sports test 2

somatic anxiety

(precompetitive somatic anxiety) tends to be relatively low, but then climbs rapidly, starting about 24 hours before the event starts.

what are some ways to set goals?

record and monitor, create an action plan, increase goal commitment

motivation

the direction and intensity of ones effort

what is the transactional model

describes how people interpret or appraise a particular event is a more important predictor of the experience of a stressful event than the actual event (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).

what is secondary appraisal

people assess the resources available for coping with the situation ("What can I do about this?").

what is primary appraisal

people interpret the situation and what it will be for them ("Am I in danger?").

what is achievement motivation

people who exert considerable effort toward the pursuit of their goals are high in achievement motivation, meaning they are focused on mastering a task, achieving at a high level and persisting even when confronted by obstacles

if people are high in achievement

they are often described as being high in competitiveness

what did stuntman and thibodeau (2001) find?

they found that MLB players who received a new contract (and a big raise) showed a decrease in immediate post contact performance

what did medic, mack, Wilson and starkes (2007) find?

they found that college athletes who are on an athletic scholarship report that their intrinsic motivation to perform well would decrease if the scholarship were taken away. athletes not on athletic scholarships report their intrinsic motivation would decrease if such a reward were given

what did cameron and pierce (1994) find?

they found that in a meta analysis of 96 studies examining the effects of reinforcement/reward on intrinsic motivation. verbal praise actually leads to an increase in intrinsic motivation

what did fortier, vallerand, briere and provencher (1995) find?

they found that recreational college athletes are higher in intrinsic motivation than competitive athletes

if an athlete is higher in self motivation would they show better performance later on?

true

what did white and sheldon (2014) find?

NBA and MLB players showed worse performance in the year after signing a new contract compared to the year in which the contract was signed or even than the prior year

what is the drive theory?

-As arousal increases, so does performance (Hull, 1943, 1951; Spence, 1956). -In this model, arousal is usually caused by situational factors, but the model does not distinguish between somatic and cognitive anxiety. Athletes' skill level influences the association between arousal and performance. Athletes who are new to a skill or sport will generally perform better under conditions of low arousal. Experienced athlete will generally perform better under conditions of high arousal (Performance = Habit X Drive [arousal]).

what are the four factors that influence self efficacy?

A person's own experiences -Vicarious experiences (-Observational learning) -Verbal persuasion -Athletes' own emotional and physiological states

what are some advantages and disadvantages of measuring physiological measures?

Advantages: Avoids the problems of social desirability and misreporting, and it's almost impossible to deliberately produce false data. Also, data can be collected during athletic events, measuring actual responses. -Disadvantages: Some people find the use of EEG and fMRI themselves very stressful, and this can increase their anxiety levels even more. Also, physiological measures can be influenced by factors other than stress, including gender, weight, and overall physical health. High levels of arousal can indicate positive feelings. Lastly, the use of these measures is expensive and time consuming, and requires trained technicians.

what are the advantages and disadvantages of behavioral measures?

Advantages: Fast; measures can be acquired through observation, without the use of questionnaires. -Disadvantages: Athletes may attempt to control their behavioral indicators, and therefore feel more anxiety than they are appearing to show. Also, different people show signs of anxiety in different ways, and the anxiety an athlete reports feeling may not match physiological indicators of such arousal.

what are the advantages and disadvantages of self report measures?

Advantages: Self-report tests are easy to complete (provide data from large samples of athletes), and the measures provide numerical, objective data (easy to score). Self-report measures also provide information that in some cases can only be learned by asking the athlete. -Disadvantages: Sometimes athletes deliberately don't answer the questions honestly. Measures require large samples of data in order to reliably predict how anxiety is correlated with performance. Also, some measures are relatively long, and can take considerable time to complete.

define approach versus avoidance motivation

An athlete could pursue performance goals with either a focus on approaching a desirable goal, such as being faster than one's teammate, or avoiding an undesirable goal, such as not being outscored by an opponent. An athlete could pursue mastery goals with an approach focus, such as improving one's skill at a particular task, or with an avoidance focus, such as not failing to show improvement at a particular task. Athletes' focus on approach versus avoidance goals impacts intrinsic motivations performance. Focusing on approaching mastering skills predicts greater enjoyment and performance, whereas focusing on avoiding poor play actually leads to worse performance.

how to recognize individual differences?

Athletes are motivated by different strategies (having fun, making friends, winning scholarships, losing weight, learning new skills, gaining status, etc.). Motives may change over time, even within the course of a season.

how to give positive and personal feedback?

Athletes need feedback about their performance, which helps mark progress towards goals and demonstrates that coaches are genuinely interested in helping them learn and improve, which increases intrinsic motivation. -Verbal and non-verbal praise can help motivate. Coaches need to use specific types of feedback when the want to help athletes change their behavior. This type of feedback is empathic, gives choices, provides clear and attainable objectives, includes specific solutions to improve performance, and delivered in a respectful tone of voice. When players receive positive feedback, they see that the coach valued their hard work, realized that mistakes are part of learning, and believed that their high effort will lead to improved performance over time.

how can athletes perceive the function of a reward?

Athletes see positive feedback as more informational and less controlling than negative feedback. Also, athletes who receive positive feedback show increased intrinsic motivation, whereas those who receive negative feedback show decreased intrinsic motivation as well as lower perceived competence. A coach's behavior may have a stronger impact on motivation than the presence of an athletic scholarship.

what did huffmeier and hertel (2011) find?

Athletes swimming in a relay tend to swim faster than in an individual competition if they are in the later positions, whereas starting swimmers show no difference in times

what are impacts of goal types?

Athletes who are the most effective goal setters tend to set process goals. College athletes tend to emphasize outcome goals over performance goals. It is easier to make adjustments to process and performance goals. Athletes' individual goals may conflict with team goals.

what is directing attention?

Athletes who set goals know how to focus their attention on a particular aspect of the game. During practices, athletes can focus intensely on the skills necessary to achieve the goals they have set.

how to emphasize effort and not outcome?

Coaches should focus on developing all athletes' skills (not just the best players), rewarding improvements over time, and emphasizing the importance of effort. This type of focus helps athletes believe that their coach expects they can do well and increases intrinsic motivation, which in turn leads to better performance. Emphasizing effort instead of outcome reduces pressure on athletes.

How to create a motivating environment

Create different types of environments for different people (older adults, pregnant women, intramural leagues). Intrinsic motivation increases when people are able to experience some type of success (ex: t-ball, lowered basketball hoops, smaller soccer balls). Set realistic performance goals. Intrinsic motivation increases when people have some choice over their environment (ex: let athletes choose what skills they will practice, create team goals or rules, develop game strategy).

what is the competence motivation theory?

Describes the importance of feeling worthy and competent. If you experience successful results in a given domain, you increase in self-efficacy and positive feelings, and in turn increase in perceived competence. If, on the other hand, you experience negative results, you experience negative feelings, such as shame and anxiety, which in turn leads to decrease in competence motivation.

what is the self efficacy theory?

Describes the importance of having a belief in one's own ability to carry out a given task. Self-confidence refers to a person's overall view of him or herself as being generally capable, self-efficacy refers to a person's self-confidence within a specific domain. People with high self-efficacy are more likely to exert effort, and in a given domain will set more challenging goals and persist longer in the face of a challenge.

What is need achievement theory?

Describes the role of personal factors and situational factors in predicting achievement behavior. People vary in their motivation to avoid failure and achieve success. People take into consideration the specific achievement situation they are facing, including their probability of success and the incentive value of that success. The interactions of these personal and situational factors influences athletes' resultant, or behavioral, tendencies as well as their emotional reactions.

what is the social facilitation theory?

Extends drive theory by specifically describing how the presence of other people can create arousal. People who engage in a task in front of others experience higher levels of arousal than those who are by themselves, and this arousal can have different effects on performance depending on how good a person is at a particular task. -If you are good at a task, arousal will lead you to perform even better. If you are not so good at a task, arousal may lead to worse performance.

what is flow?

Flow is a positive state in which a person feels a balance between the challenges of the situation and their skills to cope with these challenges. -Athletes who are in a state of flow experience a very positive state, in which they are fully absorbed in their performance, have no sense of time passing, and achieve positive results. -Studies show that athletes who are in a state of flow show better performance, and flow is associated with higher level performance in team sports, but being in a state of flow does not guarantee outstanding performance. Flow can be achieved by mental and physical preparation, self-confidence, focus, positive attitude, and motivation. Athletes may vary in their ability to achieve flow. Athletes who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to experience flow. Optimism and hardiness may also be a factor in flow. -More experienced athletes, who are able to rely on automatic processing to perform, are more likely to achieve flow. Learning a new sport or skill takes considerably effort, and the intense concentration makes it nearly impossible to achieve flow. -Research is correlational-and the flow-performance link is not known. Athletes experiencing flow may actually perform better, or perhaps playing well makes athletes feel as though they are in a state of flow. Another possibility is that there is a third variable, such as training, quality of coaching, or personality. The mere pursuit of flow may be as beneficial as actually achieving a flow state.

what are performance goals?

Focus on achieving a particular endpoint or standard. Focus on a particular outcome, regardless of how other teams or competitors perform; relatively independent of how other teams or competitors perform; focus on individual achievements. Include running a mile in a given amount of time, striking out a certain number of batters, or scoring a specific number of points in a basketball game.

what are outcome goals?

Focus on competitive results of an event, and typically a comparison to one or more opponents. Dependent on both the performance of the athlete and the performance of others.

what are process goals?

Focus on the specific actions or behaviors an athlete must do well during a competition, game, or performance. Should increase the likelihood of achieving performance and outcome goals. Include keeping a firm but relaxed grip on a golf club, keeping knees bent when landing a dismount, or thinking "focused" to remind oneself to stay mentally engaged throughout a routine.

what is the sport confidence model?

Focuses specifically on people's enduring beliefs about their competence within athletics, and the impact of these beliefs on performance. Beliefs are influenced by athlete's own achievements, self-regulation, and the social climate. Sport confidence is described as a combination of cognitive efficiency, physical skills/training, and resilience.

what are subjective goals?

Goals that describe general statements of intentions, but are not precisely measured in terms of whether they were accomplished (ex: "I tried my best").

what is the inverted U theory?

High arousal is associated with increased performance, but only up to a point. Performance is lowest when arousal is very low (boredom) or very high (anxiety), and highest when arousal is at a moderate level. -The Inverted U describes arousal as caused by situational factors, and does not distinguish between cognitive and somatic anxiety. -The ideal level of arousal for peak performance may also depend on the particular sport and the skills it requires. -An athlete's skill level may also impact the level of arousal necessary for peak performance (a younger or more inexperienced the athlete may benefit more from lower levels of arousal, whereas an athlete capable of performing at a very high level may benefit more from higher levels of arousal).

what did Baron, Moore, & Sanders, 1978; Huguet, Galvaing, Monteil, & Dumas, 1999 find

If we are performing an easy task, distraction from other people doesn't have an impact on performance task. However, if we are performing a complex task, the distraction from other people may make it harder to concentrate, which in turn impairs performance. OR, the mere presence of people may be energizing. Home teams do better than visiting teams (Jamieson, 2010); home teams in the NBA and MLS have a greater than 60% chance of winning (Moscowitz & Wertheim, 2011). -OR, knowing that you are being evaluated or judged by others may be the real cause for difference in performance. Worringham & Messick (1983) found that runners are faster when a person is specifically watching their performance than when a person is present but is facing away from them and hence can't evaluate their speed.

what is the effect of environment on motivation?

Mastery-Focused environments lead to higher levels of perceived competence, self-esteem, enjoyment, intrinsic motivation, and the experience of flow. Performance-focused environments emphasizing outperforming others, avoiding making mistakes, and rewarding only the top athletes. Such environments lead to extrinsic motivation, pressure, anxiety, use of maladaptive coping strategies.

The fight-or-flight response

People are normally in a state of equilibrium called homeostasis. When a person is threatened, energy is shifted from the nonessential body systems to those systems necessary to respond to the challenge, either by fleeing or fighting. -The hypothalamus activates both the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine systems. The adrenal glands release epinephrine and norepinephrine. This increases heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate. The pupils widen, and blood flows toward the muscles. -The pituitary glad releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which causes the adrenal glands to produce glucocorticoids, or steroid hormones, such as cortisol. This helps protect the body from injuries.

what does the specific mean?

Precise and measurable goals are associated with better performance than more abstract and vague goals. -Goals that are hard to measure (ex: "relax", "try my hardest") are less motivating.

what is the catastrophe model?

Proposes an interaction between the effects of somatic and cognitive anxiety on performance. -The inverted U model best describes the influence of physiological arousal on performance for people at levels of low cognitive anxiety. -When performance pressure is low, gradual increases in arousal will improve performance up to a point, and then interfere with performance. When performance pressure is higher, and an athlete experience moderate or high cognitive anxiety, greater physiological arousal even at a moderate level can lead to a "catastrophe", meaning a sudden and substantial drop in performance. -Relatively little empirical research has examined this overall model. -Some extensions of the model do show support.

what is the reversal theory?

Proposes that arousal and anxiety may have different effects on performance for different people. -Arousal impacts performance differently depending on how a person thinks about or interprets that arousal.

what are objective goals?

Refer to specific achievements a person wants to accomplish, and can easily be measured in terms of their success versus failure (ex: winning a national championship).

what is one way to measure arousal and anxiety?

Self-Report Measures -Commonly used by sport psychologists, researchers, and coaches to measure athletes' level of arousal, anxiety, and stress. -The Sport Competition Anxiety Test: this scale is a reliable measure of trait anxiety, and can be used with both adult and child athletes. -The Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS-2) and the Cognitive Somatic Anxiety Questionnaire (CSAQ) assess the level of trait anxiety. -The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 measures cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and a related compound, self-confidence.

what is the integrated theory of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in sport?

Social factors, such as experiences of success and failure, coaches' behavior, and whether a situation emphasizes cooperation or competition, influence athletes' beliefs about themselves. Self-perceptions then influence feelings of competence, autonomy, and ability to relate to other people. These feelings (psychological mediators) then influence the type of motivation athletes feel, which leads to particular consequences.

arousal

a blend of physiological and psychological activity, or the level of alertness in a given situation. -Very low and very high levels of arousal can be detrimental to performance.

what is the multidimensional anxiety theory?

Somatic and cognitive anxiety influence performance in different ways. Peak performance occurs at a moderate level of physiological arousal. However, cognitive state anxiety is negatively associated with performance, meaning that peak performance occurs at low levels of worry. This model assumes that somatic and cognitive anxiety have independent and separate effects on performance.

state anxiety

State anxiety is caused by a given situation and is temporary. The five factors that lead to an increase in anxiety in anticipation of an achievement situation are fear of performance failure, fear of negative social evaluation, fear of physical harm, situation ambiguity, and disruption of well-learned routine.

what is the achievement goal theory?

States that different people are motivated by different types of goals.

what is Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) Theory

The level of arousal (or anxiety) that leads to peak performance differs for different athletes-each athlete has an optimum level of arousal (or the "individualized zone") in which their best performance occurs. -Research with collegiate, Olympic, and professional athletes generally finds support for the IZOF model.

why do players choke?

The presence of supporting audiences can sometimes lead to worse performances, especially in high pressure situations where expectations are high.

trait anxiety

Trait anxiety describes a behavioral disposition, or personality dimension, in which people generally react anxiously, even in situations that should not be anxiety provoking.

how to use appropriate reinforcement?

Types of reinforcers: material reinforcers (ribbons, medals, t-shirts, awards), social rewards (praise and gestures), activity rewards (day off from practice, scrimmage instead of drills), outings (seeing a movie, having a party). Reinforcement will vary based on athletes' interests, ability, personality, and age. Frequent reinforcement is very helpful to young or new athletes. Coaches should also reward behavior that is close to the desired behavior. Rewarding performance (effort) is better than rewarding outcome. Coaches should reward both physical skills and social/emotional skills, such as showing good sportsmanship, being a "team player", and following team rules.

what did the study by radel, sarrazon and pettelier (2009) find?

a causal effect between being primed with autonomous words and performing a task more quickly and with more effort, and reporting greater interest, enjoyment, and satisfaction, than those primed with neutral or controlling words.

anxiety

a feeling of nervousness and worry.

stress

an imbalance between the demands of the situation a person is in and their beliefs about their ability to cope with that situation. -Stress reactions result when stressors occur, and we respond both physiologically and psychologically, based on our interpretation of the event. -Stress reactions can be influenced both by aspects of the situation and aspects of the person. -Moderate levels of stress can increase arousal and provide energy, and can help performance.

when can goal setting be useful the most?

at helping athletes mobilize their efforts when they are finding it difficult to get and stay motivated

what does research say about intrinsic motivation?

athletes report higher levels of enjoyment of and commitment to their sport. better predictor of participation in a particular sport and leads to higher levels of performance. they experience flow and are more likely to practice

what is external regulation?

describes behavior that is entirely motivated by a fear of punishment or a desire for a reward.

what does self efficacy predict?

athletic performance across a range of different types of tasks. People who are high on self-efficacy have higher expectations about their performance, and in turn perform better than those who are low in self-efficacy. Self-efficacy may be a better predictor of performance than actual ability. Self-efficacy is a stronger predictor of future performance than past performance.

what is the second way to measure arousal and anxiety?

behavioral measures Observe outward manifestations of anxiety or stress, such as fidgeting, heavy breathing, rapid heart rate, or nausea. -Can be used to avoid self-report problems (admitting feelings anxious).

what is introjected regulation?

describes an athlete who is partially intrinsically motivated, but is also motivated by controlling external factors.

cognitive anxiety

describes anxiety the results from thoughts or concerns. -Somatic anxiety describes the perception of physiological responses to stressful situations, such as racing heartbeat, faster breathing, or feelings of nausea. -Cognitive anxiety (precompetitive cognitive anxiety) tends to be relatively high as a competitive event approaches, and typically stays high right up until the event begins. During the event, cognitive anxiety may fluctuate, depending on how the event is going.

what did Goldman and Rao (2012) find?

examined NBA statistics over six basketball seasons (2005 to 2010). The researchers examined both free throws and offensive rebounds. -Of the 300,000 free throws that were examined, home players had a slightly higher percentage of shots made than away players. However, when the games were close, home players showed a 2% drop in their overall free throw percentage, even lower than the average percentage of away players, whereas away players showed no change. Players who were overall worse at shooting free-throws showed an even greater drop in performance, meaning a stronger "home choke" effect. -Of the 1.3 million possessions in the last eight minutes of the game, if the game was basically settled, there was no difference in rates of rebounding for home versus away players, but for close games, home players had more rebounds (33%) and away players (29%). -The home crowd is generally quiet when their players shoot free throws, which could make players more self-conscious and thereby disrupt performance.

what did vidic and Burton (2010) find?

examined the effects of an 8-week goal setting intervention on female Division I tennis players. The program led to a number of benefits for athletes, including increases in motivation, self-confidence, and performance.

what does cognitive evaluation theory do?

extends self determination theory by focusing specifically on the causes of intrinsic motivation, and the factors that may increase and decrease such motivation

what is the issue with over justification?

extrinsic rewards undermine intrinsic interest

define task/ goal orientation?

focused on improving skills and ability over time, focus is on themselves, tend to choose challenging tasks, prefer competing against high quality opponents.

define ego/ goal orientation?

focused on outperforming others, tend to choose relatively easy tasks, prefer to compete against those they can beat.

define social approval/ goal orientation

focused on the desire for social acceptance and avoiding embarrassment and defeat, may be particularly important for interactive and team-sport athletes.

what did huffmeier, kanthak, and hertel (2013) find?

found that swimmers in the second, third, and fourth relay positions swam faster during the relay than they did in their individual event, but only during the freestyle relay. Swimmers may engage in more self-comparison when all four are swimming the same stroke, which leads to less social loafing.

what happens when athletes receive positive feedback?

increase in perceived competence, which in turn leads to higher levels of intrinsic motivation.

What does testosterone do?

increase the power motivation

what is social loafing?

individuals' tendency to reduce their own individual output when their contributions on a task will be combined with those of other people.

what is integrated regulation?

involves internalizing the external pressures on behavior and seeing behavior as freely determined. This motivation is essentially as effective as intrinsic motivation.

what is most likely to occur when there is social loafing?

is more likely to occur when individuals' own output isn't clear or measurable, the other members on a person's team are high in ability, and the person doesn't feel his or her output will make a meaningful difference.

what is identified regulation?

means being motivated by external factors but feeling personal choice over participation.

How to increase intrinsic motivation

motivating environments, emphasize effort/ not outcome, recognize individual differences, use appropriate reinforcement, give positive and personal feedback

what is extrinsic motivation?

motivation that comes from an external source, such as awards, trophies, money, praise, social status

What is intrinsic motivation?

motivation that comes from an internal source, such as fun of competing, a desire to learn new skills, and the excitement of performing well

what is the third way to measure arousal and anxiety?

physiological measures Levels of anxiety can be measured through various measures of physiological arousal, including heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, muscle tension, and skin conductance. -Biochemical measures: The presence of norepinephrine, epinephrine, and cortisol can be detected in blood or urine tests. -Brain activation: Use of an EEG (electroencephalography), which measures brain waves, and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) technology, which provides information on blood flow to specific areas of the brain, can be used to measure anxiety.

what happens when athletes receive more frequent praise and information?

report feeling higher in perceived competence, whereas those who receive more frequent corrective information following a mistake feel lower in perceived confidence.

what happens when an athlete is high on sport confidence?

show better levels of performance, use more effective strategies for achieving desired goals, are able to block out distractions and maintain focus, and are able to bounce back from adverse experiences.

what does an athlete experience when they focus on mastery goals? what does an athlete experience when they focus on performance goals?

show greater sportsmanship than those who focus on performance goals, and tend to like their teammates and coach more. Athletes who are focused on performance goals show more willingness to break a rule, lie to an official, and cheat, and are more likely to engage in aggressive and anti-social behavior in an attempt to outperform both opponents and teammates.

what did Moore vine Wilson and freeman (2015) find?

showed that people who were told that arousal had positive effects on performance did much better on a putting task than those who were not given this information.

what are SMART goals?

specific, measurable, action oriented, realistic, and timely

what did mcfall, knoeber, and thurman (2009) find?

studied the playing of top ranked professional golfers, and found that having a financial incentive to perform well seems to lead to improved performance for players who are close to attaining a very lucrative prize.

What is goal setting theory?

suggests that athletes who form goals are energized to show increased effort, which in turn increases their effectiveness at accomplishing their goals.

what did atkins, johnson, force and petrie (2015) find?

surveyed 12 to 15 year-old boys, assessing the types of messages they received from others about the motivational climate of their main sports team. The boys also rated their own self-esteem, port competence, sport enjoyment, and intentions to continue playing their main sport. Boys who perceived a task-focused motivational climate reported higher levels of all measures as well as greater intentions to continue playing their sport.

are men higher in competitiveness than women?

yes

does goal setting have a positive effect on performance across many sports?

yes

does the impact of external rewards varies depending on how the rewards are perceived?

yes - People may see external rewards as a factor outside of themselves controlling their behavior, which leads to decreases in intrinsic motivation. People may see rewards as informational, providing information about performance.

can state anxiety be broken down into two categories? what are they

yes and cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety