Sociology final terms and definitions

Socialization (education)

Parents and other relatives are responsible for teaching children the necessary knowledge and skills to survive. The smallness and intimacy of families make them best suited for providing children with the initial learning experiences they need

What is religion, and what are its key components?

Religion is a social institution composed of a unified system of beliefs, symbols, and rituals, based on some sacred or supernatural realm, that guides human behavior, gives meaning to life, and unites believers into a community

What are the major types of religious organization?

Religious organizations can be categorized as ecclesia, churches, denominations, sects, and cults (now frequently referred to as new religious movements or NRMs

Change and Innovation

Schools are a source of change and innovation. As student populations change over time, new programs are introduced to meet societal needs; for example, sex education, drug education, and multicultural studies have been implemented in some schools to help students learn about pressing social issues. Innovation in the form of new knowledge is required of colleges and universities. Faculty members are encouraged, and sometimes required, to engage in research and to share the results with students, colleagues, and others

Social placement

Schools are responsible for identifying the most qualified people to fill available positions in society. As a result, students are channeled into programs based on individual ability and academic achievement. Graduates receive the appropriate credentials for entry into the paid labor force

Creating a generation gap

Students may learn information in school that contradicts beliefs held by their parents or their religion. When education conflicts with parental attitudes and beliefs, a generation gap is created if students embrace the newly acquired perspective

How are problems in U.S. higher education related to larger issues in the United States and the world?

The funding of higher education is a central problem linked to crises in national and global economies. The problem of increasing costs of higher education for students is compounded by state budget shortfalls, which have caused funding for public higher education to be slashed. Declining state and federal support has become a major concern for colleges and universities because as enrollments drop, along with financial support, these institutions will have to find new sources of revenue, sharply reduce expenses, and rework administrative costs. The global economy also has a significant influence on the nature of higher education in contemporary societies. Other issues, such as the underrepresentation of minorities as students, a lack of faculty diversity, and problems of prejudice and discrimination are also linked to larger inequalities in society

Nuclear Family

a family composed of one or two parents and their dependent children, all of whom live apart from other relatives

Extended Family

a family unit composed of relatives in addition to parents and children who live in the same household

Marriage

a legally recognized and/or socially approved arrangement between two or more individuals that carries certain rights and obligations and usually involves sexual activity

Monogamy

a marriage between 2 partners, usually a man and a woman

Meritocracy

a social system in which status is assumed to be acquired through individual ability and effort

Credentialism

an increase in the lowest level of education needed for a particular field

Social Deviance

any behavior, belief, or condition that violates significant social norms in the society or group in which it occurs

Prejudice

as a negative attitude based on faulty generalizations about members of specific racial, ethnic, or other groups

Detracking

based on the assumption that intensifying the secondary school curricula may help close the achievement gap among students, particularly those dimensions that are based on class or race/ethnicity

Bilateral Descent

both sides of a person's family are regarded as equally important

Social Inequality

caste system- a system of social inequality in which people's status is permanently determined at birth based on their parents' ascribed characteristics

Detracking movement

emphasizes that students should be deliberately placed in classes of mixed ability to improve their academic performance and test scores—has influenced a growing number of educators

Norms

established rules of behavior or standards of conduct

Egalitarian family

family in which spouses are regarded as equals

Sociology of Family

he subdiscipline of sociology that attempts to describe and explain patterns of family life and variations in family structure

Domestic Partnerships

household partnerships in which an unmarried couple lives together in a committed, sexually intimate relationship and is granted some of the same rights and benefits as those accorded to married heterosexual couples

Discrimination

involves actions or practices of dominant group members (or representatives) that have a harmful effect on members of a subordinate group

Affluent students

learn creative activities that encourage their own ideas

Patriarchy

males are expected to dominate in all family decision making

Polygymy

marriage of a man to more than one woman at a time

Polyandry

marriage of a woman to more than one husband at the same time

Patrilineal Descent

only the father's relatives are important

Matrilineal Descent

only the mother's relatives are significant

Stereotypes

overgeneralizations about the appearance, behavior, or other characteristics of members of particular categories

Tracking (ability grouping)

placing students in specific groups based on test scores and other criteria

Exogamy

practice of marrying outside one's own group

Patrilocal Residence

refers to the custom of a married couple living in the same household (or community) as the husband's parents

University Globalization

refers to the export of students from countries such as India and China to nations where they study and immerse themselves in another culture

Homogamy

refers to the pattern of individuals marrying those who have similar characteristics, such as race/ethnicity, religious background, age, education, or social class

Cohabitation

refers to two people who live together, and think of themselves as a couple, without being legally married

Cult (religion)

religious group with practices and teachings outside the dominant cultural and religious traditions of a society

Role Conflict vs. Role Strain

role conflict: a situation in which incompatible role demands are placed on a person by two or more statuses held at the same time role strain: a condition that occurs when incompatible demands are built into a single status that a person occupies

Religion

seeks to answer questions as to why we exist, why people suffer and die, and what happens when we die

Sect (religion)

small group that has broken away from another organization to renew original version of the faith

Cultural capitol

social assets that include values, beliefs, attitudes, and competencies in language and culture

Kinship

state of being related to others

Social Control

systematic practices that social groups develop in order to encourage conformity to norms, rules, and laws and to discourage deviance

Education

teaches knowledge, skills and cultural values from an organized setting

Civil Religion

the "approved" relationship between church and state -prayer in schools? -religious holidays?

Aninism

the belief that plants, animals, or other elements of the natural world are endowed with spirits or life forces having an effect on events in society

Matrilocal Residence

the custom of a married couple living in the same household (or community) as the wife's parents

Neolocal Residence

the custom of a married couple living in their own residence apart from both the husband's and the wife's parents

Second Shift

the domestic work that employed women perform at home after they complete their workday on the job

Profane

the everyday, secular, or "worldly" aspects of life

Family of Orientation

the family into which a person is born and in which early socialization usually takes place

Family of Procreation

the family that a person forms by having or adopting children

Culture

the knowledge, language, values, customs, and material objects that are passed from person to person and from one generation to the next in a human group or society

Socialization

the lifelong process of social interaction through which individuals acquire a self-identity and the physical, mental, and social skills needed for survival in society

Endogamy

the practice of marrying within one's own group

Hidden Curriculum

the transmission of cultural values and attitudes, such as conformity and obedience to authority, through implied demands found in the rules, routines, and regulations of schools

Serial Monogamy

when a person has several spouses in his or her lifetime, but only one spouse at a time

Blended Families

which consist of a husband and wife, children from previous marriages, and children (if any) from the new marriage

Event dropout rate

which estimates the percentage of both public and private high school students who left high school between the beginning of one school year and the beginning of the next without earning a high school diploma or an alternative credential such as a GED—we find that every school day, at least 7,000 U.S. students (on average) leave high school and never return

Elite students

will learn critical thinking skills and problem solving

Matriarchy

women have a greater authority than men

Cultural capital

"proper' attitudes about education, approved dress and manners, knowledge about books, art, etc

The primary reasons that parents indicate for preferring to home-school their children are

(1) concern about the school environment, (2) the desire to provide religious or moral instruction, and (3) dissatisfaction with the academic instruction available at traditional schools.

Religion has been empowered by three trends that secularization theory believed would be the cause of its death:

(1) modernization, (2) democratization, and (3) globalization.

Diverse Lifestyles: Same Sex marriage

-idea of same-sex marriage strikes some people as the latest of many attacks on traditional marriage -to others it seems an overdue acknowledgement of the formal relationships that faithful, monogamous gay couples have long maintained

Impact of Divorce on Children

-it would be simplistic to assume that children are automatically better off following the breakup of their parents -recent research suggests that impact of divorce can extend beyond childhood, affecting a grown person's ability to establish a lasting marital relationship

Functionalist perspective (religion)

-meaning and purpose -social cohesion and sense of belonging -social control and support for gov't

Interactionist perspective (religion)

-meanings that people give religion in their lives

Diverse Lifestyles: Remaining Single

-more people are postponing entry into 1st marriages -the trend toward maintaining a single lifestyle for longer period of time is related to growing economic independence of young people, especially women -remaining single represents a clear departure from societal expectations

Denomination (religion)

-organized characteristics, but lacking in ability or intention to dominate society -tend to be more tolerant -more denominations in US than anywhere

Divorce

-perhaps most important factor in increase in divorce over last 100 years has been the greater social acceptance of divorce

Families

-relationships in which people live together with commitment, form an economic unit and care for any young, and consider their identity to be significantly attached to the group

Conflict perspective (religion)

-religion tends to promote conflict between groups and societies -it imposes the dominant class belief on others

Exogamy and Endogamy

-requires mate selection outside certain groups, usually one's own family or certain kinfolk -specifies groups within which a spouse must be found and prohibits marriage with members of other groups

Latent Functions (hidden unstated consequences)

-restricting some activities -matchmaking and production of social networks -creating a generation gap

Conflict perspective

-schools perpetuate class, racial, ethnic and gender inequalities -the hidden curriculum (the standard of behavior taught subtly in schools) schools for working class students emphasize procedures, memorization w/out choice, decision making and/or explanation middle class stress processes involved in getting the answer (explain how the answer was contrived)

Terminology

-secularization religious beliefs and practices lose their significance in sectors of society -Ecclesia religious organization so integrated that includes all members of a society

Functionalist perspective

-sees education as one of the most important components of society -manifest functions (intended and defined by the school) 1. Socialization -teach student role, academic subjects 2. Social placement -identify most qualified people to fill available positions

Interactionist perspective (focus on classroom dynamics)

-self fulfilling prophecy -education and labeling -looking glass self

Incest taboo

-social norm common to virtually all societies, prohibits sexual relationships between certain culturally specified relatives

Diverse Lifestyles: Marriage without children

-there has been a modest increase in childlessness in the U.S. -these are couples who choose to not have children

Manifest functions

3. Transmission of culture -Dominant values, attitudes, and behaviors in order to be productive members of society 4. Social control -discipline, respect, obedience, punctuality, conformity 5. Change and Innovation -meet societal needs in changes in society -new programs, new research

What are the key assumptions of functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist perspectives on education?

According to functionalists, education has both manifest functions (socialization, transmission of culture, multicultural education, social control, social placement, and change and innovation) and latent functions (keeping young people off the streets and out of the job market, matchmaking and producing social networks, and creating a generation gap). From a conflict perspective, education is used to perpetuate class, racial-ethnic, and gender inequalities through tracking, ability grouping, and a hidden curriculum that teaches subordinate groups conformity and obedience. Symbolic interactionists examine classroom dynamics and study ways in which practices such as labeling may become a self-fulfilling prophecy for some students

Matchmaking and production of social networks

Because schools bring together people of similar ages, social class, and race/ethnicity, young people often meet future marriage partners and develop social networks that may last for many years

Sociological Imagination

C. Wright Mill's term for the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society

Restricting some Activities

Early in the twentieth century, all states passed mandatory education laws that require children to attend school until they reach a specified age or until they complete a minimum level of formal education. Out of these laws grew one latent function of education, which is to keep students off the streets and out of the full-time job market for a number of years, thus helping keep unemployment within reasonable bounds

Why are education and religion important areas of sociological inquiry?

Education and religion are powerful and influential forces in society. Both institutions impart values, beliefs, and knowledge considered essential to the social reproduction of individual personalities and entire cultures. For this reason, analysis of education and religion is central to a comprehensive understanding of sociology

Sexual Regulation

Families are expected to regulate the sexual activity of their members and thus control reproduction so that it occurs within specific boundaries. At the macrolevel, incest taboos prohibit sexual contact or marriage between certain relatives. For example, virtually all societies prohibit sexual relations between parents and their children and between brothers and sisters

Economic and psychological support

Families are responsible for providing economic and psychological support for members. In preindustrial societies, families are economic production units; in industrial societies, the economic security of families is tied to the workplace and to macrolevel economic systems. In recent years, psychological support and emotional security have been increasingly important functions of the family

Provision of Social Status

Families confer social status and reputation on their members. These statuses include the ascribed statuses with which individuals are born, such as race/ethnicity, nationality, social class, and sometimes religious affiliation. One of the most significant and compelling forms of social placement is the family's class position and the opportunities (or lack thereof) resulting from that position. Examples of class-related opportunities are access to quality health care, higher education, and a safe place to live

What are some major trends in U.S. education and religion in the twenty-first century?

Major trends in education include continuing debates about how schools should be funded, what should be taught, and how student learning and other outcomes should be assessed. The future of education may hinge on which elected officials are able to get their agendas for pre-kindergarten through college passed by state legislatures and the U.S. Congress. For-profit institutions will also play an increasing role in the future of this important social institution. One of the most important trends in religion has been the ongoing debate over secularization—the process by which religious beliefs, practices, and institutions lose their significance in society and nonreligious values, principles, and institutions take their place. Because religion meets many needs that no other institution can provide, it will continue as a major social institution

What are some major problems in U.S. elementary and secondary schools?

Most educational funds come from state legislative appropriations and local property taxes. In difficult economic times, this means that schools must do without the necessary funds to provide students with teachers, supplies, and the best educational environment for learning. High dropout rates, racial segregation and resegregation, and equalizing educational opportunities for students are also among the many pressing issues facing U.S. public education today