Speech Final

Post hoc ergo propter hoc (post hoc)

"after this, therefore because of this" : casual relationship suggested between two states or events due to order occurred, without considering other factors -Also called fallacy of false cause -Ex: I must have gotten a fever from the hamburger I ate last night. Ex: I wore my red shirt and we won. Therefore, if I wear my red shirt again we will win.

Speculative claim

-Address two kinds of questions: two or more answers exist addresses questions for which answers aren't yet available

Persuasion

-deliberate process of influence, of convincing others to share your beliefs -in public speaking, it is often done most frequently -offers greatest potential for professional and personal awards -ensures a healthy democracy

uninformed, less educated, or apathetic audience

-focus on capturing their attention -stress the topics relevance to listeners

sympathetic audience

-use motivational stories and emotional appeals -stress your commonality -clearly tell audience what you want them to do -consider narrative

problem cause-solution pattern of arrangement

1. define nature of problem 2.explain reasons for problem 3. explain why proposed solution is expected to work

cultural norms

A group's rules for behavior; attempts to persuade listeners to think or do things contrary to important norms will usually fail

Conclusion

EX: Therefore, Socrates is a mortal.

Ethos

Ethics, personal proof, general vocation- credibility, credible sources aristotelian term for moral character elements: -competence: speakers knowledge of subject matter -moral character: speaker's straightforward and honest presentation of message -goodwill toward audience

peripheral processing

Listeners who lack motivation or ability to pay attention to issues -involves being influenced by speaker's appearance or reputation, slogans or one-liners, or obvious attempts to manipulate emotions

Warrants by analogy(reasoning by analogy)

compare two similar cases, imply what is true in one case is true in the other -Frequent in addressing claims of policy

Examples

a fact, incident, or quotation that illustrates a state of things ex: metaphor

Story

a narrative; the telling of a real or imaginary chain of events creates emotional connection between speaker and audience members

Brief examples

a single illustration of a point

Argument

a stated position, with support, for or against an idea or issue -necessary when audience must make important decision or reach conclusion regarding complicated issue STAY WITH ONE PROPOSITION FOR PERSUASIVE SPEECH

Claims of value

address issues of judgement -used to show that something is right or wrong, good or bad, worthy or unworthy -evidence tends to be more subjective than factual -can use public opinion polls to sway attitudes

refutation pattern of arrangement

addresses each main point and refutes opposing claim to speaker's position -often used by political candidates -may influence audience members who disagree or are conflicted on stance -must refute strong rather than weak objections to your claim to sway audience

Pathos

appeal to audience's emotions- feeling, human connection, politicians like to use Evoke these emotions by using: compelling stories, vivid imagery, repetition and parallelism

Authoritative warrants

appeal to credibility audience assigns to source of evidence -make use of ethos -success depends on how highly audience regards authority figure -credibility of sources is important -if you are expert, warrant may reference yourself

faulty analogy

arguement claiming two phenomena are alike when actually dissimilar ex: Women will be attracted to you if you wear Axe cologne or use Axe bath wash. (Axe commercial)

Slippery slope

argument based on faulty assumption that one case will necessarily lead to series of events or actions EX: Helping refugees in the Sudan today will force us to help refugees across Africa and around the world.

Appeal to tradition

argument basing acceptance on historical tradition EX: The president of the United States must be a man because a woman has never been president.

Red herring fallacy

argument introduces irrelevant topic to divert attention from issue at hand ex: I fail to see why hunting should be considered cruel when it gives pleasure to so many people and employment to even more.

Either or fallacy

argument stated in only two alternatives, though there may be many alternatives EX: If you don't send little Susie to private school this year, she will not gain admission to college.

begging the question

argument stated such that it's necessarily true, even though no evidence presented -often contains circular thinking -often lacking evidence ex: war kills

hasty generalization

argument uses isolated instance as unwarranted general conclusion ex: As shown by the example of a Labrador retriever bitting my sister, this type of dog is dangerous and its breeding should be outlawed.

What term contains the core elements of claim, evidence, and warrants

arguments

Claims of fact

arguments that focus on whether something is or isn't true, or whether something will or will not happen

social agenda setting speech

articulating or reinforcing the goals and values of the group sponsored event ex: campaigns, fundraisers, conferences, conventions

Expectancy value theory

audience acts according to perceived costs and benefits ("value") associated with particular action -we consider our attitudes about the behavior and what other people important to us might think -we develop expectations about what will happen if we do or do not take a certain action

canned speech

avoid speech used repeatedly in multiple settings balance seriousness and light- heartedness

Cherry-picking

avoid- to selectively present only those facts and statistics that buttress your point of view while ignoring competing data

vocal fillers

avoid- unnecessary and undesirable phrases or utterances used to cover pauses

Anecdote

brief interesting, often humorous, real life incident that relates to theme most important is the moral: the lesson that the speaker wants to convey

Toast

brief tribute to person or event being celebrated celebrating his or her achievements - short speech

Expert testimony

by professionals

What are the types of claims used in persuasive speeches

claims of fact claims of value claims of policy

Problem-solution pattern of arrangement

common for persuasive speeches based on claims of policy 1. define problem 2. Offer solution to overcome problem

claim (proposition)

declaration of a state of affairs -conveys speaker's position -speaker must provide proof (evidence) to support claim and make it convincing

Facts

documented occurrences, including actual events, dates, times, places, and people involved -facts are only true when independently verified by people other than the source

one-sided message

does not mention opposing claims

speech of presentation

dual purposes -to communicate meaning of award identify sponsors or organizations that made award possible -to explain why recipient us receiving award describe recipient's achievements and special attributes that qualify him or her as deserving

Pauses

enhances meaning by providing a type of punctuation -emphasizing point -draw attention to key thought -allowing listeners a moment to contemplate

hasty overgeneralization

ex: fallacy of reasoning in speaker attempts to support claim by asserting that particular piece of evidence is true for all individuals or conditions concerned poorly thought through syllogism leads audience to think this

logical fallacy

false or erroneous statement or invalid or deceptive line of reasoning

Testimony

firsthand findings, eyewitness accounts, and people's opinions

motivated sequence pattern of arrangement

five step process of persuasion developed by Alan Monroe Effective for persuading audience to: -do something -reconsider their present way of thinking about something -continue to believe as they do with greater commitment

syllogism

form of rational appeal defined as three-part argument consisting of a -major premise -minor premise -conclusion logically following from first two steps

Major Premise

general case- mind, concepts ex: All men are mortal no one argues it is just the truth

Roast

humorous tribute to person in which serious of speakers jokingly poke fun celebrating his or her achievements - short speech

fear appeal

if used fairly and carefully, has a legitimate place in persuasive speaking EX: can be used in health campaigns, as in demonstrating the harm caused by smoking or texting while driving

hypothetical example

illustration of something that could happen in future if certain things occurred

Target Audience

individuals within broader audience who are most likely to be influenced in direction speaker seeks four types of audiences -hostile or strongly disagrees -critical and conflicted -sympathetic -uniformed, less educated, or apathetic

Supporting Material

information that clarifies, elaborates, and verifies the speaker's assertions; evidence in a persuasive speech

Warrant

justifies why evidence proves claim -rationale for accepting that evidence is valid -audience must believe to accept argument -reflects assumptions, beliefs, or principles underlying claim -if audience rejects assumptions, argument will be rejected

central processing

listeners motivated and able to think critically about a message -involves people who consider the message seriously and are more likely to act on the message

cultural premises

listeners sharing a common culture usually hold culturally specific values about identity and relationships

Logos

logical proof includes statistics, research, case studies appeals to audience reason and logic

Aristotle described three types of proofs. what are they?

logos, pathos, ethos best persuasive speeches make use of all three proofs

speech of acceptance

made in response to receiving award -purpose is to express gratitude for honor bestowed on speaker

After dinner speech

may occur before, during, or after formal dinner; breakfast or lunch seminar; or other business, professional, or civic meeting or family event -Make speech lighthearted and entertaining -Provide insight into topic at hand and/or outline priorities and goals for group

persuasive speech

meant to influence audience members' attitudes, beliefs, values and or behavior by appealing to some combination of their needs, desires, interests and even fears

two sided message

mentions opposing points of view and sometimes refutes them -often more persuasive than one-sided

Maslows Hierarchy of needs

model of human action based on principle that people are motivated to act based on needs -individual needs at lower, essential levels must be fulfilled before higher levels become important and motivating

speaker credibility

modern term for Aristotelian ethos; quality that reveals a speaker's topic knowledge, moral character, and goodwill toward audience -research shows that the audience's perceptions of a speaker's expertise and trustworthiness are critical contributors to persuasiveness

What are the types of warrants used to persuade audience members to accept validity of claims

motivational, authoritative, substantive

inductive reasoning

moves from specific cases to a general conclusion -mystery you have the facts but don't know where it ends

Extended examples

multifaceted illustrations of the idea, item, or event being described, allowing speaker to create a detailed picture

Lay testimony

non expert; eyewitness

warrants by cause (causal reasoning)

offer cause- and- effect relationship as proof of claim -make relevant and accurate assertions about cause and effect

Speaking Rate

pace at which speech is delivered -120-150 words per minute -make sure to hold audiences attention -accurately convey meaning

Elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (ELM)

people process persuasive messages by one or two routes -central processing -peripheral processing

persuasive appeals or "proofs"

persuasion could be brought about by the speaker's use of three types termed ethos, pathos, logos

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

physiological(food, water) safety(the need to feel safe and secure) social( to have lasting meaningful relationships) self- esteem(feel good about yourself) self-actualization(to achieve goals, to reach our highest potential)

persuasive speeches serve the same purposes as informative speeches plus what?

plus to influence audience choices choices may range from slight shifts in opinion to wholesale changes in behavior

motive

predisposition to behave in certain ways -arise from needs and desires that we seek to satisfy -successful persuaders motivate listeners to help themselves

Special occasion speech

prepared for a specific occasion and for a purpose dictated by that occasion -can be informative or persuasive or mix -neither is main goal -to entertain, celebrate, commemorate, inspire, or set social agenda

hostile audience or one that strongly disagrees

present both sides of the argument and demonstrate the strength of your position in contrast to the other side -start with evidence leaving conclusion until last -stress areas of agreement; focus on diffusing anger or suspicion by demonstrating respect

critical and conflicted audience

present strong arguments and audience evidence address opposing views, perhaps by using the refutation pattern

Bandwagoning

presenting something as true because "general opinion" supports it EX: Nikes are superior to other brands of shoes because everyone wears Nikes

Statistics

quantified evidence that summarizes, compares, and predicts things

Pitch

range of sounds from high to low -determined by frequency: number of vibrations per unit of time

deductive reasoning

reasoning from general condition to specific instance -start with a claim and try to prove that claim A=B B=C so A=C well developed syllogism

Claims of policy

recommend specific course of action be taken or approved -speak to "ought" condition: better outcomes would be realized if proposed condition is met -involve claims of fact as evidence -often involve claims of value as evidence

Volume

relative loudness of speaker's voice while giving speech voice needs to be louder than a normal conversation

demagogue

relies heavily on irrelevant emotional appeals to short-circuit the listeners' rational decision-making process Ex: clutter the historical landscape

substantive warrants

rely on facts to justify argument -operate based on audience's beliefs about evidence reliability -makes use of logos two common types: warrants by use warrants by analogy

Intonation

rising and falling of vocal pitch across phrases and sentences

speech of inspiration

seeks to uplift audience and help them see things positively Like persuasive speeches, appeal to pathos and display positive ethos -Touch upon shared values -Use vivid imagery -Tell stories EX: sermons, pep talks, nomination speeches

speech of introduction

short speech defined by two goals -to prepare or warm up audience for main speaker -to motivate audience to listen to what main speaker has to say

comparative advantage pattern of arrangement

show how speaker's viewpoint or proposal is superior to one or more alternative viewpoints or proposals

Minor Premise

specific case- evidence, world, touch, taste to be convinced you need evidence but it's not the most important thing ex: Socrates is a man.

non sequitur

statement in which conclusion isn't connected to reasoning EX: If we can send a man to the moon, we should be able to cure cancer in five years.

informal syllogism (enthymeme)

states either a general case or a specific case but not both ex: Regular exercise enhances your ability to study productively, so swimming regularly should enhance your studying. Implied(What was left out): Swimming is a good form of exercise.

Evidence

supporting material that provides grounds for belief in speaker's claim -e.g. statistics or testimony -If _____________ more believable, then the claim is more acceptable to audience

ad hominem argument

targets person instead of issue in attempt to incite audience's dislike for that person ex: I'm a better candidate than X because, unlike X, I work for a living.

Reasoning

the process of drawing inferences or conclusions from evidence

Eulogy

to celebrate and commemorate life of someone while consoling those left behind -usually given by close friend or family of deceased

Motivational warrants

use needs, desires, emotions, and values of audience as basis for accepting evidence in support of claim -make use of pathos -often implied rather than stated outright -appeal may require audience analysis -some values are universally shared

vocal variety

variation of volume, pitch, rate, and pauses with tone of enthusiasm to create effective delivery