Speech Final
Post hoc ergo propter hoc (post hoc)
"after this, therefore because of this" : casual relationship suggested between two states or events due to order occurred, without considering other factors -Also called fallacy of false cause -Ex: I must have gotten a fever from the hamburger I ate last night. Ex: I wore my red shirt and we won. Therefore, if I wear my red shirt again we will win.
Speculative claim
-Address two kinds of questions: two or more answers exist addresses questions for which answers aren't yet available
Persuasion
-deliberate process of influence, of convincing others to share your beliefs -in public speaking, it is often done most frequently -offers greatest potential for professional and personal awards -ensures a healthy democracy
uninformed, less educated, or apathetic audience
-focus on capturing their attention -stress the topics relevance to listeners
sympathetic audience
-use motivational stories and emotional appeals -stress your commonality -clearly tell audience what you want them to do -consider narrative
problem cause-solution pattern of arrangement
1. define nature of problem 2.explain reasons for problem 3. explain why proposed solution is expected to work
cultural norms
A group's rules for behavior; attempts to persuade listeners to think or do things contrary to important norms will usually fail
Conclusion
EX: Therefore, Socrates is a mortal.
Ethos
Ethics, personal proof, general vocation- credibility, credible sources aristotelian term for moral character elements: -competence: speakers knowledge of subject matter -moral character: speaker's straightforward and honest presentation of message -goodwill toward audience
peripheral processing
Listeners who lack motivation or ability to pay attention to issues -involves being influenced by speaker's appearance or reputation, slogans or one-liners, or obvious attempts to manipulate emotions
Warrants by analogy(reasoning by analogy)
compare two similar cases, imply what is true in one case is true in the other -Frequent in addressing claims of policy
Examples
a fact, incident, or quotation that illustrates a state of things ex: metaphor
Story
a narrative; the telling of a real or imaginary chain of events creates emotional connection between speaker and audience members
Brief examples
a single illustration of a point
Argument
a stated position, with support, for or against an idea or issue -necessary when audience must make important decision or reach conclusion regarding complicated issue STAY WITH ONE PROPOSITION FOR PERSUASIVE SPEECH
Claims of value
address issues of judgement -used to show that something is right or wrong, good or bad, worthy or unworthy -evidence tends to be more subjective than factual -can use public opinion polls to sway attitudes
refutation pattern of arrangement
addresses each main point and refutes opposing claim to speaker's position -often used by political candidates -may influence audience members who disagree or are conflicted on stance -must refute strong rather than weak objections to your claim to sway audience
Pathos
appeal to audience's emotions- feeling, human connection, politicians like to use Evoke these emotions by using: compelling stories, vivid imagery, repetition and parallelism
Authoritative warrants
appeal to credibility audience assigns to source of evidence -make use of ethos -success depends on how highly audience regards authority figure -credibility of sources is important -if you are expert, warrant may reference yourself
faulty analogy
arguement claiming two phenomena are alike when actually dissimilar ex: Women will be attracted to you if you wear Axe cologne or use Axe bath wash. (Axe commercial)
Slippery slope
argument based on faulty assumption that one case will necessarily lead to series of events or actions EX: Helping refugees in the Sudan today will force us to help refugees across Africa and around the world.
Appeal to tradition
argument basing acceptance on historical tradition EX: The president of the United States must be a man because a woman has never been president.
Red herring fallacy
argument introduces irrelevant topic to divert attention from issue at hand ex: I fail to see why hunting should be considered cruel when it gives pleasure to so many people and employment to even more.
Either or fallacy
argument stated in only two alternatives, though there may be many alternatives EX: If you don't send little Susie to private school this year, she will not gain admission to college.
begging the question
argument stated such that it's necessarily true, even though no evidence presented -often contains circular thinking -often lacking evidence ex: war kills
hasty generalization
argument uses isolated instance as unwarranted general conclusion ex: As shown by the example of a Labrador retriever bitting my sister, this type of dog is dangerous and its breeding should be outlawed.
What term contains the core elements of claim, evidence, and warrants
arguments
Claims of fact
arguments that focus on whether something is or isn't true, or whether something will or will not happen
social agenda setting speech
articulating or reinforcing the goals and values of the group sponsored event ex: campaigns, fundraisers, conferences, conventions
Expectancy value theory
audience acts according to perceived costs and benefits ("value") associated with particular action -we consider our attitudes about the behavior and what other people important to us might think -we develop expectations about what will happen if we do or do not take a certain action
canned speech
avoid speech used repeatedly in multiple settings balance seriousness and light- heartedness
Cherry-picking
avoid- to selectively present only those facts and statistics that buttress your point of view while ignoring competing data
vocal fillers
avoid- unnecessary and undesirable phrases or utterances used to cover pauses
Anecdote
brief interesting, often humorous, real life incident that relates to theme most important is the moral: the lesson that the speaker wants to convey
Toast
brief tribute to person or event being celebrated celebrating his or her achievements - short speech
Expert testimony
by professionals
What are the types of claims used in persuasive speeches
claims of fact claims of value claims of policy
Problem-solution pattern of arrangement
common for persuasive speeches based on claims of policy 1. define problem 2. Offer solution to overcome problem
claim (proposition)
declaration of a state of affairs -conveys speaker's position -speaker must provide proof (evidence) to support claim and make it convincing
Facts
documented occurrences, including actual events, dates, times, places, and people involved -facts are only true when independently verified by people other than the source
one-sided message
does not mention opposing claims
speech of presentation
dual purposes -to communicate meaning of award identify sponsors or organizations that made award possible -to explain why recipient us receiving award describe recipient's achievements and special attributes that qualify him or her as deserving
Pauses
enhances meaning by providing a type of punctuation -emphasizing point -draw attention to key thought -allowing listeners a moment to contemplate
hasty overgeneralization
ex: fallacy of reasoning in speaker attempts to support claim by asserting that particular piece of evidence is true for all individuals or conditions concerned poorly thought through syllogism leads audience to think this
logical fallacy
false or erroneous statement or invalid or deceptive line of reasoning
Testimony
firsthand findings, eyewitness accounts, and people's opinions
motivated sequence pattern of arrangement
five step process of persuasion developed by Alan Monroe Effective for persuading audience to: -do something -reconsider their present way of thinking about something -continue to believe as they do with greater commitment
syllogism
form of rational appeal defined as three-part argument consisting of a -major premise -minor premise -conclusion logically following from first two steps
Major Premise
general case- mind, concepts ex: All men are mortal no one argues it is just the truth
Roast
humorous tribute to person in which serious of speakers jokingly poke fun celebrating his or her achievements - short speech
fear appeal
if used fairly and carefully, has a legitimate place in persuasive speaking EX: can be used in health campaigns, as in demonstrating the harm caused by smoking or texting while driving
hypothetical example
illustration of something that could happen in future if certain things occurred
Target Audience
individuals within broader audience who are most likely to be influenced in direction speaker seeks four types of audiences -hostile or strongly disagrees -critical and conflicted -sympathetic -uniformed, less educated, or apathetic
Supporting Material
information that clarifies, elaborates, and verifies the speaker's assertions; evidence in a persuasive speech
Warrant
justifies why evidence proves claim -rationale for accepting that evidence is valid -audience must believe to accept argument -reflects assumptions, beliefs, or principles underlying claim -if audience rejects assumptions, argument will be rejected
central processing
listeners motivated and able to think critically about a message -involves people who consider the message seriously and are more likely to act on the message
cultural premises
listeners sharing a common culture usually hold culturally specific values about identity and relationships
Logos
logical proof includes statistics, research, case studies appeals to audience reason and logic
Aristotle described three types of proofs. what are they?
logos, pathos, ethos best persuasive speeches make use of all three proofs
speech of acceptance
made in response to receiving award -purpose is to express gratitude for honor bestowed on speaker
After dinner speech
may occur before, during, or after formal dinner; breakfast or lunch seminar; or other business, professional, or civic meeting or family event -Make speech lighthearted and entertaining -Provide insight into topic at hand and/or outline priorities and goals for group
persuasive speech
meant to influence audience members' attitudes, beliefs, values and or behavior by appealing to some combination of their needs, desires, interests and even fears
two sided message
mentions opposing points of view and sometimes refutes them -often more persuasive than one-sided
Maslows Hierarchy of needs
model of human action based on principle that people are motivated to act based on needs -individual needs at lower, essential levels must be fulfilled before higher levels become important and motivating
speaker credibility
modern term for Aristotelian ethos; quality that reveals a speaker's topic knowledge, moral character, and goodwill toward audience -research shows that the audience's perceptions of a speaker's expertise and trustworthiness are critical contributors to persuasiveness
What are the types of warrants used to persuade audience members to accept validity of claims
motivational, authoritative, substantive
inductive reasoning
moves from specific cases to a general conclusion -mystery you have the facts but don't know where it ends
Extended examples
multifaceted illustrations of the idea, item, or event being described, allowing speaker to create a detailed picture
Lay testimony
non expert; eyewitness
warrants by cause (causal reasoning)
offer cause- and- effect relationship as proof of claim -make relevant and accurate assertions about cause and effect
Speaking Rate
pace at which speech is delivered -120-150 words per minute -make sure to hold audiences attention -accurately convey meaning
Elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (ELM)
people process persuasive messages by one or two routes -central processing -peripheral processing
persuasive appeals or "proofs"
persuasion could be brought about by the speaker's use of three types termed ethos, pathos, logos
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
physiological(food, water) safety(the need to feel safe and secure) social( to have lasting meaningful relationships) self- esteem(feel good about yourself) self-actualization(to achieve goals, to reach our highest potential)
persuasive speeches serve the same purposes as informative speeches plus what?
plus to influence audience choices choices may range from slight shifts in opinion to wholesale changes in behavior
motive
predisposition to behave in certain ways -arise from needs and desires that we seek to satisfy -successful persuaders motivate listeners to help themselves
Special occasion speech
prepared for a specific occasion and for a purpose dictated by that occasion -can be informative or persuasive or mix -neither is main goal -to entertain, celebrate, commemorate, inspire, or set social agenda
hostile audience or one that strongly disagrees
present both sides of the argument and demonstrate the strength of your position in contrast to the other side -start with evidence leaving conclusion until last -stress areas of agreement; focus on diffusing anger or suspicion by demonstrating respect
critical and conflicted audience
present strong arguments and audience evidence address opposing views, perhaps by using the refutation pattern
Bandwagoning
presenting something as true because "general opinion" supports it EX: Nikes are superior to other brands of shoes because everyone wears Nikes
Statistics
quantified evidence that summarizes, compares, and predicts things
Pitch
range of sounds from high to low -determined by frequency: number of vibrations per unit of time
deductive reasoning
reasoning from general condition to specific instance -start with a claim and try to prove that claim A=B B=C so A=C well developed syllogism
Claims of policy
recommend specific course of action be taken or approved -speak to "ought" condition: better outcomes would be realized if proposed condition is met -involve claims of fact as evidence -often involve claims of value as evidence
Volume
relative loudness of speaker's voice while giving speech voice needs to be louder than a normal conversation
demagogue
relies heavily on irrelevant emotional appeals to short-circuit the listeners' rational decision-making process Ex: clutter the historical landscape
substantive warrants
rely on facts to justify argument -operate based on audience's beliefs about evidence reliability -makes use of logos two common types: warrants by use warrants by analogy
Intonation
rising and falling of vocal pitch across phrases and sentences
speech of inspiration
seeks to uplift audience and help them see things positively Like persuasive speeches, appeal to pathos and display positive ethos -Touch upon shared values -Use vivid imagery -Tell stories EX: sermons, pep talks, nomination speeches
speech of introduction
short speech defined by two goals -to prepare or warm up audience for main speaker -to motivate audience to listen to what main speaker has to say
comparative advantage pattern of arrangement
show how speaker's viewpoint or proposal is superior to one or more alternative viewpoints or proposals
Minor Premise
specific case- evidence, world, touch, taste to be convinced you need evidence but it's not the most important thing ex: Socrates is a man.
non sequitur
statement in which conclusion isn't connected to reasoning EX: If we can send a man to the moon, we should be able to cure cancer in five years.
informal syllogism (enthymeme)
states either a general case or a specific case but not both ex: Regular exercise enhances your ability to study productively, so swimming regularly should enhance your studying. Implied(What was left out): Swimming is a good form of exercise.
Evidence
supporting material that provides grounds for belief in speaker's claim -e.g. statistics or testimony -If _____________ more believable, then the claim is more acceptable to audience
ad hominem argument
targets person instead of issue in attempt to incite audience's dislike for that person ex: I'm a better candidate than X because, unlike X, I work for a living.
Reasoning
the process of drawing inferences or conclusions from evidence
Eulogy
to celebrate and commemorate life of someone while consoling those left behind -usually given by close friend or family of deceased
Motivational warrants
use needs, desires, emotions, and values of audience as basis for accepting evidence in support of claim -make use of pathos -often implied rather than stated outright -appeal may require audience analysis -some values are universally shared
vocal variety
variation of volume, pitch, rate, and pauses with tone of enthusiasm to create effective delivery