Sociology of Sport Review #3

Authority

is a form of power that comes with a recognized and legitimate status or office in a government, organization, or an established set of relationships

Identify the conditions under which commercial sports emerge and grow in a society

-Market economies where material rewards are highly valued -Societies that have highly populated cities with high concentrations of potential spectators -Places with a high standard of living -Large amounts of capital (money) -Lifestyles that emphasize consumption and material status symbols -Commercial sports success depend on gate receipts, concessions, sponsorships, the sale of media rights, and other revenue associated with sport images and personalities

Describe the major differences in the ways that men and women and blacks and whites are represented in media images and narratives

-Masculinity rules in media sports. Men's sports receive about 95% of sports coverage in the media and both images and narratives tend to reproduce traditional ideas and beliefs about gender. -Women's sports have never been a media priority, they get under 5% of coverage, women's sports are less likely to be sexualized and involve sexist jokes or comments. -Sports coverage today pretends that race and ethnicity don't exist. It assumes that sports is a racially and ethnically level playing field and that everyone in sports faces the same challenges and odds for success. But race and ethnicity are influential to such an extent that people cannot talk about them without discovering real, meaningful, and socially important racial and ethnic differences in what they think or feel. Ignoring this story about real differences allows whites in the media and media audiences to be comfortably color blind and deny the legacy and continuing relevance of skin color and cultural heritage in society and sports. White, old men are typically team owners, sport cultures have been shaped by the values and experiences of white men.

Identify the major forms of public assistance received by professional sport franchises in the united states

-Most common is the use of public funds to build arenas and stadiums. "Stadium Socialism" enables wealthy and powerful capitalists to use public money for personal gain, but when the media discuss this transfer of funds, it is usually described as economic development rather than welfare for the rich. -Five point argument: Creates jobs, infuses money into local economy, attracts businesses, media attention, social unity and pride

Assess popular beliefs about the benefits of varsity sports in high schools and colleges

-The games of big time sport teams often are major social occasions that inspire displays of spirit on many university campuses, but research suggests that this spirit has little to do with the educational mission of the school or creating general social integration on campus. It does create regular occasions for a segment of students, more often males than women or ethnic minorities, to party, drink, avoid schoolwork, especially when the team is winning. Strengthens identification with schools and creates solidarity. -High school budget issues have become increasingly contentious with the rising expectations of parents and athletes seeking athletic programs that match the individualized attention they have received from private clubs. As more students come out of club programs, they are focused on obtaining a scholarship, so they expect coaches, trainers etc. to help them achieve this, even if it is unrealistic. -Although the cost of sport programs in D II and D III schools pales in comparison to D I schools, schools in each division are sites for increasing tension between core educational values and decisions that favor intercollegiate sports in admissions and resource allocation in campus budgets.

Identify the arguments against interscholastic sports

-they distract students from academic activities and distort values in school culture -they perpetuate dependence, conformity, and a power and performance orientation that is no longer useful in society -they turn most students into passive spectators and cause too many serious injuries to athletes - they create a superficial, transitory spirit that is unrelated to educational goals -they deprive educational programs of resources, facilities, staff, and community support -they create pressure on athletes and support a hierarchical status system in which athletes are unfairly privileged over other students

Identify the arguments for interscholastic sports

-they involve students in school activities and increase interest in academic activities -they build self esteem, responsibility, achievement, orientation, and team work skills required for occupational success -they foster fitness and stimulate interest in physical activities -they generate spirit and unity and maintain the school as a viable organization -they promote parental, alumni, and community support for school programs -they give students opportunities to develop and display skills in activities valued in society and to be recognized for their competence

Identify the major issues faced by both high school and college sports teams and explain how they might influence sports in the future

1)Both programs face issues related to cost containment and growing budget inequality between programs in schools at the same level of competition. 2) is the changing orientations and rising expectations of parents and athletes, who now make their own sport related goals a priority when searching for a sport program. 3) is how to minimize concussions, repetitive head trauma, and other serious injuries that could significantly reduce participation in certain sports and bring about major structural and cultural changes in athletic departments. 4) is how to create and maintain sport programs that support the educational mission of the school and promote learning experiences for all students without overshadowing the academic focus of students and teachers. 5) both face the issue of gender inequities and the issue of providing participation opportunities for students with disabilities

Explain why some athletes of color have become socially isolated on predominantly white college campuses

1)Racial and athletic stereotypes make it difficult for black athletes to feel welcome on campus and develop relationships that support academic success 2) athletes must devote so much time to sports that it is difficult for them to become involved in other spheres of campus life 3) campus activities often fail to represent the interests and experiences of black students 4) when campus life is unrelated to their experiences black athletes may withdraw from activities that could connect them with other students 5) white students who lack experience in racially diverse groups might feel uncomfortable interacting with black students from background unlike their own 6) when white students think that black athletes have things easy and are unfairly privileged, it creates tension that undermines meaningful interaction Racial and athletic stereotypes make it difficult for black athletes to feel welcome on campus and develop relationships that support their academic success

Identify at least 5 major reasons for governments to be involved in sports

1.Safeguard the public order 2.Ensure fairness and protect human rights 3.Maintain health and fitness among citizens 4.Promote the prestige and power of a group, community, or nation 5.Promote a sense of identity, belonging, and unity among citizens 6.Reproduce dominate values and ideologies in a community or society 7.Increase support for political leaders or government 8.Facilitate economic and social development in a community or society

Identify the traditional ideals associated with international sports and discus those ideals in terms of the realities of international sports

Achieving peace and friendship among nations is emphasized by the modern Olympic games. For over a century, goals have been embraced by many people who assumed or hoped that sports would do the following things: create open communication lines between people and leaders from different nations, highlight shared interest among people from different cultures and nations, demonstrate that friendly international relationships are possible, foster cultural understanding and eliminate the use of national stereotypes, create a global model for cooperative cultural economic and political relationships, establish processes that develop effective leaders in emerging nations, and close the resource gap between wealthy and poor nations. Recent history shows that sports can be useful in the realm of public diplomacy, which consists of public expressions of togetherness in the form of cultural exchanges and general communication among officials among various nations. However, sports have no impact in the realm of serious diplomacy, which consists of discussions and decisions about political issues of vital national interests. In other words, international sports provide opportunities for political leaders to meet and talk, but they don't influence the content of their discussions or their policy decisions.

Identify the factors that influence relationships between sports journalists and athletes

As the amount of video coverage of sports has increased, sportswriters have had to create stories that go beyond describing action and reporting scores. This leads them to seek increasingly intimate information about the personal lives of athletes, and this creates tension in athlete-journalist relationships. Athletes today realize that they cannot trust journalists to hold information in confidence. The stakes associated with bad press are so great for athletes and teams that sports organization limit what players can say when talking with journalists.

Explain the research finding on the experiences of college athletes and how participation in sports is related to grades and graduation rates

Athletes as a group have a graduation rate similar to other college students, graduation rates are lowest in revenue producing sports like basketball and football, the graduation rate for African American male and female athletes is higher than African American men and women in the general student population. Focus on sports not school

Distinguish differences between aesthetic orientations and heroic orientations, and explain how they are influenced by the commercialization of sport

Athletes become entertainers and the orientations of nearly everyone in sports shift toward an emphasis on heroic action and away from aesthetic action. Because many people in a mass audience lack technical knowledge about the sport they watch, they are entertained mostly by intense action, danger, the dramatic expressions of athletes and coaches, and manifestations of commitment to victory. Players realize what a mass audience wants and often play to the crowd with heroic displays and exciting or controversial personas.

Identify differences between intercollegiate sports in big time programs and smaller, lower profile programs

Athletes in big programs can spend over 40 hours per week on their sport. Playing on a team and being seriously involved in academic courses seldom go hand in hand. Athletes have discovered that picking easier majors and courses is necessary to meet academic expectations. Some big time intercollegiate sport teams are characterized by chronic problems, low graduation rate, and hypocrisy when it comes to education. However, teams in nonrevenue producing sports are more likely to be organized so that athletes can combine sport participation with academic and social development. Larger programs have more coaches.

Know the ways that varsity sports influence student culture and the overall social organization of high schools in the united states

Being on a school team can bring prestige among peers, formal rewards in the school, and recognition from teachers, administrators, and people in the local community. Athletes, especially boys, often are accorded recognition that enhances their popularity in student culture.

Identify major trends in televised sports and media rights fees

Broadcasting right now is about event tv, live tv, and sport events. That's what is really attracting the real advertising dollars. This explains why media companies, like NBC, have collectively signed deals paying sport organizations $72 billion for the rights to broadcast their games, matches, and events now and over the next decade. In 2015, the NFL received $4.95 billion. The rights fees provide sports with predictable, significant, and increasing sources of income. Promotion of beers, life insurance, trucks/cars, etc. to attract middle aged men

Discuss how sports and the media depend on each other for commercial success

Commercial sports require media to provide a combination of coverage, publicity, and news. Sports promoters and team owners know the value of coverage, and they provide free access to reporters, commentators, and photographers. Most sports have a special dependence on tv because tv companies pay for the rights to broadcast games. Media establishes team reputation. Apart from newspapers and magazines devoted to specific sports, the print media do not depend on sports; nor do films, radio, and the video game industry as a whole. The urgency and uncertainty that are so compelling in sports are not captured and represented in any of these media as they are in visual broadcast media. Overall, the media most dependent on sports for commercial success are newspapers (account for 25% of newspaper) and television.

Discuss research findings on audience experiences and the media impact on sport related behaviors, such as gambling

Consuming media sports is clearly connected with gambling, but there is no evidence that is causes gambling. Sports wagering in the US amounts to $380 billion annually. Sport gambling is most popular among younger men who have above average income and at least some college education. Gambling can constitute a threat to sports because it elevates the stakes associated with competitive outcomes and may lead people to seek an edge by convincing one or more athletes to control the scores of games so that bets can be won.

Explain the conditions under which interscholastic sports may be valuable in high schools and the lives of students who play sports

For young men, sports provide opportunities to demonstrate physical and emotional toughness giving them a masculine identity. Women achieve and express personal power. Women view sports as part of a larger achievement that include academic social and other accomplishments

Identify economic and ideological factors that influence relationships between sports and the media

Global economic factors have intensified the interdependence between commercial sports and the media. Major transnational corporations need ways to develop global name recognition, cultural legitimacy, and product familiarity. They also want to promote ideologies that support a way of life based on consumption, competition, and individual achievement. Media sports offer global corporations a means of meeting these needs. Finally, many male executives of large media corporations are dedicated sports fans, and they like to be associated with sports as sponsors. Reaffirms gender ideologies, powerful male executives reaffirm ideas and beliefs through sports.

Discuss the political issues associated with the globalization of sports

Globalization is a process through which financial capital, products, knowledge, worldviews, and cultural practices flow through political borders and influence people's lives. Globalization often involves exchanges of resources and elements of culture-but those exchanges are seldom equal because some nations have more power to export and infuse their money and ways of life into other societies. Ex: Owners from other countries own sports teams, athletes from other countries come to play sports

Provide examples of how government intervention in sports protects the rights and safety of athletes and non athletes alike

Governments may pass laws, establish policies, or rule in court cases. A classic example is title 9 in the US and similar laws that other countries have passed to promote gender equity in sports. Many national governments are considering or have enacted laws mandating the provision of sport participation opportunities for people with a disability. The University of Michigan was forced to increase its accessible seats and to make restrooms accessible (ADA). Schools have a legal obligation to provide students with disabilities an equal opportunity to participant alongside their peers and school cannot exclude students who have an intellectual, developmental, physical, or any other disability from trying out and playing on a team if they are otherwise qualified. Amateur Sports Act which protects athletes from sport governing bodies.

Explain why corporations that sell alcohol, tobacco, soft drinks, confectionery products, and fast foods are likely to sponsor sports in the media

If you see a famous athlete eating a kit kat or promoting McDonalds fans of that player and teams will support that corporation.

Describe the patterns of income received by professional and amateur athletes

In individual sports, the reality is that many players in these sports don't make enough money from tournament winnings to pay all their expenses. There is a range of incomes because the big salaries for a few players drives up the average for the entire league. Increases have occurred because of the changes in players' legal status and increased revenues like media rights. Publicity is often given to the supercontracts of some athletes, but salaries widely vary.

Identify ideological themes around which the media coverage of sports is constructed

In the case of sports, the most central ideologies that influence what we see and hear are those related to success, consumption, gender, race, ethnicity, and nationality.

Identify the major forms of media, what they provide to people, and the influence of commercial forces on media content

Major forms are print (newspapers, books, magazines, etc.) and electronic media (radio, tv, internet, etc.). Today, media provide information, interpretation, entertainment, and opportunities for interactivity and content production. When media content is provided for commercial purposes, entertainment is emphasized more than information, interpretation, or opportunities for interactivity and content production. In the process, media consumers become commodities sold to advertisers with the primary goal of promoting lifestyles based on consumption. In nations where mass media are controlled primarily by the state, the goal is to influence cultural values

Explain how the corporate branding of sports is related to the establishment of ideological outposts around the world today

Many people now see branding as normal in sports. Corporate branding can lead to commercial sports being a site where people with political and financial resources can package their values and ideas and present them in a form that most people see as normal, acceptable, and even entertaining. Branding is a mark of ownership. Community identity can become linked to brands. Consumption is promoted and a common interest is formed.

Discuss research findings on audience experiences and the media impact on sport related behaviors, such as game attendance

Many people say they would rather watch certain sport event on tv than attend them in person. On the other hand, the media publicizes sports, promotes interest, and provides information that helps people to identify with athletes and teams. Although consuming media sports has generally been positively related to attending live events, this may be changing with widespread use of new media.

Explain the connection between cultural ideology and the sponsorship of sports by nation-states and transnational corporations

Massive corporations are now among the largest economies in the world today and they share the global political stage with nation states. This change occurred as nation states embraced a policy of deregulation, lifted trade restrictions, lowered tariffs, and made it easier for capital, labor, and goods to flow freely around the globe. Although nation states remain central in global relations, the differences between national and corporate interests have nearly disappeared in connection with sports. The global power of transnational corporations is neither unlimited or uncontested.

Discuss why the Olympic games are a socially valuable event and what can be done to make them more socially sustainable

Most nations use sport events to pursue their own interests rather than international understanding, friendship, and peace. Most promote their own military, economic, political, and cultural ideas and ideologies. Nations are interested in benefiting themselves and displaying superiority.

Describe the patterns of income received by amateur athletes

Most of these athletes do not make large sums of money. Most often, they receive scholarships providing living expenses that, on average, left them living about $3,000 or more below the poverty line. As amateurs, college athletes lack the power to negotiate the conditions of their sport participation.

Give examples of politics in sports and explain why politics will always be a part of sports

Most sport organizations provide and regulate sport participation opportunities, establish and enforce policies, control and standardize competitions, and acknowledge the accomplishments of athletes. This sounds like a straightforward set of tasks, but they seldom are accomplished without opposition, debate, and compromise. Eliminating politics in sports is not possible (governing bodies). Political processes exist because people in sport organizations must answer questions about what qualifies as a sport, the rules of a sport, procedures for enforcing rules, the organization and control of sport events, locations of sports events, eligibility criteria for participants, and distribution of rewards.

Discuss the major reforms that have been made in intercollegiate sports and explain the purpose and effectiveness of those reforms

New rules for athlete eligibility have become stricter. First years athletes must now have a 2.3 gpa, have s SAT score of 900 or ACT of score of 75. Lower test scores require a higher gpa. These rule changes were designed to 1) send messages to high schools and their athletes that a commitment to academic achievement is required. 2) set new guidelines for universities that haven't taken seriously the academic lives of athletes. 3) encourage universities to provide athletes with the support they need to succeed academically. Boosting eligibility standards has been somewhat successful, but many intercollegiate programs still fall short of meeting reasonable academic goals. Academic support programs help athletes succeed in their school work.

Identify the legal status in team sports

Pro athletes always have rejected the reserve system, but it wasn't until 1976 that court rulings gave athletes the right to become free agents under certain conditions. Free agency varies, but it allows some players whose contracts have expired to seek contracts with other teams that bid for their services. This change has had a dramatic effect on the salaries of top pro athletes. Players now have more control over their career, salary, and working conditions.

Discuss whether and how new media, including the internet, change sport spectator experiences

Radically alters relationships in the production and consumption of accessible content related to sports worldwide. They make possible individually created and selected information, interpretation, and entertainment. Additionally, it enables people to bypass the gatekeepers of content in the old media as they construct their own interpretations of events, athletes, and the overall organization of sports. The recent proliferation of mobile devices and growing connectivity change the way many of us access and respond to sport media content. People are now able to construct their own interpretations of events, athletes, and the overall organization of sports.

Discuss research findings on audience experiences and the media impact on sport related behaviors, such as active participation

Research examining the legacies of the Olympics for people in the country hosting the games has shown consistently that watching sports on tv is more likely to lead to more tv watching than actively playing sports. In light of this evidence, it appears that a positive link between watching and doing sports may exist only when parents, teachers, or physical educators strategically connect media representations with everyday sport participation. In the absence of more research on this topic, we can say only that consuming sports through the media may be connected with activity or inactivity in different situations and with different people. People use media sports as a source of inspiration for their own participation. Studies of audience experiences suggest that people interpret media content and integrate media sport consumption into their lives in diverse ways. More men than women are committed to consuming media sports, and strongly committed consumers constitute a relatively small segment of the overall population in most societies.

Identify factors that influence the images and narratives presented in the media

Scholars assume that media sports are symbolic constructions which means that the telecasts of games present the ideas that certain people have about values, social life, and the characteristics of the viewing audience. Although each of us interprets media images and narratives differently, many of us use mediated sports as reference points as we form, revise, and extend our ideas about sports, social life, and social relations. Media can open up new opportunities for spectators to view sports, but they also limit and define the experiences of spectators.

Identify economic and ideological reasons why sports have become so popular in society today

Spectator interest has created excitement and eliminates boredom without disrupting social order in society. Highest among people who believe in Meritocracy: hard work and skill lead to success. Class ideology: sports show how society should operate. Youth sports emphasize skill, competition, and success. Media promotes the commercialization of sports (profit)

Discuss the research findings about the experiences of athletes in high school

Studies in the us consistently show that high school athletes as a group have higher gpa's, more positive attitudes toward school, lower rates of absenteeism, more interest in attending college, more years of college completed, greater career success, and better health than students who don't play school sponsored sports. Membership on a school team is a valued status in many us schools and for some students it seems to go hand in hand with positive educational experiences, reduced dropout rates, and increased identification with the school.

Identify examples of how government intervention in sports may benefit some people more than others

Those who benefit the most are the persons or groups who are capable of directly influencing policy makers. This doesn't mean that government policies reflect on the interests of wealthy and powerful people, but it does mean that policy making is often contentious and creates power struggles among various segments of the population in a city or society. When government involvement in sports is intended to promote identity and unity it usually benefits the interests of people with power because they have the resources to connect emotional unity that constitute their ideas of nationhood and loyalty to the status quo.

Identify legal status in individual sports

Varies greatly from sport to sport and athlete to athlete. It largely depends on what athletes must do to train and qualify for competitions. Whenever athletes need sponsors to pay for training or agents to help them, their legal status is shaped by the contracts they sign with these people and then with the organization that regulates participation. When they lack resources, they are limited in what they can negotiate.

Discuss how commercialization affects the rules, cultures, and organization of sports

When sport is converted into commercial entertainment, success is solely dependent on spectator appeal and interest. Commercialization affects 1) internal structure and goals of sports 2) orientations of athletes, coaches, and sponsors 3) the people and organization that controls sports. Overconformity, heroic displays, etc.

Cartel

a centralized group that coordinates the actions of a selected collection of people or buissnesses

Monopsony

a single buyer of a product or service

Government

are formal organizations with the power to make and enforce rules in a particular territory or collection of people.

Power

refers to an ability to influence people to achieve goals, even in the face of opposition from others

Politics

refers to the process of organizing social power and making decisions that affect people's lives in a social world.

Explain how the owners of major pro sports have benefited from being allowed to establish cartels, monopolies, and monopsonies

team owners in each sport are able to come together to form a cartel representing their collective interests. The cartel is used to control inter team competition for players, fans, media revenues, and merchandise sales. It's used to eliminate competition from others who might form leagues and teams in the same sports.

Hegemony

the dominance or leadership of one nation/social over others. Global politics often revolve around issues of ideological hegemony. Nation states- sports usually serve the interests of the wealthy and powerful hegemonic nations. Sports have become vehicles for economically powerful nations to extend their control over poor nations that are struggling and need assistance. Transnational corporations now represent corporations as much or more than nations. Corporate sponsors exert significant influence over sports events because they direct sport images and narratives toward the population of interest, spectator consumers.

Monopolies

the one and only provider of a particular product or service