess to healthcare, inadequate insurance coverage, and disparities in treatment and preventive care impact life expectancy. 3. **Social Determinants of Health:** Factors such as poverty, limited access to education, housing disparities, and environmental conditions disproportionately affect racial minorities. These social determinants impact health and contribute to a reduced life expectancy for certain groups. 4. **Stress and Mental Health:** Racial discrimination, socioeconomic disparities, and living in under-resourced communities can lead to chronic stress, adversely impact- ing mental health. Psychological stress has physiological effects that can reduce life expectancy. 5. **Environmental Factors:** Racial minorities often live in neighborhoods with environmental hazards, inadequate infrastructure, and limited access to healthy living condi- tions.

What is the gender ratio of incoming med- ical students now? What are the racial de- mographics of incoming med- ical students now? What is the socioeco- nomic back- ground of most medical stu- dents?

Racial minority students comprised about 42.2% of med- ical students, up from 3% in 1969. • 25% of matriculating students are Asian • 8.5% of matriculating students are Black or African-American. • Median medical school debt in 2018: $192,000. • Residents work up to 80hrs per week, earn ~$61000, ~$16/hour, if we assume 4 weeks of vacation. • Most medical students are from upper- and upper-mid- dle-class families

structural/institu- tional racism

Racism as a structured system: - Interacts with other societal systems (e.g., housing, la- bor, education, healthcare) - Reinforces and justifies racial hierarchy - Adaptive over time, creating robust and consistent racial inequities Institutional racism is used as a synonym for systemic and structural racism, as it captures the involvement of institutional systems (corporate, government, organizations)and structures in race-based discrimination and oppression.

Reductionism

Reductionism, in a sociological context, refers to the approach of simplifying complex social phenomena or issues by reducing them to individual or basic elements. It involves explaining social phenomena by breaking them down into smaller, more manageable parts, often focusing on individual-level explanations while overlooking broader societal factors. In sociology, reductionism can be observed in various forms: 1. **Psychological Reductionism:** This perspective seeks to explain social phenomena by focusing solely on individual psychology or cognitive processes. It disregards larger social structures, cultural influences, or historical contexts that might significantly shape behavior. 2. **Biological Reductionism:** This approach attempts to explain social behaviors and phenomena by reducing them to biological or genetic factors. It overlooks the impact of socialization, cultural norms, and environmental influences on human behavior and social structures. 3. **Economic Reductionism:** This perspective overly emphasizes economic factors as the primary driver of social behavior, often neglecting other significant social forces like culture, politics, or identity. Reductionism in sociology can limit the understanding of complex social issues by oversimplifying them, ignoring the intricate interactions between individuals and their social environments. While breaking down complex phenomena into smaller parts can sometimes aid in under standing, reductionism often neglects the multifaceted nature of social life and the interconnectedness of various social factors. This limitation can hinder a comprehensive understanding of societal issues and solutions.

How well does shaming people who are fat work as a pub- lic health strate- gy? Can you pro- vide some exam- ples?

Shaming individuals for their weight or body size is not an effective public health strategy and can have detrimental effects on both mental and physical health. It tends to exacerbate rather than solve the problem, often leading to various negative outcomes: 1. **Mental Health Impact:** Shaming individuals for their weight can lead to increased stress, anxiety, depression, and lowered self-esteem. This, in turn, can contribute to emotional eating and further weight gain. 2. **Disordered Eating Behaviors:** Weight shaming can trigger or worsen disordered eating behaviors, such as binge eating or extreme dieting, which can negatively impact both physical and mental health. 3. **Avoidance of Healthcare:** Some individuals might avoid seeking medical help or engaging in preventive healthcare practices due to fear of being stigmatized, leading to delayed diagnosis or treatment of health issues. 4. **Lack of Support and Motivation:** Shaming doesn't provide the necessary support or motivation for individuals to adopt healthier lifestyles. Supportive and empowering environments are more conducive to making sustainable health changes. Examples of the ineffectiveness of weight shaming as a public health strategy can be seen in anti-obesity cam- paigns that use stigmatizing or shaming language. These campaigns often receive criticism for their negative impact and failure to produce lasting positive health outcomes.

Social vs Cultural authority

Social authority - control of action through the giving of commands Cultural authority- control of the construction of reality through definitions of fact and value. Doctors maintain both à social authority because they are leaders and supervisors in medicine; cultural authority because patients believe them.

What is a pro- fession? How are professions de- fined sociologi- cally?

Standardized and formal training based on organized body of knowledge • Credentials or licenses required for practice • Structured relationships among those in the profession • Organizations that enforce standards of practice, share knowledge, and protect profession from competitors Generally, sociological definitions understand a profession to be any honest occupation whose practitioners have high social status, high income, advanced education, important social function, or some combination of these or other features easy for the social sciences to measure.

stigma

Stigma refers to a mark, label, or negative perception attached to an individual or a group due to certain characteristics, attributes, behaviors, or conditions that are socially discredited or deemed deviant within a particular cultural or social context.

What is the Flexner Report? When was it pub- lished? What did it say? What ef- fect did it have on the medical pro- fession?

The Flexner Report, published in 1910, was a ground- breaking evaluation of medical education in the United States and Canada conducted by Abraham Flexner. This report had a profound and transformative impact on the medical profession and education. Here's a breakdown: 1. **Purpose:** Commissioned by the Carnegie Founda- tion for the Advancement of Teaching, the report aimed to assess the quality and conditions of medical education in North America. 2. **Findings:** Abraham Flexner evaluated 155 medical schools and provided a comprehensive analysis. He crit- icized the varying quality and standards of these insti- tutions, highlighting issues such as inadequate facilities, subpar teaching, lack of clinical experience, and insuffi- cient emphasis on science in medical education. 3. **Recommendations:** The report recommended a standardized, science-based medical curriculum, higher admission standards, better facilities, and a stronger focus on research and clinical training. Flexner advocated for a shift towards a more rigorous, university-based medical education. 4. **Impact:** The report led to widespread reforms in medical education. Many medical schools that didn't meet the new standards were either closed or merged with larger institutions. The Flexner Report's influence led to the establishment of modern medical education models, emphasizing scientific rigor, clinical training, and adher- ence to standardized curricula. 5. **Professionalization of Medicine:** The report signifi- cantly contributed to the professionalization of medicine, elevating the status and credibility of the medical profes- sion. It also laid the foundation for the modern framework of medical education and practice that we see today.

medical pluralism (multiple ways)

The coexistence of ideas and practitioners from several traditions occupying the same therapeutic space in a society. easier way: Combing diff medical practices to cure a person. Like there is biomedical approach, traditional medicine and complementary medicine - The medical system used depends on where a person lives. Some have economic or religious barriers which makes them choose one medical system over another

What is the fat ac- ceptance move- ment and why does it incur so much public re- sistance?

The fat acceptance movement advocates for the accep- tance and inclusion of individuals of all body sizes, par- ticularly those who are often stigmatized or discriminated against due to being overweight or obese. It seeks to chal- lenge societal biases and discrimination against people based on their body size and to promote body positivity, self-acceptance, and self-esteem regardless of weight. This movement faces public resistance for several rea- sons: 1. Cultural Ideals: Society often promotes thinness as the ideal body type, leading to stigmatization and discrimina- tion against larger bodies. This bias is deeply ingrained and challenges the societal norm of body shape and size. 2. Health Concerns: Critics often argue that promoting body positivity for larger body sizes might encourage un- healthy behaviors. Concerns about the health implications of obesity lead to opposition to accepting larger bodies. 3. Aesthetics and Beauty Standards: Many resist the movement due to entrenched societal beauty standards that favor a particular body type, leading to discrimination against larger bodies in various aspects of life, includ- ing employment, media representation, and social accep- tance. 4. Misconceptions: There's a widespread misconception that all individuals in the fat acceptance movement ad- vocate for an unhealthy lifestyle or that they're promot- ing obesity. However, the movement primarily focuses on ending discrimination and promoting self-acceptance, ir- respective of body size. 5. Stigma and Prejudice: Prejudice against larger bodies is pervasive and often leads to resistance to the idea of body acceptance for those outside the societal beauty norms

Who or what drives the medicalization process?

The medicalization process is influenced by various fac- tors: 1. **Healthcare Professionals:** Physicians, researchers, and healthcare providers play a significant role in identify- ing, defining, and treating medical conditions. Their obser- vations, research, and clinical expertise contribute to the medicalization of certain symptoms or behaviors. 2. **Pharmaceutical Industry:** Pharmaceutical compa- nies have a vested interest in developing and market- ing medications. They may support research, influence disease definitions, and advocate for the recognition of certain conditions to expand the market for their drugs. 3. **Research and Technology:** Advances in medical research and technology can lead to the identification of new conditions, new diagnostic tools, and a better understanding of existing diseases, contributing to theirmedicalization. 4. **Societal and Cultural Influences:** Social norms, cul- tural beliefs, and societal perceptions of health and illness influence the medicalization process. Changes in societal attitudes toward certain behaviors or conditions can lead to their recognition as medical issues. 5. **Patient Advocacy and Awareness:** Patient advocacy groups, along with increased public awareness, can im- pact the medicalization process. They might push for the recognition of specific conditions or symptoms, leading to greater attention and potential medicalization. 6. **Health Policies and Insurance Coverage:** Healthcare policies, insurance coverage, and guidelines for diagnosis and treatment also influence the medicalization process. Changes in these policies can impact the identification and management of diseases.

What is the relationship between the pharmaceutical industry and medicalization?

The pharmaceutical industry and medicalization have an intricate relationship that's influenced by various factors: 1. **Expansion of Disease Definitions:** The pharmaceu- tical industry can play a role in the expansion of disease definitions by supporting research, marketing campaigns, and funding for conditions that might have previously been considered normal variations or mild ailments. This can lead to the medicalization of certain conditions, essentially framing them as treatable medical issues. 2. **Market Influence:** Pharmaceutical companies often have a stake in the identification and recognition of certain conditions as this expands the potential market for their medications. They may promote the recognition of specific symptoms as indicative of a condition, subsequently cre- ating demand for their treatments. 3. **Disease Awareness Campaigns:** The pharmaceu- tical industry often runs disease awareness campaigns, aiming to educate the public about certain conditions. While these campaigns can increase understanding, they might also contribute to the medicalization of milder symp- toms or variations as diagnosable conditions. 4. **Drug Development:** The pharmaceutical industry creates medications based on identified diseases or con- ditions. As new conditions are recognized or existing ones redefined, drug development follows suit, aligning with market opportunities created by expanding disease def-initions. 5. **Criticism and Concerns:** There are concerns about the pharmaceutical industry's influence on medicalization. Some argue that the industry's involvement in defining and expanding disease criteria might lead to overdiagnosis, unnecessary treatments, and increased healthcare costs.

What do physi- cians need to do for people who are sick?

The physician should work to return the sick person to a normal state of functioning - Physicians hold greater pow- er in the relationship. This allows them to exert leverage over the patient to encourage compliance with medical procedures

What is the rela- tionship between diagnosis and the pharmaceuti- cal industry?

The relationship between diagnosis and the pharmaceuti- cal industry is complex and multifaceted, often influenced by various factors: 1. **Influence on Diagnoses:** The pharmaceutical in- dustry can influence the development of diagnostic crite- ria and the expansion of disease definitions. There have been instances where pharmaceutical companies have supported the creation of conditions or redefined existing ones, potentially broadening the market for their drugs. 2. **Disease Awareness Campaigns:** Pharmaceutical companies often engage in disease awareness cam- paigns, aiming to increase public awareness about certain conditions. This can lead to more individuals seeking diag- nosis and treatment, potentially increasing the market for specific medications. 3. **Research and Development:** The pharmaceutical industry funds and conducts research on diagnostic tools, biomarkers, and technologies for various conditions. This involvement can drive innovation in diagnosis and con- tribute to advancements in medical technology. 4. **Marketing and Drug Development:** Pharmaceutical companies often create medications based on identified or newly defined conditions. The identification of conditions and subsequent diagnoses can lead to the development and marketing of drugs targeting those specific ailments. 5. **Criticism and Concerns:** There are concerns about overdiagnosis and the potential influence of pharmaceu- tical companies in expanding disease definitions, poten- tially medicalizing certain normal variations or mild con- ditions. This can lead to unnecessary prescriptions and treatments.

What benefits do people receive in the "sick role"? What are their re- sponsibilities?

The sick person received these benefits: 1) Is exempt from "normal" social roles • Depends on severity of condition and approval by the physician 2) Is not responsible for his or her condition Illness is beyond a person's own control and help is needed in order to get better But, the sick person also would have to seek help. 3.) Sickness should be viewed as undesirable by the individual, and exemption from roles and responsibility for illness is conditional on the obligation to get well

Remission Society

The social situation caused by the increase in people who are alive after a serious diagnosis, such as cancer, yet are continually on the lookout for the disease to return

Were physicians able to attain pro- fessional domi- nance in the Unit- ed States be- cause they were better able to heal their pa- tients?

While the healing aspect is central to their profession, the dominance of physicians historically stemmed from a combination of factors, including their knowledge, societal status, and their role in defining and regulating the field of medicine. - Specialized Knowledge: Physicians possess specialized medical knowledge that's typically acquired through exten- sive education and training. This expertise allowed them to diagnose and treat diseases, which gave them authority and respect in the medical field. - Regulatory Control: Physicians played a significant role in regulating their own profession, setting educational standards, licensing requirements, and codes of ethics. This self-regulation contributed to their professional auton- omy and dominance. - Social Status and Prestige: Physicians have traditionally held a high social status due to the nature of their work and the perception of their contributions to society. - Gatekeeping Role: Historically, physicians acted as gate- keepers to medical care, controlling access to healthcare services and treatment, further solidifying their dominance within the healthcare system.

mid wives

Women who assisted local women in birth

BMI

body mass index (measurement of body fat based on height and weight)

Determinism

is a concept that holds that social outcomes are predetermined by forces out of the control of individuals. These forces can include economic, class, case, gender, technology, racial, or other social hierarchies - pre determined by environment and genetics

Diagnosis

is the art or act of identifying a disease from its signs and symptoms.

What kind of person is associated with obsesity?

several factors might contribute to an increased risk of obesity: 1. **Genetics:** Genetic predisposition can play a role in an individual's susceptibility to obesity, but it's not de- terministic. Genetic factors can influence metabolism, fat storage, and other physiological mechanisms related to weight. 2. **Lifestyle and Behavior:** Sedentary lifestyle, poor dietary choices, overconsumption of high-calorie foods, and lack of physical activity are significant contributors to obesity. However, these factors can affect individuals across diverse demographics. 3. **Socioeconomic Factors:** Socioeconomic status can influence obesity rates. People in lower-income brackets might face challenges accessing healthy food options or resources for physical activity, contributing to higher obe- sity rates in some communities. 4. **Cultural and Environmental Factors:** Cultural norms, environmental factors, and community resources can im- pact obesity rates. Access to safe spaces for physical activity, availability of healthy food options, and cultural attitudes towards food can all influence weight. 5. **Mental Health:** Psychological factors, such as stress, depression, and trauma, can lead to emotional eating or unhealthy coping mechanisms, contributing to weight gain in some individuals.

What is the aver- age acceptance rate of a single medical school? What percentage of applicants are accepted into a medical school?

• In 2018-2019, there were 849,678 medical school ap- plications submitted by 52,777 applicants. Therefore, on average, each applicant applied to 16 medical schools. • Acceptance rates vary significantly .• Harvard Medical School, the acceptance rate is 3.8%. Average medical school acceptance rates are 7%. • 31.1% matriculated.

What does it mean to say that racism is "dom- inance through a complex sys- tem"?

• Racism is used as a way to devalue, disempower, and differentially allocated valued societal resources and op- portunities to groups defined as inferior. • Racism equals prejudice and power 1. Structural Power Imbalances: Racism operates through systems, institutions, and societal structures that favor one racial group while disadvantaging others. These structures can be economic, political, social, or cultural, reinforcing the dominance of one racial group over others. 2. Historical and Interconnected Nature: Racism isn't just about individual prejudices or actions; it's deeply embed- ded in historical contexts and intertwined with various aspects of society. This complex system includes laws,policies, cultural norms, and institutions that perpetuate racial disparities. 3. Intersectionality: Racism intersects with other forms of oppression, such as sexism, classism, or homopho- bia. It interacts with various social identities and power structures, making the system even more intricate and multifaceted. 4. Institutional and Cultural Impact: Racism isn't just about personal bias; it's ingrained in societal norms, beliefs, and practices. It affects institutions and their policies, which, intentionally or unintentionally, uphold racial hierarchies. Perpetuation of Inequality: The complex system of racism perpetuates and reinforces inequality, impacting access to resources, opportunities, and quality of life based on race.

Profession

•A paid occupation, especially one that involved prolonged training and formal qualification • Credentials or licenses required for practice •Structured relationships among those in the profession (relations with others in ur profession) •Organizations that enforce standards of practice, share knowledge, and protect profession from competitors