SPED 401B ch 7-9

Voice

A type of speech disorder

● Enrichment

An instructional approach that provides students with information, materials, and assignments that enable them to elaborate on concepts being presented as part of the standard curriculum and that usually require high levels of thinking.

● Bilingual education programs

Based on the assumption that students need to learn English by being immersed in the language environment, but until a level of proficiency in English is achieved, many students do not learn concepts and skills from English-language instruction.

● Teaching pre-skills

Basic skills necessary for performing more complex skills. When there are one or two students who lack preskills, you can accommodate them with extra practice and instruction through a peer or parent volunteer or with help from a special service provide or paraprofessional.

● Expressive language

Concerns speaking in such a way that others understand you. Students with expressive language problems are unable to communicate clearly; their spoken language may include incorrect grammar, a limited use of vocabulary, and frequent hesitations. For example, they use incorrect grammar or syntax.

● Clarity in written expression

Consider the two passages shown on p. 297. The second passage is much easier to understand; it requires fewer inferences by the reader and fewer accommodations by the teacher. It provides the definition independent farmer for the reader. If students were reading the first passage, you might have to provide this definition. The reason farmers turned to raising livestock can be inferred from the first paragraph, but it is stated directly in the second. Another aspect of written language that can make language difficult is the use of pronouns. A general rule of thumb is that the closer a pronoun is to its referent, the easier it is to translate.

○ Preparing anticipation guides

Consist of a series of statements, some of which may not be true, related to the material that students are about to read. These can help you activate student knowledge about a particular topic and construct bridges to new information by encouraging students to make predictions. A concrete example is provided on p. 289.

● Jacob Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Act

Contains the federal definition of gifted that identifies children and youth who possess demonstrated or potential high-performance capability in intellectual, creative, specific academic and leadership areas, or the performing and visual arts. ○ Supposed to help identify those who are underrepresented in special education

● Providing direct instruction on a skill topic

Could use a peer tutor or a drill and practice software program

● Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973

Designates students with special needs who not meet the eligibility criteria for receiving services through IDEA are considered functionally disabled. The primary goal of this law is to prevent discrimination against these individuals.

● Equity pedagogy

Effective decisions about teaching that match the needs of students from culturally diverse backgrounds to instructional approaches.

● Providing opportunities for practice and review

Examples include: providing a review session. Should be frequent and follow your initial presentation of the material and then can become less frequent as learning is established.

● Social skills training

For students who do not know how to interact with peers and adults.

● Attribution training

For students who exhibit learned helplessness; if you can convince students that their failures are due to lack of effort rather than ability, they will be more persistent and improve their performance in the face of difficulty.

● Acceleration

For talented and gifted students who may skip a grade or complete the standards for two grades in a single year

● Gifted and talented

Generally have exceptional knowledge because of their insatiable curiosity, keen memory, unusual ability to concentrate, wide variety of interests, high levels of language development and verbal ability, and ability to generate original ideas. Socially, they can be liked or they can be unpopular and at risk for emotional problems. They display an entire range of behavior patterns.

○ Proving planning think sheets

Help writers focus on background information as well as on the audience and purpose of a paper. For audience, students are asked to consider who will read the paper. For purpose, students clarify why they are writing the paper (for example, to tell a story, to convey information, or to persuade someone). Finally, students activate background knowledge and organize the knowledge by asking themselves questions such as "What do I know about the topic?" and "How can I group or label my facts?"

● Differentiation

Instruction based on the understanding that students should have multiple ways to reach their potential.

● Receptive language

Involves understanding what people mean when they speak to you. Receptive language problems occur when students are unable to understand what their teachers and peers are saying. For example, not responding to questions appropriately.

● Controlling the rate of introduction of new skills

New skills should be introduced systematically, in small steps, and at a rate slow enough to ensure mastery before teaching more new skills. For example, introducing reading strategies one at a time by detecting sequence, determining cause and effect, and making predictions.

● Learned helplessness

Poor self-image; see little relationship between their efforts and school or social success. When these students succeed they attribute their success to luck; when they fail, they blame their failure on lack of ability.

Specific learning disability

Reading, writing, and math; official areas: Oral Expression, Listening Comprehension, Written Expression, Basic Reading Skills, Reading Comprehension, Math Calculation, Math Reasoning

● Academic survival skills

Skills that include attending school regularly, being organized, completing tasks in and out of school, being independent, taking an interest in school, and displaying positive interpersonal skills with peers and adults. For example, Duane is failing school because he rarely shows up for class; when he does attend class, he sits in the back of the room and display and obvious lack of interest.

● High incidence disabilities

Students have speech or language disabilities, learning disabilities, emotional disturbance, or mild intellectual disabilities.

● ADHD combined

Students in this group display the characteristics of both of the other types of ADHD. They experience extraordinary difficulty both in focusing their attention and in restricting their movement.

● ADHD, predominantly inattentive type

Students in this group often appear to daydream. They may not hear teacher directions, sometimes skip parts of an assignment they do not notice, and frequently lose things. However, they do not physically move more than their peers.

● ADHD, predominantly impulsive type

Students in this group physically move far more than their peers, and they tend to be impetuous, acting before thinking. They squirm in their seats, tap pencils or fingers, and blurt out answers during instruction.

● Dyslexia

Students who have serious difficulty decoding written words.

● Mild intellectual disability

Students who have some difficulty meeting the academic and social demands of general education classroom, in large part because of below-average intellectual function.

● Emotional disturbance (behavior disorder)

Students with average intelligence but have problems learning primarily because of external (acting out, poor interpersonal skills) and/or internal (anxiety, depression) behavioral adjustment problems

● Curriculum compacting

Teachers assess students' achievement of instructional goals and then eliminate instruction on goals already met.

● Self-control training

Teaches students to redirect their actions by talking to themselves. It is for students who know what to do in social situations but lack the self-control to behave appropriately.

● Fluency

The ability to write/speak in a language easily and accurately.

● Behavior contract

The behavior contract is a simple positive-reinforcement intervention that is widely used by teachers to change student behavior. The behavior contract spells out in detail the expectations of student and teacher (and sometimes parents) in carrying out the intervention plan, making it a useful planning document

● Stuttering

The disorder is characterized by disruptions in the production of speech sounds, also called "disfluencies." Students who have this conditions often experience social isolation and ridicule.

● Articulation

The production of speech sounds.

● At-risk students

Those who have been exposed to some condition or situation that negatively affects their learning. For example, prenatal exposure to drugs, including alcohol; students who use drugs or whose family members are drug users; students who are homeless; and students who have been neglected. Can also be bullies and those who are victims, as well as those who have recently experienced the death of someone close to them. Students with phobias are at risk, as are those who are suicidal, physically unattractive or obese, social underdeveloped, and slow or marginal learners.

● English language learners (ELLs)

a person who is learning the English language in addition to his or her native language.

● Tracking

group students based on academic ability

● Involve parents in teaching children

p. 305?

● Clarity in oral communication - Involves giving directions, asking questions, and presenting subject matter (such as a lecture).

○ Asking questions - Is a quick way of assessing what your students have learned. Using follow-up probes help analyze your students' errors. Finally, you can differentiate your instruction by varying the types of questions asked depending on the needs of your students. ○ Giving oral directions - Is the most common way that teachers tell their students what they want them to do. Should do the following: (1) state commands specifically, using concrete terms. (2) Give "bite size" directions; avoid long series of directions. (3) When possible, accompany explanations with a demonstration. (4) Use cue words such as "Look up here!" and "Listen, please" before giving directions. ○ Presenting content orally - Usually done in the form of lecture.

● Modify reading assignments

○ Develop reading guides ○ Highlight the text with marking pens - ○ Put the reading passage on tape - ○ Rewrite selected materials - ○ Provide alternative materials -

● Selecting and sequencing examples

○ Example sequencing - Order of presentation of examples during instruction. Example sequence directly affects student understanding of direction. For example, separating letters that sound and look the same, such as b and d. ○ Example selection - Teacher choice of examples during instruction. Example selection directly affects student understanding of instruction. For example, you can help students make key discriminations between current and previous problem types by using examples that at first require application of only one particular skill. When students can perform these problems without error, add more examples of skills previously taught to help students discriminate between different types of problems.

● Strategies and interventions for ADHD

○ Interventions ■ Environmental supports - Include maintaining a classroom free of distractions; clear classroom rules and routines; and peer partners to assist those with ADHD if a sudden change in the normal pattern of the classroom is going to change. ■ Academic interventions - Utilize the INCLUDE model. More details given on pg. 246-247. (1) Emphasizes essential information; (2) have the student read just a small part of a long story or expository passage and check comprehension at that point-for older students, break the assignments into smaller parts; (3) in math give students extended periods of time to complete computational work; (4) in large group instruction keep the pace perky and provide many opportunities for students to participate, such as trading answers to questions with a partner. ■ Behavior interventions - Professionals generally recommend interventions that emphasize structure and rewards, such as specific verbal praise or stickers and other symbols of appropriate behavior. ■ Parent education - Invite parents to sessions to learn strategies for responding to their children's behavior (e.g., how to create an appropriate discipline system). ■ Medication (e.g., Ritalin, Adderall)

● Teaching terms and concepts

○ Modeling examples, synonyms, and definitions ■ Definitions - Employ positive and negative examples. (1) State your definitions clearly and simply. Your definitions should only contain words that students already know. (2) Ask students a series of questions to find out whether they can discriminate positive examples from negative examples. (3) Ask a series of open-ended questions to discover whether students can discriminate the new word from words they learned previously. ■ Concept diagrams - A method that combines graphic organizers with the methods just described using definitions and positive and negative examples. (1) Present the word and its definition. (2) Discuss which characteristics are always, sometimes, and never present. (3) Discuss one of the positive examples and one of the negative examples in relation to the characteristics. (4) Check other positive and negative examples to discover whether they match the characteristics.

● Involving parents in the homework process

○ Oversight of homework completion - Can be done by having daily discussions about homework with their children, creating an environment at home that is conducive to getting homework done, supervising homework activities periodically during the time set for homework, and providing support and encouragement for homework completion. ○ Home school communication - Can be increased by conducting parent-teacher meeting in the evening for working parents and by taking advantage of email; establish a homework hotline that can be accessed by phone or website that provides certain types of homework assistance; use checklists, newsletters, phone calls, etc.; can also ask parents whether they want to have homework information sent home daily, to sign that they reviewed their children's homework and note their difficulties and efforts.

● Modify the listening situation

○ Provide a structured overview - ○ Provide a lecture outline - ○ Use visual and auditory props - ○ Break up the listening period into sections -

● Differences between IDEA and 504

○ The definition of a disability in Section 504 is considerably broader than it is in IDEA. In section 504, any condition that substantially limits a major life activity, such as the ability to learn in school, is defined as a disability (can include conditions not contained in table 8.1, p. 241). ○ Unlike IDEA, Section 504 does not provide funds to school districts to carry out its requirements. ○ The responsibility for making accommodations for students who qualify as disabled through Section 504 belongs to general education personnel, not special education personnel.

● Three characteristics students with high incidence disabilities share

○ They are often hard to distinguish from peers without disabilities, particularly in non-school settings. ○ They often exhibit a combination of behavioral, social, and academic problems. ○ They benefit from systematic, explicit, highly structured instructional interventions. Having these interventions in place will help them meet the same standards as their classmates without disabilities.

● Organizing content

○ Using advance organizers - Include information presented verbally and/or visually that makes content more understandable by putting it within a more general framework. Examples include: identifying major topics and activities, presenting an outline of content (more can be found on p. 290). ○ Employing cue cards for organizational patterns - The most common patterns of information include the descriptive list including the sequence of events in time, comparison/contrast, cause/effect, and problem/solution. Cue words for a list, description, or sequence might include first, second, and third; cue words for comparison/contrast would be similar, different, on the other hand, etc. More found on p. 290. ○ Constructing study guides - Refers to outlines, abstracts, or questions that emphasize important information in the text. Some ways study guides can be differentiated: print page numbers next to the sentences in the study guide to show where to find missing words in the textbook; print the missing words at the bottom of the page to serve as cues. ○ Creating graphic organizers - This strategy gives students a visual format to organize their thoughts while looking for main ideas.

● Activating background knowledge

○ Using the prep strategy/pre-reading strategy - Steps are as follows. ■ Preview the text or lesson, and choose two to three important concepts. For example, for a science lesson, Mr. Amin chose the concept of photosynthesis and the keywords cycle and oxygen. ■ Conduct a brainstorming session with students. Involves three phases: (1) students tell you what comes to mind when they hear the concept; (2) students tell you what made them think of their responses in phase 1--this information can help you judge the depth of, and/or basis for their responses in phase1; and (3) students add to their responses based on the discussion in phase 2. ■ Evaluate student responses to determine the depth of their prior knowledge of the topic. During this step, you can decide whether students are ready to read the text and/or listen to a lecture on a particular topic or whether they need more information.

● Multiple Intelligences

○ Verbal/linguistic ○ Visual/spatial ○ Logical/ mathematical ○ Bodily/kinesthetic ○ Musical ○ Intrapersonal (that is, self-understanding) ○ Interpersonal ○ Naturalist ○ Existential

● Adapting seatwork assignments - Five steps

○ Verbally present the tasks. ○ Add practice examples that you can do with the whole class or a small group of students who are having particular difficulty. ○ Write alternative steps of directions. ○ Highlight the important words in the directions. ○ Have students help each other when the directions are difficult.