Solar System Final

seismogram

Record of ground shaking recorded by seismograph. P waves travel fastest so arrive at seismograph first, follow by S waves and surface waves.

types of lunar eclipse

Three kinds: Total: sunlight total block over entire area of Moon Partial: part of area of Moon is dark, looks like bite missing Penumbral: Some of Sun light blocked, so Moon dims

Indicators of warming world

increase sea surface temp, sea level, ocean heat content, temp over ocean, troposphere temp, temp over land, water vapor. decrease sea ice, snow cover, glaciers and ice sheets. Projected change even hotter

moon structure

inner core solid, outer core liquid, partial melt, mantle, crust

valles marineris

long valley in mars. don't have moving plates but shows tectonics. overlapping landslides at bottom

martian atmosphere

lost most of atmosphere, nitrogen is enriched in N15/N14 indicate preferential loss of N14 during atmospheric loss. Martian atmospheric CO2 enriched in C13/C12 indicate preferential loss of C12 during atmospheric loss. mysterious methane of unknown causes. Had ice age but ended with loss of atmosphere

shield volcanoes

made from very fluid lava

midocean ridges

magma volcano crack in oceanic crust

Jupiter

many layers a lot of which are H based, rock and ice core, has rings, great red spot

Saturn

many rings, biggest division Cassani division,

Mars Cratering

marks different geological ages in mars and help establish detailed geological age map

factors in having an atmosphere

mass of planet determines escape velocity, temp of atmosphere, when temp increase velocity of molecules increase, intensity and composition of impacting planetesimals, large impacts blow off atmosphere, impact comets add volatiles, orbital distance from Sun, higher UV flux from early Sun warm atmospheres of inner planets cause gas loss when molecules gain escape velocity, early solar wind strip away atmospheric gas from inner planet

first star formation

massive, live short lives and blow up as supernovae, triggering more collapses of gas and dust to make new stars

Chandrasekhar limit

maximum mass, 1.44 solar masses, of white dwarf. Any more mass and nuclear forces supporting star can't resist gravitational forces.

Mars Orbiter Laser Altometer

measure topography from pole to pole in single slice

Nice Model

Explain late heavy bombardment of Solar System and formation of Uranus and Neptune. Happen 500 Ma later. Objects outwards circle working inward: Kuiper belt objects, Uranus, Neptune, Saturn, Jupiter

formulas based on Stefan-Boltzmann Law

F = σ T^4 F proportional to 1/R^2 T = (F/σ)^.25 = (c/R^2)^.25 T = c/R^.5

force between constants

F= G ((M1M2)/d^2)

core composition

Fe 80%, Ni 10% maybe O Si S and/or Mg 10%

Stutters Mill Meteorite

Fell April 22, 2012, in California, Preatmospheric mass 40,000 kg, Recovered mass <1 kg

Pioneer 10

First Jupiter flyby

Mars Odyssey

Global chemical and mineralogical mapper with Gamma Ray Spectrometer, detect large amounts H, indicate that ice must lie within a meter of planet's surface

Kepler mission

Goal of detection measure amount of light from target stars w/ precision 20 ppm. Earth move across disk of Sun decrease light by 84 ppm. Monitor brightness of 145,000 stars background problem: intrinsic variability of stars. Use reaction wheels to point in one direction. One fail in 2012 and 2nd fail in 2013. Use "K2" where photon pressure from sun used keep craft point in one direction. Use orbit, Kepler point at 4 areas in sky, sensitivity reduced because point isn't as stable, new exoplanets being found.

"historical" method of telling time

James Ussher study ancient history and Holy Writ to conclude: Earth created Sunday October 23, 4004 BC. Adam and Eve driven from Paradise Monday November 10, 4004 BC Noah touch down on Mt. Ararat Wednesday May 5, 1491 BC

Harold Urey

won Nobel Prize isolate deuterium and show isotope of H. work on Manhattan Project then establish field of geochemistry and use isotope study natural world.

Stromatolites

~3.6 Ga ago: colony of microorganisms in rocks

beta plus decay

β+: emit high-energy positron and a neutrino ex Na22 -> Ne22 + e+ + v + gamma

beta minus decay

β-: emit high-energy electron, a γ-ray and an antineutrino ex C14 -> N14 + e- + v + gamma

spontaneous fission

Cf 252 -> Mo105 + Ba143 + 4n + gamma

asteroid classifications

Classified by spectra of light reflect from surface, provide limited information on surface composition. Types C asteroids, S asteroids, X asteroids

formation of solar system

Collapse molecular cloud form solar nebula, µm-size grains stick together (collisions) make cm-sized porous aggregate, grow to meter size objects but not clear how. Gravity important when object exceed 1 km

eukaryote

Complex organism consist of cells contains nucleus and organelles enclosed w/in membrane

crab nebula

Contains at least dozen stars 50-100x mass of Sun. Stellar winds from stars compressing huge cloud of molecular H, trigger new stage of star formation. Our Sun and solar system maybe born that way

bathymetry

Controls intensity and timing of tides

Start Snowball Earth

Cooling period trigger positive feedback: if enough snow and ice accumulate Earth's albedo increase and more solar energy reflected, further cool. Super volcano maybe, reduce in greenhouse gases maybe, tropical distribution of continents important: increase weathering in tropics remove CO2 from atmosphere. Continents higher albedo than oceans, global cooling led to freeze over of oceans. Equator maybe as cold as current Antarctica. Global ice kept albedo low; lack clouds (no liquid water) further reduce greenhouse effect

formation of giant planets models

Core Accretion, Disk Instability

daughter calculation

D = P(1 - e^(-lambat)) for daughter prime, D= Do + P(1 - e^(-lamba*t))

Biology on atmosphere

Initially little free O2, First autotrophic bacteria, use chemical energy for metabolic process, photosynthetic organisms arise: CO2 + H2O ➔ CH2O + O2, Free oxygen ~2.5 Ga from oxidized sedimentary rocks, first eukaryotes 2.1 Ga. Need high O2 for complicated metabolisms. Higher life forms blossom at ~700 Ma, suggest atmosphere composition then similar to today

helioseismology

Instead of seismometers use the Doppler effect, where motion of Sun surface towards and away from us slightly shifts the wavelength of light. Instead of earthquakes, violent motion of the Sun's surface produces vibration. Interior of Sun rotates as rigid body, but outer part rotate at different speeds

types of particle

electron e-, positron e+, a=alpha particle 4He++

Haumea

ellipsoid not sphere because spins very rapidly, with day only 3.9 hours long, shape from rapid spin. Two moons Hi'iaka and Namaka

Geoengineering

engineer based on new earth ex Carbon capture and sequestration, solar radiation management, add stratospheric sulfate aerosol, space sunshade

Drake equation definition

estimate number of intelligent, communicating civilizations in galaxy.

water cycle

evaporation, condensation, precipitation, runoff

electron capture

ex Ar37 + e- -> Cl37 + v + gamma

alpha decay

ex U238 -> Th234 + a + gamma

Grand Tack Model

explains why Mars so small, happen early, inner part stony planetesimals. outer sections are icy planetesimals separated by four rings of orbits of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune

Ocean acidification

extra CO2 lower ph of ocean

meteorite classification

fall: meteorites observed to fall and collect immediately find: meteorites not seen to fall, but discovered sometime later to be of extraterrestrial origin. less data because weathering away

Gaspra

first asteroid viewed closeup by Galileo spacecraft on way to Jupiter, in 1991

results of tectonism

folding, faulting, mountains on plate boundaries, fault lines, compression, visible dikes and intrusions

moon origin constraints

for satellite, Moon large relative to Earth , Density abnormal low imply deplete metals. No/small core, Earth-Moon system has very high angular momentum, highly depleted in volatile elements relative to Earth (Fe, K, H2O...) and Siderophile ("iron-liking") elements, Oxygen isotopes same as Earth, Titanium isotopes same as Earth

lunar pits

form when lava tubes collapse, also have lava rift flows

vesta

largest asteroid in asteroid belt, rotates, snowman=Largest crater 40 m, have troughs, large elevation range for size. Core Fe, Mantle peridotite, crust basalt

Allende meteorite

largest carbonaceous chondrite meteorite seen to fall

Phoebe

largest of Saturn's irregular moons, a little over 200 km diameter

Chang'e 3

launch Dec 1 2013, first Lander since 1976. Rover capable of digging and simple analysis, Analyzed surface, Went to sleep for lunar night with "mechanical abnormality"; never woke up

Cosmic Rays

likely sample only matter accelerated by supernova shocks; can only measure isotopic composition of abundant elements 2<Z<30; must correct for propagation

beagle rupes

lobate scarp, scarp form after elliptically shaped crater Sveinsdóttir. The scarps are cracks formed due to shrinkage of Mercury (30% more than we thought from Mariner 10)

solar neutrino problem

measured solar neutrino flux from experiments didn't change significantly and neutrino flux predicted from standard solar model didn't change significantly, discrepancy remained at factor of 3

development over time

nebula hot phase, refractory inclusions, differentiated asteroids, chondrules, giant planets fully form, nebula disperse, mars fully form, moon form, late heavy bombardment

Andromeda Galaxy

neighbor galaxy to Milky Way

Types of silicates

neosilicates-form by isolate SiO4 tetrahedra ex olivine inosilicates-Single chain silicates consist of silica tetrahedra share oxygens. Cations plus SiO3 phyllosilicates- two dimensional sheets, Cations plus Si2O5 tetrosilicates-Framework silicates w/ each SiO4 tetrahedron share half of oxygen

atomic mass

neutron + proton, determine weight

atomic number

number of proton, determine chemistry

solar neutrino problem tests

numbers don't match, many tests of experiment done Ar37 by neutrino capture might end up in nonvolatile chemical state, an experiment performed with Cl36-labeled perchlorethylene show Cl36 decays to Ar36 and He purge quantitatively recovered the argon (100 ± 3%). For each run a known amount of Ar36 or 38 introduced: the amount recovered remained remarkably constant at ~95% over 25 years. Counting efficiency of every counter was measured

parameters of analemma shape

obliquity, eccentricity, and the angle between the apse line and the line of solstices. follow an ecliptic pattern

scientific method

observation, data, hypothesis, prediction, test, validation

Pluto

orbit significantly inclined relative to other planets, has pitted plains,

Dawn Mission

orbit vesta and ceres, bring camera for pics, infrared spectrometer study molecules, Gamma ray spectrometer for elemental abundances, Neutron spectrometer for water. First mission use ion propulsion

Itokawa

orbited and sampled by Hayabusa which.successfully collect sample. Itokawa is an L5 chondrite. Itokawa particles collect using electrostatic needle, Teflon spatula, thump container and collect grains on pure-silica glass slide. Surface of grains from Itokawa show amorphous silica-rich deposits caused by space weathering. Regions identify in TEM imaging: Amorphous silicate with nanophase iron sulfide grains, Partially amorphous region enriched in nanophase metallic iron grains, Unaltered parent mineral (in this case, pyroxene)

Milky Way

our galaxy, The center of the Galaxy has a black hole with a mass 4.3 million times that of the Sun

cryosphere

part of Earth covered by ice, melting from global warming

Black Body

perfect absorber, perfect radiator of energy

classification of solar bodies

planets, dwarf planets, comets, minor planets, moons

magnetic reversal

polarity of magnetic field switches, record on sea floor and provide evidence that new crust being made

moon origin theories

pre apollo missions: daughter or fission theory: Moon have "spun off" or form Earth sister (or co-accretion) theory: Earth and Moon accrete from planetesimals together but separate bodies capture theory: Moon form elsewhere and capture as come close to Earth post apollo mission giant impact hypothesis

geological processing of meteorites

primitive meteorites undifferentiated solar nebula samples, Chondrites and Interplanetary Dust Particles (IDPs) primitive

Newton

publish "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" introduce 3 laws of motion for all objects on Earth and show apply to heavens, Postulate existence of force between all objects that have mass, Explain Kepler 3 laws of planetary motion as special case of his laws of mechanics (plus gravity), Applied to motion of moon tides etc., show Kepler laws only approximate and provide quantitative corrections later shown correct

r process

rapid neutron capture to beta decay

Magnetosphere

region around earth beyond atmosphere, start at 1000 km

radiocarbon dating

relative chronometer useful for study past 50,000 yrs, β decay of C14, C14 -> N14 + e- C14=C14subscript(t=0) e^-λt , λ=1.21x10^-4/y, λ=ln(2)/T(1/2) T(1/2)=5730 y key difficulty with every dating method involve specify (and validate) initial condition, then define meaning by t=0

Holmgren and Johnson

report that reaction 3He + 4He ➔ 7Be + ν is 1000 times faster than expected

sedimentary

rocks form by accumulation and cementation of mineral grains transport by wind, water, ice, or chemical precipitation. types are sandstones, shales, limestones, granite

Neptune

rocky icy core, mantle water ammonia and methane ice. Atmosphere H He and methane, outer atmosphere cloud layer

analemma

rotate in a somewhat 8 shaped orbit, shows sun's placement in sky based on our rotation

synchronous rotation

rotate once per orbit

Presolar Grains

sample any kind of star produce grains; high precision isotopic composition; mineralogical and textural evidence of formation conditions

Nasa Genesis

sample sun by orbit and collect solar wind, return to earth but crash, collect O and Ni isotope different ratio then earth

rules of nature

self consistent: laws should not conflict with one another repeatable : don't change arbitrarily Logical reasoning can be applied to the hypothesized laws to make predictions which agree with observation

presolar grains in meteorite

tiny grains formed around individual stars and record nucleosynthesis history of thousands of individual stars. Know from stars because isotopes, from AGB stars because technetium

format of periodic table

top number atomic mass, bottom number atomic number

Calores basin

topicograohical feature on mercury, have volcanic vent

more sun facts

total solar luminosity 3.8 × 1033 erg/s (107 erg = 1 joule) Sun burns 640 billion metric tons (1000 kg) of H per second If the mass of the Sun, 2 × 1033 g, were turned into energy (E=mc2) 1.8 × 1054 ergs would be released In fact, the total stored nuclear energy in a star is 0.008mc2 For the Sun, this amounts to 1.4 × 1052 ergs At the current luminosity, this gives a lifetime of 1.2 × 1011 years for the Sun However, since the Sun will only burn about 10% of its hydrogen in its lifetime, the total lifetime of the Sun is ~ 1.2 × 1010 years — the Sun is now 4.5 × 1010 years old, just middle-aged

atmosphere structure

troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, exosphere, ionosphere, thermosphere, magnetosphere

Adaption

try to stop effects of problem not problem itself ex settlements threatened by sea level rise, use more air conditioners, water conservation and rationing

Mitigation

try to stop problem ex reduce anthropogenic greenhouse gas emission

aristotle

universe consisted of 5 elements: Earth, Water, Air, Fire Ether. All things were mixtures. Elements desire to reach "natural" place. Earth at bottom and center of Universe, then water, air, fire, ether. Actual motion of object dictated by most abundant element: ex big stones fall faster than small if allowed to execute natural motion. believe moon made of ether reflect earth

9th planet

used to be pluto, removed pluto, evidence of a planet nine with unusual elliptical orbit

Importance of sample returns

Instrumentation is state-of-the-art, Not limited by mass power cost or reliability, Results can be confirmed by several methods, Analysis iterative not limit by preconceived ideas, Samples resource for present and future study

Mars Composition

Iron nickel sulfur core, Wadsleyite ringwood majorite layer, Olivine pyroxine garnet layer, Crust

types of meteorites

Irons, Stony Irones, Stones

Basic Earth facts

Largest of terrestrial planets, Rotate on axis 366.24 times/year, snow cover grow and shrink (seasons), only terrestrial planet w/ large satellite, only planet w/ abundant liquid water on surface O rich atmosphere or life

Magic Numbers

Led to major advance in understanding of structure of atomic nuclei by Maria Goeppert Mayer. 82 and 126 correspond with 130, 140, 196, 208

transit method

Light from star blocked by planet moved in front of, successful, 2712 planets around 2033 systems confirmed and over 4700 candidates. Used by CoRoT—ESA and Kepler—NASA

evidence snowball earth

Low latitude glacial deposits, Carbon isotope excursions, Biochemical processes prefer incorporate 12C. Excursions suggest most photosynthetic life killed off. Banded iron formations, Form when anoxic oceans contact oxygen atmosphere. Only found in ancient rocks and Cryogenian period. Cap carbonates. Thick chemical precipitate limestone, from rapid weathering during extreme greenhouse effect at end, Ocean acidification at end

type 1a supernova

Low mass stars in binary systems also make supernovae. 2 normal stars in binary pair, more massive star become giant, spill gasses into second star and get engulfed, lighter star and core spiral in within common envelop, common envelop dissolve 2 stars get close, giant collapse and form white dwarf with companion star, companion star spill gas into white dwarf, white dwarf reach critical mass and explode, cause companion to be ejected

MSW effect

MSW effect: neutrinos change flavor as they pass through matter, first release of data from SNO strongly suggest neutrinos oscillate, solve solar neutrino "problem"

CAIs

Made of minerals formed at very high temperature, some melt some don't, melted ones cooled rapidly in solar nebula, Heating mechanisms still unknown, Oldest objects in solar system

structure of Venus atmosphere

Mainly CO2, Dessicated planet/atmosphere, sulfuric acid from volcanic outgassing in absence of rainfall, earth like T and P only at altitude of 50 km, 90x more massive than atmosphere

giant impact hypothesis

Mars sized body slammed into early Earth, eject 10% of Earth's mass into space, Impact off-center account for large spin, inclination of Moon's orbital plane. Model require proto-Earth and Impactor where differentiated.

solar eclipse

Occurs when Moon between Earth and Sun and casts a shadow. Only visible over small portion of Earth's surface, because Moon is barely big enough to block the Sun's light at single point on Earth's surface

igneous

Rock produce by cool and solidify of melts Extrusive (volcanic rocks): rapidly cool by eruption of lavas on surface or underwater; fine grain from rapid cool Intrusive (plutonic rocks): produce by melts cool and crystallize w/in Earth

composition of terrestrial planets

Rock: solid aggregate of one or more minerals Mineral: naturally occurring solid, element or compound with definite composition or range of composition, usually possessing regular internal crystal structure Crystal: form of matter where atoms, ions, or molecules arranged regularly in space form repeat network; crystal faces reflect internal regularity

Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko

Rosetta orbited this comet and was eventually intentionally crashed into the comet in 2016

tidal friction

Rotation and friction cause tides to lead moon, bulge pulls moon and lifts into larger orbit, friction slows Earth rotation

Recent moon trips

SELENE, Chang'e 1, Chandrayaan 1, LRO (Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter), LCROSS, Chang'e 2, ARTEMIS, GRAIL (Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory), LADEE (Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer)

solar neutrino flux

SNU (solar neutrino units): 1 SNU = 10^36 captures per target atom per second Measured rate with Davis' experiment is 2.56 SNU

Titan

Saturn's largest moon. thick atmosphere unique amongst satellites, size of Mercury, Surface was unknown haze, Astrobiologically interesting hydrocarbons/organics Current exploration - Cassini/Huygens. Has water ice and methane springs, river channels and ridge area, Ligeia Mare. Hydrous silicate core, Ice six, liquid water ocean, normal ice, surface, atmosphere

Enceladus

Saturn's most explosive moon. Has 2:1 orbital resonance with Dione, maintains elliptical orbit (e=0.0041), cause tidal heating. Chaotic terrain at poles, cold geysers.

scientific theory definition 2

Scheme,system of ideas, or statements held as explanation of group of facts/phenomena; hypothesis that's confirmed or established by observation/experiment and accepted as accounting for known facts; statement of held to be the general laws/principles/causes of something known/observed

SETI

Search for Extra Terrestrial Life. nothing detected, no UFO confirmed,

stardust telescopes

Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS)- Major/minor element isotope ratios (>100nm) Resonance Ionization Mass Spectrometry (RIMS)- Trace-element isotopes (>1µm) Electron Microscopy Morphology/ mineralogy/ microstructure (>1nm)

proposed solutions to solar solar neutrino problem

Secular instability such that luminosity doesn't match current energy generation, Neutrino oscillations, Quark catalysis, Overabundance of 3He in present Sun, Appreciable magnetic moment for neutrino, Neutrino decay, Rapid rotation of solar interior, Burned out Sun with He core, Accretion onto black hole in center of sun

silicate minerals

SiO4 tetrahedra: building blocks of silicates. Bonds half ionic half covalent

prokaryote

Simple single-celled organism, no membrane bound cell nucleus

Earth layers

Solid inner core, liquid outer core, stiffer mantle, asthenosphere, rigid mantle, crust, hydrosphere, ice cap, atmosphere, magnetosphere,

mineral physics

Squeeze materials in diamond anvil cell, heat with laser, determine crystal structure w/ x-ray

venus

Sulfuric acid clouds, 90 bars pressure, No Water, 480°C surface. Weak magnetic field, likely has molten core rotate slowly but lack plate tectonics no way to lose heat, core can't convect. Tectonism mountain ridges

Half life

T1/2 = ln(2)/λ = 0.69315/λ

Verona Rupes

Tallest cliff in Solar System, on Uranus' moon Miranda

Time post last ice age

Temp rise sharply until 10,000 ya and remain steady until last ~100 yrs. CO2 and CH4 huge increase

Raymond Davis Jr

career in the Chemistry Department at Brookhaven National Laboratory, Built the Homestake Neutrino Observatory underground at Gold Mine in South Dakota, discover 36Cl in nature radioactive isotope used to date groundwater, study cosmic ray produced isotope in Moon rocks during Apollo era

stone meteorites

closely resemble Earth rocks, dominantly form of silicates, all primitive and some differentiated meteorites are stones. 96% of all meteorites

Titan atmosphere

combination of 3 factors: 1. Local nebular temperatures sufficiently cold primordial atmosphere able to form 2. Mass sufficiently high able to retain large fraction of original atmosphere and later cometary additions 3. Surface temperature warm enough to prevent some volatiles freezing out Surface pressure 1.5 × Earth's surface pressure, temperature 94 K (-179°C) Various organic molecules at the few ppm level. Haze consists 1 µm particles, methane condensates plus other hydrocarbons made similar process as smog

Impact Craters

common feature on terrestrial planets nearly all moons asteroids, and Earth. Range from µm to thousands of km. Result from collision of small body with large body. Larger bodies can also collide ex how Moon thought to form

Libration in longetude

consequence of Moon orbit round Earth as somewhat eccentric so Moon rotation sometimes leads and sometimes lags its orbital position. Another effect of eccentricity is Moon appear to grow and shrink over a period of a month

stony iron meteorites

contain a mixture of stone and metallic Fe

ordinary chondrite

contains: chondrules, fine-grained matrix, metal

carbonaceous chondrite

contains: chondrules, fine-grained matrix, refractory, inclusions, pre-solar grains, organic matter, water in matrices that contain prebiotic specimens

crust age

continental crust relatively old oceanic crust relatively young

composition of crust

continental-granite, oceanic-basalt

types of plate boundaries

convergent, divergent, transform

Mercury

core 3/4 of planet, then mantle, crust. Mariner map half of planet, most eccentric orbit of planets, 3:2 spin orbit coupling, has volcanic northern planes, dipolar magnetic field, high in volatile elements. Density 5.4 g/cm3 so large metallic core still possibly molten. Mercury's surface is affected by impacts, volcanoes, and tectonics. Tectonism produced large scarps (shrinkage cracks). Most extreme temperatures in Solar System: day side: 425°C (800°F), night side -210°C (-350°F). Water ice buried by dark volatiles at the poles

Uranus

core silicate Fe-Ni rock, mantle water ammonia and methane ice. Atmosphere H He and methane, outer atmosphere cloud layer

layers of the sun

corona- Plasma "atmosphere" of Sun chromosphere- Hot zone above photosphere, Density 0.2 g cm-3, Temp 4500-25000 K photosphere- visible part of Sun, Density 0.2 g cm-3, Temp 4500-6000 K, Granule form by convection last 8 minutes convective zone-Energy transport occurs by motion of matter (convection) radiative zone- Temperature drops from 15 million to 1.5 million K, Behaves like solid with no motion of matter, Energy takes 171,000 years, to get through this zone core-Where all the energy is generated, Density 150 g cm-3, Temperature 15,000,000 Kelvin (27 million Farenheit)

Stefan-Boltzmann Law

Total energy F summed over all wavelengths F=σT^4, F is W m^-2, σ is constant (5.67×10-8 W m^-2 TK^-4), and TK is temp in Kelvin

Mars Rovers

Two rovers: Spirit and Opportunity. Each has microscope, cameras, RAT (rock abrasion tool), and APS (alpha proton spectrometer chemical analyzer). Prime missions 90 Mars days. Spirit got stuck and eventually lost contact after 2269 days and driving 7.7 km. Opportunity has been operating for 4761 days and has driven nearly 42 km.

types of stars that make elements

Type II supernovae: massive stars die when core collapse on self and explode, throws off outer parts Type Ia supernovae: white dwarf stars accrete mass until exceed the Chandrasekhar mass (1.4 solar masses) when they undergo thermonuclear explosion, leave no remnants Asymptotic Giant Branch (AGB) stars: typically twice mass of Sun at end of lives eject half of mass in stellar winds

Orbital phase reflected light variations

View from Earth, exoplanet have phases like planets and moons in our solar system. Telescopes see combined light from star and planets. Small variations in light caused by phase of planet. Kepler found 2 planets this way

Fermi paradox

With vast number of stars and planets there should be many advanced civilizations. Yet, have no evidence of any of them

old arguments against heliocentricity

against philosophical doctrine, not on detailed calculations so no quantitative prediction of planetary paths, no observed parallax of fixed stars when seen from Earth, if Earth were rotating rapidly we would be thrown off, don't experience motion when moving over 1000 mph

Albedo

aka "whiteness" diffuse reflectivity of surface, depends on wavelength of light

X asteroids

all non C and S, mostly metallic asteroids, 8% of asteroids

orbit of the sun

all orbit of the sun are somewhat elliptical with sun as one of the foci

earth atmosphere supports life

allows for respiration, water cycling, traps heat and protects from harmful solar radiation x-ray, UV cosmic rays, micrometeorites, holds in "volatile" elements useful for life (ex water)

CHILI: CHicago Instrument for Laser Ionization

analyze elemental and isotopic compositions of comet dust, stardust, presolar grains, and other small objects in meteorites at the scale of a few nanometers

complex crater structure

annular troughs with central uplift in middle, melt/autochthonous breccia sheet, autochthonous crater floor. have ejecta blankets

lunar composition

anorthosite- Light gray igneous rocks of lunar highlands, consist of low-density minerals made of silicon, aluminum, and calcium oxides basalt- Dark gray igneous rock form by volcanic activity . Consist of higher-density minerals containing silicon, magnesium, and iron oxides impact breccias- jumbled up mixtures of rocks fused together by impact heating

Great Dark Spot

appear on Neptune, strongest winds of any planet (over 2000 kilometers per hour)

retrograde motion

appears to move in reverse

James Hutton

argue normal geological processes with sufficient time, account for all changes that shape Earth's surface

Kelvin calculate age of earth

assumed Earth created as molten ball of rock and determine time for ball to cool to present temperature, based on increase of temperature with depth in Edinburgh. Found age to be 24 to 400 million yrs. Geologists found this time too short to be plausible.

Simple Crater Structure

autochthonous rocks have cracks, basalt melt pool, breccia fill

Copernicus

believe rotate in perfect circles, wrote De Revolutionibus which assert that earth rotate on axis once daily and travel around sun once yearly

Ionic bonds

borrow electrons

lava domes

built from viscous lava

plato

built theories for wandering stars based around notion that the uniform motions are perfect circles. believe moon made of ether reflect earth

Mars Topography

cratering, volcanoes, tectonics, sedimentation. Has dunes and dust storms, dust devils

receding glacier

creates esker, drumlin, terminal moraine, ground moraine, kame, floodplain, kettles

ceres

dwarf planet, largest object in asteroid belt but not an asteroid. Only dwarf planet in inner solar system, only volcano maybe from cryovolcanism. Rocky inner core, Water ice layer, dusty outer crust

s process

slow neutron capture to beta decay

Disk instability

A portion of a massive gaseous disk can spontaneously collapse due to its own gravity

scientific theory definition 1

A self-consistent description of natural phenomenon or phenomena, satisfies all observational tests of predictions

nuclear reactions

Nuclear reactions involve change the nucleus, Lose or gain n, p, α (a He nucleus, consisting of 2n, 2p)

Milankovich Cycles

Obliquity 41 ky, Eccentricity 95, 125, 400 ky, Axial Precession 26 ky, Precession index 19, 22, 24 ky, Net forcing 65°N Summer solstice. But strongest periodicity in ice core and foram records is 100,000 yr so most likely CO2 cycling, Cosmic rays, Ice sheet dynamics

lunar eclipse

Occur when Earth between Moon and the Sun, Visible to half of Earth that see Moon. Moon appear red because of sunsets and sunrises filtering around edges of the Earth

perigean spring tides

Occur when perigee (moon closest approach to Earth) coincides with szyzgy (Sun, Earth, and Moon are in a line)

deep water formation

Occurs in North Atlantic and Southern Ocean. Density increases from 1. cooling by strong winds 2. evaporate by wind causing increase in salinity 3. freezing surface water also increasing salinity and increased density causes water to sink

Three O isotopes

16, 17, 18

how to detect neutrinos

37Cl + νe ➔ 37Ar + e-

Urey Equation

CaSiO3 + CO2 + H2O ➔ SiO2 + H2O + CaCO3

Kinetic Energy

E= ½ m v^2

deuterium

H with atomic mass 2

Dealing with global warming

Mitigation, Adaptation, Geoengineering

Mars Curse

Of 55 attempts to reach Mars, only 26 succeeded

Largest known Trans Neptunal Objects

Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, Eris, Sedna, 2007 Or10, Quaoar, Orcus

solar cycle

Sun has cycle of activity measured by counting sunspots last 11 yrs. During solar maximum more sunspots and more solar flares

size of the universe

The visible universe, 13.8 billion light years across, about 1026 m

Evidence of oxygen rise

band iron formation, dissolved iron in ocean react w/ oxygen release by cyanobacteria make insoluble iron oxide, First appear 3.7 Ga ago

pluto

dwarf planet in kuiper belt object, paired with what was thought to be moon, charon

age from C14 measurement

e^-λt = (C14/C12 at t=0)/(C14/C12 at today)

polaris

earth axis of rotation tilted but centered around north star polaris, with celestial equator

Meteorite Collection

easiest in deserts (cold like antartica or hot like sahara), many micrometeorites in antartica,

Virgo Clusters

our galaxy is in it

titan

saturn's largest moon

supervolcanoes

use same magma chamber for multiple volcanoes

Sagittarius

A supermassive (4 million solar masses) black hole at the center of our galaxy, orbited by young stars

ALMA

Atacama Large Millimeter Array, International project with array of large, movable radiotelescopes

missing mars atmosphere

Catastrophic collision blew most away, erosion of atmosphere by solar wind

moons

Celestial body orbit planets dwarf planet minor planet and maybe comets. Can be bigger than dwarf planets and planets (ex Ganymede and Titan bigger than Mercury)

planets

Celestial body orbiting stars, massive enough to be sphere by gravity, not massive enough internal heat by nuclear fusion, Have cleared neighboring region of planetesimals (objects smaller than planets)

minor planets

Celestial body orbits star, Anything not a planet dwarf planet or comet, Asteroids are minor planets

comets

Celestial body orbits star, Icy small body that when close to Sun display visible coma (atmosphere) and sometimes tail

dwarf planets

Celestial body orbits star, massive enough to be sphere by gravity, not clear neighboring region of planetesimals. Five known: Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, Eris

Interplanetary Dust Particles

IDPs: Collect in stratosphere and Antarctic ice, Highly unequilibrated, most pristine extraterrestrial samples available, Many are samples from comets

Ending snowball earth

during lack of rain and limit silicate weathering mean volcanic and metamorphic CO2 build in atmosphere and greenhouse heat up

pp chains

how 4H convert to 4 He

Super Kamiokande Neutrino Dector

huge tank of water lined with phototubes (light detectors). Neutrinos move at speed of light but speed of light slower in water than in vacuum of space. Some energy released as slow down produce Cerenkov light

Ptolemy

hypothesized geocentric system explained retrograde motion of planets placing them on epicycles (small circles on big ones).

Aitken basin

Largest known crater in Solar System, 2500 km across

Rock types

igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic,

anti-uniformitarianism

"No hypothesis as to chemical action, internal fluidity, effects of pressure at great depth, or possible character of substances in the interior of the earth, possessing the smallest vestige of probability, can justify the supposition that the Earth's crust has remained nearly as it is, while from the whole, or from any part, of the earth, so great a quantity of heat has been lost."

type of fusion reactions in a star

"Triple α reaction": 3 He4 ➔ C12 (200 million degrees) Carbon-burn: 2 C12 ➔ Ne20 + He4 (800 million degree) Neon-burn:Ne20 ➔ O16 + He4; Ne20 + He4 ➔ Mg24; Mg24 + He4 ➔ Si28 (1.5 billion degrees) Oxygen-burn: 2 O16 ➔ S32; 2 O16 ➔ Si28 + He4 (2 billion degrees) Silicon-burning: Si28 ➔ Mg24 + He4; Si28 + He4 + p + n ➔ Fe, Cr, Ti, etc. (3 billion degrees)

ratio of stable to unstable daughter

(D/Ds) = (Do/Ds) + (P/Ds)(1 - e^(-lamba*t))

Troposphere

0-12 km; contains 75% of gas in atmosphere; temperature drops 6.5°C per km altitude

distance in light years

1 billion light-years = 109 ly = 9.5×1024 meters

stages of oxygen rise

1. 4.0-2.5 Ga: atmosphere and oceans largely or entirely anoxic, possible exception oxygen oasis in shallow seas make "whiffs" (arrows) 2. 2.5-2.2 Ga: atmospheric oxygen levels rose first to 0.001 atm then 0.2-0.3 atm; shallow ocean became mildly oxygenated while deep oceans remain anoxic 3. 2.2-0.75 Ga: during time atmospheric maybe fluctuate significantly between 0.0001 and 0.04 atm 4. 0.75-0.54 Ga: atmospheric oxygen rose to ~0.2 atm present-day value; shallow oceans fully oxygenated but deep oceans remain anoxic during Snowball Earth 5. 0.54 Ga-present: atmospheric oxygen rise to current value 0.2 atm then to 0.3 atm in Carboniferous before return to current value; oxygenation of deep oceans fluctuate

factors of distribution of ocean sediments

1. Age of underlying crust 2. Tectonic history of ocean crust 3. Structure trends basement rock 4. Nature/location sediment sources 5. Nature of sedimentary processes deliver sediment

Newton Laws

1. Every object in motion remains in motion unless an external force applied 2. Relationship between mass, acceleration, and applied force F is F=m*a. Acceleration and force are vectors: have direction and magnitude 3. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

Kepler Law

1. Planet travel in ellipse with sun at one of foci, 2. planet sweeps out equal area in equal time and faster when near Sun 3. square of period of planet proportional to cube of average distance from the Sun, D^3 =A*P2, where D is distance, P is period, A is a constant. If D is in Astronomical Units (AU) and P is Earth years, then A=1.

neutrinos

1.8×10^39 neutrino per second come from center of sun to Earth, ~100 billion pass through 1 cm^2 per sec

periodic table of elements

118 elements known, 98 naturally occur, 80 stable, rest radioactive, 339 naturally occurring isotopes

Stratosphere

12-50 km; home of ozone layer, which protects us from UV from Sun

age of the universe

13.8 billion years old, and it is mostly empty space

Tuskegee event

1915 airburst of asteroid or comet nucleus in Siberia. Shockwave knock people off feet and broke windows hundreds of km away. Blew 80 million trees down over area of 2150 km^2. Explosion energy 5-30 megatons of TNT is 1000x more than Hiroshima bomb and 40% of largest H-bomb ever set off

antineutrino detection

3900 liter tank carbon tetrachloride irradiated outside the shield of Brookhaven reactor, No production of observed above background, The tank buried 5.8 m underground shield from cosmic rays, allow upper limit placed on neutrino flux from sun, upper limit correspondent 40,000 SNU

energy generation in sun

4 p ➔ 4He + 2 e+ (15 million degrees C) Change in mass = 4 × mass p - mass 4He - 2 × mass e+ = 4.4 × 10-26 g Einstein's famous equation E=mc2 allow us to calculate energy release E=(4.4 × 10-26 g) × (3 × 1010 cm/s)2 = 4.0 × 10-5 g cm2/sec2 (ergs) or, to convert to a more familiar unit, = 9.5 × 10-13 cal 9.5 × 10-13 cal for every 4 H atoms is a pretty small number, but there are a lot of hydrogen atoms in 1 gram, 6.0 × 1023 E = (4.0 × 10-5 / 4) ergs/H × 6.0 × 1023 H/g = 6.0 × 1018 erg/g = 1.4 × 1011 cal/g It takes 1 calorie to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C (this is the definition of the calorie) — it takes 100 cal to bring 1 g of water at 0°C to a boil at 100°C Thus, 1 g of H can bring 1.4 × 109 g water to a boil, or 1.4 million liters, or 1400 tonnes

age of solar system

4.5 billion yrs

Earth Impacts

40,000 metric ton extraterrestrial matter is accreted by Earth yearly or 110 tons/day, most is dust, every few decades size of SUV falls, every few tens of thousands of years size of football field falls

Fusion

4H= 4He + 2e+ +2ν

Mesosphere

50-80 km; coldest region of atmosphere

Exosphere

550 km and up; satellites orbit here

gravitational constant

6.67*10^-11 m^3/(kg-s^2)

location of earth's water (not including unknown mantle)

70% Earth's surface covered with liquid water, 96.5% of surface water is in the oceans, 1.7% is in lakes rivers and groundwater, 1.7% in ice caps mostly Antarctica (85%) and Greenland (10%), 0.001% in atmosphere

Thermosphere

80 km and up; temperature very high, because of UV heating

Ionosphere

80-550 km; lower part of thermosphere; radio waves bounce off ions and reflect back to Earth

Ganymede

A Jupiter moon. Discover by Galileo, Largest moon in solar system, Dark regions heavily cratered and old; light regions resurfaced, Density 2.02 g cm^-3, half-and-half rock and ice. Fe core, rock mantle, warm ice mantle, rigid ice crust

Callisto

A Jupiter moon. Discover by Galileo, Name after Zeus's lover got priority dispute with Galileo. Heavily cratered and very old, Density 1.83 g cm^-3, half-and-half rock and ice. Some of its craters have landslides. Large mixed rock and ice center, thin liquid ocean, rigid icy crust

Io

A Jupiter moon. Discover by Galileo. Most geologically active body in the solar system. No craters because continuous resurfacing by volcanoes. Density 3.53 g cm-3. Molten silicate interior, silicate sub crust, sulfur ocean, sulfur So crust, So2 plume. Extremely hot. Fe core, rocky mantle, rocky crust

Europa

A Jupiter moon. Discover by Galileo. One of smoothest surfaces in solar system; resurfaced. Density 3.01 g cm^-3, Rocky body with ocean and global ice sheet. Lots of ridges. Fe core, rocky mantle, liquid ocean, rigid ice crust

Iapetus

A Saturn Moon. Huge range of brightness, strange equatorial ridge and oblate overall shape

Rhea

A Saturn moon. 75% ice and 25% rock, Leading side heavily cratered trailing side less. Craggy craters.

Dione

A Saturn moon. Ice and rock, Some areas heavily cratered others lightly cratered indicate geological activity

Minmas

A Saturn moon. Mostly water ice with a little rock. Has huge crater Herschel, named after who discovered.

Tethys

A Saturn moon. Mostly water ice, Heavy cratered, Large graben: Ithaca Chasma, 100 km wide, 2000 km long. Huge crater Odysseus

hourglass method of telling time

A great delta formed by annual flood of Nile. Time measured by calculate # of floods take to accumulate total volume of sediments of delta.

Climate Myths

ALL FALSE Climate models can't provide useful information about real world, Global warming stopped ten years ago, Temps higher in preindustrial times, Temp records taken in lower atmosphere indicate that globe not warming, Measured increase temp reflect growth of cities around weather stations rather than global warming

mercury origin theories

ALL HAVE PROBLEMS Selective accretion: mechanical and dynamical processes in the nebula enriched Mercury in iron Post accretion loss of silicates by evaporation: high Na and K at odds with this idea Giant impact removed most of the mantle: no reason remove FeO from mantle Carbon-rich accretion led C tying up some Si in vapor, leading to Fe-free silicate and large core: also gives high S, which is observed

Murchison meteorite

Also fell in 1969, in Australia, Big carbonaceous chondrite (100 kg), Source of presolar grains

formation terrestrial planets

Begin w/ km-sized planetesimals, runaway growth make ~100 km sized objects in 10,000 years. Once largest bodies about 1000x more massive than typical ones, oligarchic growth lead to few larger bodies, planetary embryos about half size of planets. Lunar to Mars size bodies form in ~1 million years. Remain growth have embryo collisions over 100 million years

production of elements

Big Bang make H, He, Li, Be, B . Everything else from stars

Asymptotic Giant Branch Stars

C-O core, He burning shell, He intershell, H burning shell, H rich connective envelope

Modern CO2 and CH4 production

CO2 production mostly northern hemisphere, more CO2 produce in northern hemisphere winter, CO2 decrease in northern hemisphere summer because photosynthesis. Methane from agriculture mainly rice paddies and major river deltas

AGGI increase

CO2, CH4, N2O, CFC 12, CFC 11, 15 minor all increase since 1979

rise time counting

Counter background was lowered from 10 to 1 count per month, making it possible to observe a solar neutrino signal

Mendeleev

Create first version of periodic table of elements

uniformitarianism

Current rates of known geologic process are scientific basis for understanding geologic history of the Earth. Geologic history of Earth represent in vast thickness of rocks gives measure of time geologic processes operating. Geologic time becomes seen as inconceivably vast, limitless, infinite

exoplanet mass radius diagram

Density in mass/volume, unit g cm^-3 or in SI unit kg m^-3. Compare water, silicate rock, iron

ESA Mars Express Orbiter

Detected methane (CH4), implying active volcanism or subsurface microorganisms

radioactivity for earth dating

Discover radioactivity by Becquerel soon establish uranium decay to lead. Early measurement U and Pb concentration led to conclusion by Arthur Holmes that Ceylon was 1.6 billion yr old. Isotope discovered and by 1930s understood as due to different number of neutrons in nuclei of same element. National Academy of Sciences produce report that radioactivity was only accurate means of dating rocks. At time, age of Earth thought to be 1.5 to 3 billion yrs

extrasolar planet detection methods

Doppler method, Pulsar timing, Gravitational microlensing, Direct imaging, Astrometry, Transit method

Radial Velocity/Doppler Shift

Doppler shift of light from star see motion towards and away, determine velocity along line of sight—"radial velocity". Need lots of light for high signal to noise, used for stars w/in 160 light year, 699 exoplanets around 527 stars found this way vradial = v* / (sin i) max for "edge-on", no information for "face-on"

Snowball Earth

Earth maybe completely cover w/ ice at times in past. Climate instability cause ice albido feedback cause snowball earth

Newton Law of Gravity

Every object with mass attracts every other object with mass. Force between two objects proportional to product of mass. Force of gravity decrease as square of distance between the centers of objects

Solar System Properties explained by nebular theory exceptions and explanations

Exceptions to "rules" ex retrograde motions, inclined axes but explained by off center collisions by large impactors. Spacing of planets almost regular except asteroid belt and Mars undersized but requires early formation of Jupiter and Grand Tack. Number and size of moons varies extensively, Earth Moon system almost a double planet

Scientific Investigation of Moon

Experiments included: soil mechanics, meteoroids, heat flow, seismology, lunar ranging, magnetic fields, and solar wind capture. 382 kg of returned rock and soil samples Soviet robotic Luna missions returned 300 g material

Pioneer 11

First Saturn flyby

history of exoplanets

First discovery published in 1988. 1992, radioastronomers found planets around pulsar, 1995, first definitive detection of exoplanet around ordinary main-sequence star. Now over 3560 exoplanets in 2688 systems; 602 multiplanet systems, contain 2-6 detect planet. Most of unconfirmed ones are likely real. Study in Nature estimate the Milky Way has at least 160 billion planets

Apollo 8

First humans to leave Earth orbit: went out, around Moon, and back home and first see Earth from distance

Kuiper Belt Objects

First one discover in 1992, 1000 now known, 70,000 objects larger than 100 km in diameter believed to exist, 20x size of asteroid belt and 20 to 200x mass. Four largest objects Eris, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake

evolution timeline

Fish ~500 Ma, Land plant ~475 Ma, Insect and seed ~400 Ma, Amphibian ~360 Ma, Reptile ~300 Ma, Mammal ~200 Ma, Bird ~150 Ma, Flower ~130 Ma, Dinosaur wipe out 65 Ma, Genus Homo 2.5 Ma, Modern human 200,000 years ago

core accretion

Follow terrestrial planet formation steps (runaway growth and oligarchic growth) but twice as much solid material (b/c presence of ice). Once critical mass accreted planet directly accretes gas from nebula, growth continue until gas exhausted

observations explained by plate tectonics

Fossil evidence of faunal similarities for South America Africa India and Madagascar, Match ancient and glaciated terrains and shape of continents, Earthquake distribution (deep trenches, shallow ridges), Distribute of volcanoe (basalt ridges, hot spots; andesite subduction zones), Composition of seafloor, Composition of continents, Origin of mountains, Longevity of mountains despite erosion, Hotspot chains, Magnetic reversal record of ocean floor, Bathymetry of oceans, Age of ocean floor

Direct imaging

Found planet several times Jupiter's mass orbit at 40 AU around cool brown dwarf star. 76 planets around 71 stars found this way

galilleo

Founder of experimental science, First observe heavens with a telescope, planets are disks not points, phases of Venus change in apparent size, moons of Jupiter (Medicea Sidereal), sunspots, solar rotation, moon craters, Milky Way Made experiments on motion uniform acceleration independent of mass publish "Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems" ridicule Ptolemaic favor Copernican hypothesis

types of eclipse

Four kinds of solar eclipse Total: sunlight totally blocked over a small area of Earth Partial: part of Sun blocked Annular: Moon block center of light from Sun, leave thin ring Hybrid - transitions annular to total

Galaxies

Galaxies are gravitationally bound into clusters containing hundreds or thousands of members. Distance from Earth can be measured by spectrum of light

Good and Bad to UV

Good: UV striking skin stimulate production of vitamin D. Bad: UV damage living cells life on Earth adapt by develop repair mechanisms however unusually large doses UV can irrevocably damage DNA lead to faulty instructions when DNA replicates. Cause various forms of skin cancer and melanoma very deadly. 10% decrease in ozone would change occurrence of melanoma from present 250 cases per 100,000 persons to 350/100,000

Gravitational Microlensing

Gravity bends light, planet in right place can perturb lensed image. Technique found 51 planets around 49 stars

sun composition

H (73.9% by mass) He (24.7% by mass) 1.4% by mass of everything else (called "metals" by astronomers")

keplar

Hired by Tycho took over his observatory after Tycho's death , he tried noncircular forms, published Astronomia Nova have first two laws (planets move in elliptical orbits with sun as a foci, planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times), introduce physics to astronomy

BepiColombo plans

Joint ESA/JAXA mission to Mercury, Design to complement MESSENGER, Flyby Venus twice and Mercury five times Orbit with two satellites, Mercury Planetary Orbiter (MPO), much closer than MESSENGER and better photography, and Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter (MMO) to study magnetosphere. Cameras; Laser altimeter; Imaging x-ray spectrometer; Υ-ray and neutron spectrometer; Magnetometers. Not that more capable than MESSENGER, since surface lander canceled

Juno Orbiter

Jupiter orbiter with spectrometers, magnetometer, no camera. Into orbit July 2016. Highly elliptical polar orbit close to poles and beyond Callisto mimimize radiation damage. Measure quantity water in Jovian atm. Determine mass Jupiter's rocky core. Map atmospheric motions and composition to 100 km depth, Study magnetic field

first test problem and solution for neutrino

Kavanagh study the 7Be(p,γ)8B reaction and cross section found to be disappointingly low, Bacall later found expected capture rate from 8B neutrinos 20x times higher than previously calculated due to transitions to excited states of Ar37

solar flares

Large energy release of Sun, followed by coronal mass ejection release electrons, ions and atoms into space. Cloud reach Earth in couple of days, can disrupt radio and TV communication, hazardous to astronauts in space, Produce aurora borealis (and aurora australis)

Type II Supernova

Massive stars, initially >10 solar mass, end lives in explosion call supernova

what happens when different materials melt

Materials can separate according to density chemical affinities melting temperature etc. Metallic liquid separates from silicate liquid (they are immiscible, like oil and water) and sinks, volatiles vaporize and can be lost from system

comet significance

May be oldest most primitive body in solar system, preserve earliest record of material from nebula which form sun and planets. Bring volatile light elements to planets, play role in form oceans and atmospheres. Most organic-rich body in solar system provide ready formed molecules possibly involve in origin of life on Earth. Impact Earth and other planets at hypervelocities, cause major changes in climate and dramatically affecting ecology. Building blocks of planetary systems around other stars.

abundance of elements in solar system

Measure by spectroscopy of Sun, Also measure in meteorites, which is same as Sun except for a few elements. H and He most abundant elements. Low Li, B and Be because consumed by stars. Fe produced in supernova explosions

planet differentiation

Melted by combination of energy from: original accretion, gravitational settling, radioactive decay, meteorite impact

Tides

Moon's gravity pulls ocean creating near-side bulge and motion of Earth around center of Earth-Moon mass creates bulge on far side

limits of uranium dating

Most chronometers require very high precision, measure for precise chronology at early solar system times, Only the U-Pb system has enough precision to discern 1 million year time differences for samples 4.5 billion yrs old, only works because 235U has half-life of only 700 million years, so 207Pb/204Pb ratio changing fast early in Solar System history When need more precision :Use extinct short-lived nuclides When don't have sample: Count craters

astrometry

Motion of star due to massive planets orbit. Doesn't work well, many claims over years, one confirmation of planet found another way, one discovery in 2009, but that false by other ways. Hubble Space Telescope use astrometry to detect previously known exoplanet. Gaia satellite should find 1000 planets by astrometry

atmosphere composition

N2 78%, O2 21%, Ar 0.93%, H2O 0.004 to 4% CO2 0.035%

Drake equation

N=N* x fp x ne x fl x fi x fc x fL N=(10^11)(.5)(1)(.5)(.2)(.2)(10^-6)=1000 N*=# stars, fp= fraction of stars w/ planet, ne= # "habitable" planet per system, fl=fraction planets life evolve, fi=fraction planets intelligent life evolves, fc= fraction planets w/ intelligent communicating being, fL= fraction planet's life when communicating civilizations live

Lunar "seas" (dark spots)

Named by Ricolli: nubrium, ibrium, serenitatis, crisium, fecundidates, nectaris, tranquilitatus. Different seas different ages, date by potassium argon method

Comet Wild2

Nasa mission Stardust to collect samples from Wild2 because fresh comet and relatively low speed makes encounter possible. Very eccentric orbit

nucleus

Nearly all the mass, 10^-15 m across, Contains Protons p+ and Neutrons n0

electron

Negligible mass (0.00055*mass of proton), 10^-10 m from nucleus, Chemical behavior depends on electrons involve share and exchange

Triton

Neptune's largest moon, rock and ice, small atmosphere mostly nitrogen, retrograde orbit, possible captured Kuiper object

how to get heavy elements beyond Fe

Neutron capture to beta decay Sr88 + n1 ➔ Sr89 ➔ Y89 + e-

potential lunar water

New analyses of lunar volcanic glasses suggest water, amount of H2O in Moon affects understanding of processes in proto-lunar disk, result of impact with growing Earth.

oort observations on comets

No comet observed with orbit that indicates came from interstellar space, strong tendency for aphelia of long period comet orbits to lie at distance of 50,000 AU, no preferential direction for comets. Propose comets reside in vast cloud at outer reaches of solar system.

stars in neutrino shells

Onion layered shells undergo fusion, form iron core reaches Chandresekhar-mass and collapse. Inner part core compress into neutrons cause infalling material to bounce and form outward propagating shock front. Shock start to stall but reinvigorate by neutrino interaction. Surrounding material blasted away, leaving a neutron star.

OSIRISRE

Origins Spectral Interpretation Resource Identification Security Regolith Explorer, Launch Sep 2016, Arrive at Asteroid Bennu 2018, Return to Earth 2023

Shepherding moons

Outer moon slower than particles, Gravitational attraction subtracts energy from particles so move inwards; reverse for inner satellite, rings keep sharp edges and gaps cleared around moons. Force ring particles between them

Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide

Over long term amount of CO2 controlled by balance between geochemical processes including bury organic matter, rate silicate weathering rate volcanism

Oxygen facts

Oxygen isotope fractionate between oceans and ice cap, ice isotopically light compare to oceans. O isotopes preserve in ice cores in polar ice caps record composition of ice over time; O isotopes in foraminifera (little creatures make CaCO3 shells) record isotopic composition of oceans over time, O isotopic record show distribution of water between ice caps and ocean. O isotopes show atmospheric chemistry through mass independent photochemical reactions

Jupiter effects on chondrule

Oxygen isotopic composition of Iris similar to terrestrial oxygen, confirm formation in inner solar nebula. 26Al-26Mg isotope systematics placed formation age of Iris at least 3 Ma after CAIs. Iris moved out to comet-forming region before Jupiter blocked way. Timing imply Jupiter formed more than 3 Ma after CAIs

Oxygen cycle

Oxygen molecules photolysized create 2 oxygen atoms (slow), ozone and oxygen atoms inter converted as solar UV break ozone and oxygen react to each other (fast), ozone lost by reaction of oxygen atom or ozone with each other or to trace gas like Cl (slow)

geochronology

P = (Po)e^(-lamba*t)

PETM

Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum 55.8 My global temp rise 6∘C in 20,000 yrs, cause many species extinct of benthic (deep-sea) foraminifera and major turnover in land mammals. Linked to two short ~1000 yr pulse in δ13C probably result of degassing of methane clathrates (methane-ice compounds)

CO2 Reactions

Photosynthesis: CO2 + H2O ➔ CH2O + O2 Erosion: CO2 + CaSiO3 ➔ CaCO3 + SiO2 or CO2 + Ca pyroxene ➔ (calcite) + (quartz)

formation of giant planet problems

Planet migration unsolved, some models predict 10 Earth mass embryo at 5 AU migrate into the Sun in 100,000 years. Uranus and Neptune hard to form as nebular density low far from Sun, maybe 2 embryo form close to Sun tossed out early when no large bodies existed there or maybe ice giants and gas giant formed closer in w/ Jupiter migrate in and others migrate out

Solar System Properties explained by nebular theory

Planets revolve around sun in same direction CCW, All planets roughly within sun equatorial plane and plane of ecliptic, with few exceptions planets have prograde rotation , Many planets have moons and most moons orbit in same sense as planet orbit, >99.8% of mass in Sun >99% of total angular momentum in planets, inner planets terrestrial and volatile elements reach inner planets. Outer planets gaseous giants (Jovian planets) w/ atmospheres rich in H and He, all giant planets have systems of regular satellites, resemble miniature solar systems and rings. All 4 giant planets have 1+ irregular satellites

Hertzsprung-Russell diagram

Plot stellar luminosity v color (indicate surface temperature) Dots represent 23,000 stars, most along "Main Sequence" where burn H to He in cores. White stars at upper left of are massive stars (>11 solar masses). Other clusters are "Horizontal Branch" of red giants represent end stage of stars of 1-11 solar masses. White dwarfs remnants low and intermediate mass stars after completed red giant stage.

evolution of earth atmosphere

Probably lost primary atmosphere but present atmosphere at least partially in place by ~4,400 Ma. Not in equilibrium with what is outgassing from mantle. Complex carbon cycle. Tectonic biological and erosion active and can condense bury recycle chemically active gases. N2 unreactive and accumulate by volcanoes. H2O vapor from primary outgassing condense form oceans. Carbonates made by weathering of silicate rock and by organisms. Biologic activity rise oxidation of atmosphere

Uranus Important moons (out of 27)

Puck, Miranda, Ariel, Umbral, Titania, Oberon

Pulsar timing

Pulsar=neutron star, remnant of supernova explosion of massive star. Rotate very rapidly and regularly. Emit pulses of radio waves, Orbiting planet can change timing slightly, 24 planets around 19 stars found this way

Farallon Plate

Pushed under crust because of North American and Pacific plates, remnants deep in mantle. Much of plate initially under North America at shallow angle create mountainous terrain ex Rocky Mountains

Cl break down ozone

Put Cl into atmosphere from leaks from air conditioners and refrigerators using chlorofluorocarbons ex CFC-12 and CFC-11. CFCs broken down by UV light in stratosphere yield free Cl, which becomes catalyst in ozone budget because two reactions: O3 + Cl ➔ ClO + O2 and O + ClO ➔ Cl + O2, with net result: O3 + O ➔ O2 + O2. Very efficient way of destroying ozone

Cambrian explosion

Rapid increase in complexity at Ediacaran and Cambrian epochs, immediate after Cryogenian

Sea level rise

Rate of global average sea level rise increase from 1.8 mm/y to 3.1 mm/y from 1961 to 1993. Reasons for rise thermal expansion and melt glaciers and ice caps. Project rise at end of century 0.7 to 1.0 m (relative to 18th and 19th centuries)

Montreal Protocol

Reduce CFCs 1991 on, stop produce by 1996, freeze consume and produce of HCFCs start 2013; start reduce 2015, signed 197 countries, add addendum agree to 2016 in Kigali phases out HCFCs potent greenhouse gas

Savannah River Reactor Experiments

Reines and Cowan detect free antineutrinos at Savannah River, Ar37 production rate factor of five below expected if neutrinos and antineutrinos are identical particles

Crab Nebula

Resulted from a supernova in 1054 Recorded by Chinese and Japanese astronomers at the time

planetary rings

Rings extremely thin 10s of meters thick, form inside Roche limit: Rings are high concentration of particles v gaps are voids between rings

Roche limit

Roche limit: a region near a planet where tidal forces exceed gravitational attraction between small bodies. Within Roche limit satellite break up

metamorphic

Rock once different form but change to another under influence of heat, pressure, or some other agent without passing through liquid

mantle composition

The mantle SiO2 MgO, FeO, Al2O3, CaO, TiO2, Na2O, K2O. upper mantle mostly peridotite

composition of universe

dark energy 72%, dark matter 23%, atoms 4.6%

C asteroids

dark, carbonaceous asteroids, 75% of asteroids

crater counting

date when don't have samples

Magellan mission

designed to provide data on geology of Venus by collect radar imagery at resolution of 100m, altimetry at horizontal resolution of 10km and gravity data with horizontal resolution of few hundred km

axial tilt

difference between axis of rotation and axis perpendicular to orbit

magnetic north pole

different than true north pole and drift over time

Spectroscopy with Telescopes

direct observations of stars; learn a lot about elemental abundances and little about isotopic composition

flaw in keplar model

doesn't account for gravity

comet pattern

don't follow elliptic

different wavelength waves

gamma rays, x-ray, UV, radar, radio, tv

lunar history

giant impact, accretion form debris lack of Fe and volatiles, magma ocean floatation of anorthosite crust, possible second impact, heavy bombardment form giant basins, mare basins flood/erupt, tycho and copernicus form later

Grail

gravity map the moon

evidence for water

grooves for tracks of dry ice sleds, valley networks with runoff channels and outflow channels, polar ice caps of water and dry ice

physical properties of earth

high average density of ~11 g/cm^3 Iron density ~7 g/cm^3 but high pressures interior compress materials, dynamic magnetic field from liquid outer core

antipodal

high tide not on lunar side

sublunar

high tide on lunar side

other planet atmosphere

mercury no atmosphere so no clouds water or air, venus too much atmosphere ~90 bars pressure of CO2 sulfuric acid clouds no water, mars thin atmosphere ~6 millibars CO2 liquid water not stable cold+dusty but with polar caps, thick atmospheres of the giant planets (e.g., Jupiter, Saturn) have near solar composition; ~92% H2

chondrule

millimeter-sized spherical objects found in primitive meteorites, Silicate melt droplets often with metal, Cooled rapidly in solar nebula, Heating mechanisms still unknown, "cemented" together into rock by fine-grained silicate dust and metal "matrix"

Escape Velocity

minimum velocity, 11 km/sec on Earth, 2.4 km/sec on Moon

Voyager programs

monitor Jupiter Saturn, Uranus and still work

moon axial tilt

moon has an axial tilt to its Earth orbit, but also not on planar line with Sun.

gallilean moons of jupiter

moons spotted by gallileo: io, europa, ganymede, callisto

earthquakes

mostly associate w/ subduction zone and collide plates. P and S waves from it hit across earth except for shadow zones on sides

tycho

naked-eye observe over a 30 year period, discover a 'nova' (new star) now interpret as supernova in constellation Cassiopeia show heavens changing, believe all heavenly motions perfect circles

types of premolar grains

nano diamonds, silicates, graphite, oxides, SiC

types of non silicate minerals

native elements, sulfide, oxide, halides, carbonates, sulfates, phosphates,

iron meteorites

nearly pure metallic Fe, some Ni - very high density

asteroid belt

separates inner and outer solar system

Mars volcanoes

series of volcanoes include Olympus Mons, this size of Arizona 600 km across and 21 km above surrounding plains, 3x height of Mt Everest

hallows

shallow, irregular depressions and geologic landform discover by MESSENGER appear unique to Mercury. The formation of hollows remains active area of research, but etched nature features suggests material lost from surface to create hollows. Have no craters

Covalent bonds

share electrons

impacts of global warming

similar number but higher intensity hurricanes, partial loss ice sheets, meters of sea level rise, major change in coastlines and inundation low-lying areas, increase risk of extinction for 20-30% species, large scale persistent change meridional overturn circulation impacts on marine ecosystem productivity fisheries ocean CO2 uptake and terrestrial vegetation. Ocean acidification

Diurnal rotation in moon

small daily oscillation due to Earth's rotation carry observer first to one side and then other of straight line joining Earth center to Moon center, allow observer to look first around one side of Moon and then the other.

Kepler-37b

smallest planet detected, two planets found in system

spring tide

solar and lunar tidal effects add together make high tide higher

neap tide

solar and lunar tidal effects cancel make high tide lower

planet temperature controlls

solar output, distance (1/D2), albedo

aerogel

solid substance with lowest density.Tiny spheres of bonded silicon and oxygen atoms joined into long strands separate by air pockets. The latest versions weigh 3 mg/cm3, good insulator, strong. Used to capture dust jets in large trays but slightly alter sample

SMOW

standard mean ocean water

Stardust mission findings

stardust in STARDUST: But comet not pristine aggregate of presolar materials. H, C, N isotopes show cometary organic matter was collect O isotope analyses: comet dust derive from inner solar system reservoir, imply large scale radial transport in nebula Analyses continuing capture effects: severe not prohibitive

parallax

stars fixed: no parallax means Earth is center of the universe or stars are very far away

colonial flagellate hypothesis

steps: unicellular flagellated protist, multiple flagellates make an aggregate, unspecified flagellate cells form a hollow sphere, specialized reproduction cells follow, cells begin to fold and make tissue

S asteroids

stony asteroids, like chondrites, 17% of asteroids

tsunami

subjecting area hit by earthquake or earthquake effects, water builds up and tidal waves shorten/deepen as depth decrease, similarly caused by landslides

solar system in order

sun, mercury, venus, earth, mars, jupiter, saturn, uranus, neptune

feldspar

tectosilicates where Al3+ substitutes for Si

mechanisms to lose atmospheric gas

thermal escape, bombardment, atmospheric cratering, condensation, chemical reactions

wind bands

wind bands from planet rotating at different speeds depending on location create cells of different temperatures, have on earth but visible bands on Jupiter

seismology

using vibrations on the outside of a body to determine the makeup of the inside based on how it is refracted

wavelengths and earth atmosphere

visible light pass through atmosphere, troposphere greenhouse gases trap infrared radiation, surface absorb visible and emit as infrared, solar radiation absorbed by earth, thermal radiation back into space

processes shape lunar topography

volcanism, tectonism, impact. No erosion because no wind/water

Crust processes

volcanism, tectonism, sedimentation, impact cratering

thermohaline circulation

water circulate based on heat and salinity. Have surface current, deep water formation areas and deep current and upwelling. Circulation important supply heat to polar regions and responsible for moderate climate in Europe

temperature scales for planets

water freeze, water boil, lead melt, molten lava, gold melt, iron melt

Venus atmosphere history

water maybe in oceans and CO2 would've dissolve in oceans and N2 would've been in atmosphere, sun gradually increase output: T increase, more water CO2 in atmosphere positive feedback loop, on Earth would be 300 bars water, photodissociation; thermal escape of hydrogen, higher UV flux from early Sun warmed atmospheres of inner planets cause gas loss when molecule gain escape velocity, at same Temp H higher velocity than D because half mass, D/H ratio ~100x higher than Earth so over 99% Venus' water lost

phases of moon

waxing crescent, waxing gibbons, waning gibbons, winning crescent

stages of star life

white dwarf, red giant, red supergiant, massive red supergiant, supernova