Stereotypes and Prejudice

Assessing stereotypes

(1) Checklists -lists of traits such as lazy or hardworking: Respondents check off which traits they think describe a group (2) Probability ratings - respondents report how likely or unlikely is it that group members have various characteristics

Psychological conflict

- Ambivalent attitudes affect behaviour only when Whites become aware of inconsistent attitudes - Inconsistency creates conflict between individualist and egalitarian values - Negative emotions and threat are reduced by behaving in a way that makes one value seem more important than the other:

Implicit cognition measures

- Assess the degree to which concepts are associated with one another in memory - Work without participants' awareness of what is being measured - Strong difference between strength of negative association and positive association indicates a strong prejudice: E.g., association between: Fat and pleasant or unpleasant versus Slim and pleasant or unpleasant - Three most frequent implicit measures: Affective Priming Paradigm Implicit Association Test Affect Misattribution Procedure

Verifying results

- Ensure accuracy by verifying research results through: Exact replication: Redoing the study using the same procedures Conceptual replication: Redoing the study with changes in procedures - Generalizability: Results of research on a hypothesis should be similar regardless of how a study is conducted

Confronting discrimination

- How willing are people to confront discrimination? Not very - Social costs of confronting discrimination: Being labelled as "whiners" and or being seen as taking advantage of discrimination for personal gain Out-group members are seen as overacting or being unreasonable when confronting discrimination and are rated as being less effective - What about In-group confrontation of discrimination? Situational dependent - But, there are positive social benefits from confronting discrimination too!

Meta-analysis

- Method to statistically combine results of multiple studies - Determines average relationship between variables across studies Based on two principles: 1) An average is a more accurate estimate of a relationship than the results from any one sample 2)Averaging results across studies offsets the limitations of individual studies

Consequence of Prejudice: Stereotype Threat

- Proposition that stigmatized group members are aware that they are stereotyped Fear confirming stereotypes, especially in achievement settings -Individual Difference Stereotype threat is strongest for those whose self-esteem is tied to their performance Some people are generally more alert to threat potential than others Personal history with prejudice Perception of personal control

Hypotheses

- derivations of theoretical postulates that can be tested in research: - Hypotheses state relationships between two variables in ways that can be tested in research

Benevolent prejudice

-Apparently positive beliefs and emotional responses to outgroups -Tone is superficially positive: But is correlated with endorsement of negative stereotypes and discriminatory behaviour -Can have negative consequences for its targets: E.g., keeping them in subordinate positions -Problematic

Goals of Research

-Develop knowledge about factors that cause people to think and behave in the ways they do -Determine factors that constrain or limit behaviour -Test theories to determine their validity -Use validated theories to design interventions to reduce prejudice

What defines a stigmatised group?

-Dominant group determines who is stigmatized -Depends on historical and cultural context -Stigmatized individuals have a characteristic that is devalued by dominant group and sets them apart (ie: having an alcoholic mother or having a speech impediment) -These people feel flawed, ashamed, judged by the dominant group -They are not seen as people or indvls who have diff characteristics

Limitations of self-report measures

-Easy for people to conceal their true attitudes and opinions -This socially desirable responding can be reduced by: Keeping responses anonymous Using unobtrusive measures Using physiological measures Using implicit cognition measures

Advantages of self-report measures

-Efficient: Many people can complete them at the same time - Easy to administer - Can cover multiple topics and behaviors - Does not require special equipment - Most direct way to find out people's opinions

Unprejudiced people

-High acceptance of both equality of opportunity and equality of outcomes -Complex social identifies: See themselves as members of many different social groups -Focus on similarities among people rather than differences: See differences as enriching and interesting -Exhibit a broad scope of moral inclusion: Broadly define who counts as 'one of us"

Hostile Prejudice

-Is what we usually think of as prejudice -Expressed in terms of negative beliefs about and emotional responses to targets of prejudice

Self-Report Measures

-Most common method of assessing stereotypes and prejudice - Involves asking people about their attitudes, opinions, and behaviours and recording what they say

Reliability

-Reliability refers to a measure's consistency: A reliable measure provides essentially the same result each time it is used with the same person -Why do we want a measure to be consistent? We assume that people's characteristics are relatively stable across time

Measurement

-The measures used to assess variables are their operational definitions -Important issues in measurement include: Reliability and validity of measures The different types of measures researchers can use

Ideas for research

-Their observations of everyday life -Testing the effectiveness of interventions designed to reduce prejudice -Theories of prejudice and discrimination: A major source of research ideas

Defining characteristics of the isms

1) Combines prejudice with a group-centered worldview: 2) Belief in "natural" superiority of one's own group 3) Based on desire to dominate other groups Reflected in behaviour

Assessing behavior

1) Self-report measures can assess how people say they behave or would behave: How often they have performed various behaviours How they would respond in various situations - Example: Bogardus's (1928) Social Distance Scale: Respondents report how closely they would be willing to associate with members of a group Ranges from marriage to exclusion from respondent's country - Socially desirable responding can be a problem

Drawing conclusions

1) Two important questions: Were the hypotheses tested in the study supported? What do the results mean? 2)Were the hypotheses supported? Quantitative data: Statistical analysis provides information about how likely it is a certain outcome occurred by chance Qualitative data: Researchers look for patterns of responses or behaviour that support or refute their hypotheses 3)What do the results mean? Research findings can often have more than one explanation Researchers' theoretical orientations and personal backgrounds influence their interpretations A given phenomenon could have more than one cause and explanation

Physiological measures

1)Assess changes in body's responses to a stimulus: Can distinguish between positive and negative emotional reactions Can indicate intensity of the reaction: Examples: heart rate and blood pressure, voice pitch, small movements of the facial muscles, eye blink rate, brain imaging 2) Advantage: Most physiological reactions are beyond voluntary control 3)Emerging technology: brain imaging (e.g., fMRI): Examines what areas of the brain are activated during tasks Problem of naturalistic fallacy: Belief that because something has a biological basis it is natural and unchangeable

Jim Crow racism

1)One was Whites' acceptance as absolute truth the belief that Whites were inherently superior to other races ( 2)firm belief in the rightness of keeping minorities at a distance through racial segregation: 3)use of laws and the power of government to establish racially segregated school systems and other forms of discrimination, such as curtailment of voting rights.

benevolent prejudices form insidious forms of bias based on 3 reasons

1)Provide person with moral credentials 2)the targets of the prejudices might buy into them. 3)benevolent prejudices may be difficult to change

Survey Research

1)Respondents answer questions designed to assess, including: Attitudes Beliefs and opinions behaviours Personality traits 2)Sampling: How researchers find participants Two most common types: Probability Convenience 3)Probability sampling: "Scale model" of population of interest Sample has all characteristics of the population in the same proportion Provides confidence that relationships found in the sample exist in the population 4)Convenience sampling: Sample consists of people from whom the researchers can easily collect data No way to know how well the sample represents any given population Must be cautious about drawing conclusions

Correlation and Causality

1)Three criteria must be met to determine causality: - Covariation: the cause must be correlated with the effect - Time precedence of the cause: the cause must come before the effect - There are no reasonable alternative explanations for the effect Correlational research can only show that two variables are related to each other It cannot determine whether one of the variables is causing the other: Time precedence cannot usually be determined Alternative explanations are often possible

Aversive Prejudice and Behavior

1. Avoidance of intergroup contact: Example: in 2010 survey of White Americans: 20% were opposed in living in a fully integrated neighborhood 22% would oppose a relative marrying a Black person Motivated by anxiety over interacting with minority group members 2. Overly positive intergroup behaviour: Example: White teachers give more positive feedback to minority students for same level of work Motivated by concerns overly appearing to be prejudiced 3. Pro-White bias in ambiguous situations: Example: Students more likely to recommend hiring a White person with mixed qualification over Black person with mixed qualification - No difference for people with clearly high or low qualifications Evaluators focus on negative information for minority applicant, positive information for White applicant - Given the benefit of the doubt 4.Discrimination when behaviour can be justified as unprejudiced: Example: Helping behaviour But are less likely to help people when not helping can be justified on race-neutral grounds: E.g., not having enough time 5. Derogation of minority group members who hold high status positions:

Privilege

Group privilege makes it easy for the privileged to see the disadvantages, the prejudices, the discrimination of the unprivileged group as not the concern of the privileged

Harmful vs. benign stigmas

1. Course (stability) 2. Concealability 3. Aesthetic Qualities 4. Origin - how the stigma came to be, the onset under the control of the stigmatized person. If so, ppl will feel more anger towards the group. If stigma is more controllable there will be less pitty 5. Danger - the more the group is considered dangerous, the more stigmatized they will be ie: mental illness. Some people believe someone with a certain illness or drug addiction is more dangerous

5 Psychological bases of modern symbolic prejudice

1. Mild to moderate anti-Black emotions (i.e., anxiety; dislike; resentment) 2. Belief in traditional values (i.e., hard work; individualism; self-reliance; self-restraint) 3. Low outcome-based egalitarianism (i.e., equality of opportunity vs. outcome) 4. Group self-interest 5. Little personal knowledge of Black people

3 Psychological underpinnings of aversive prejudice

1. People are predisposed to categorise others into in-groups and out-groups 2. People need to control the environment to ensure positive outcomes for themselves and their groups 3. People hold two incompatible sets of values: Implicit prejudice + Genuine belief in American ideals of fairness, justice, and equality - Conflict between these values leads to: Conflicting feelings about racial issues and members of minority groups Inconsistent behaviour toward members of those groups: People experiencing aversive prejudice will sometimes discriminate, sometimes not - Situational factors determine behaviour People won't discriminate in situations in which discrimination would be obvious Will discriminate when they can rationalize a negative response on the basis of some factor other than race

Why do people often express non-prejudiced attitudes but sometimes act in prejudiced ways?

1. Racial attitudes and the social norms regarding the expression of prejudice have changed 2. People continue to learn prejudiced beliefs through socialization

Theories of Prejudice and Discrimination

1. Scientific 2. Psychodynamic 3. Sociocultural 4. Cognitive 5. Evolutionary 6. Intergroup Relations

3 propositions of contemporary prejudice

1. There has been genuine change in social norms in favor of equality 2. Not everyone has accepted this change to the same degree 3. Even those people who have not fully accepted the change are motivated to act in non-prejudiced ways

Five interrelated beliefs of modern symbolic prejudice

1.Racial prejudice and discrimination no longer exist 2.Any remaining racial differences in outcomes result from Black people's lack of motivation to work hard 3. Because Black people are unwilling to work to get what they want, their continuing anger over inequality is unjustified 4.Rather than working to get ahead, Black people seek special favors 5. Relative to White people, Black people have been getting more than they deserve

Psychodynamic Theory

1920s to 1950s Proposes that universal psychological processes account for prejudice Processes presumed to be: Motivationally based Serve to strengthen one's self-esteem Prejudice viewed as a social problem caused by irrational and unjustifiable beliefs

Sociocultural Theory

1960s Culture provides stereotypes Stereotyping and prejudice tied to culture and structure of society i.e., Social Role Theory

Stereotype Lift

Information about group performance can provide a performance boost for members of nonstereotyped groups Members of nonstereotyped groups engage in downward social comparison Real-world implications Advantages in high-stakes testing, e.g., SAT and PSAT

Intergroup Relations Theory

1970s Prejudice derives from perceptions of competition with other groups Relative Deprivation Theory: Prejudice results from resentment when another group believed to receive more resources Social Identity Theory: People want to have a positive self-identity People can only achieve this goal by feeling positively about groups to which they belong Can do this by finding ways to distinguish one's group from others

Evolutionary Theory

1980s to present Behaviors stem from psychological mechanisms that evolved to allow survival Suspicion and fear of strangers protects people and communities from harm

Cognitive Theory

1980s to present Prejudice is viewed as universal and inevitable Stereotyping is a normal cognitive process that simplifies information stored in memory Simpler to think of all members in a group as similar

Response amplification

A behaviour toward a stigmatized person that is more extreme than behaviour toward non-stigmatized person Situational cues determine direction of the response amplification: If situation calls for positive behaviour, ambivalent prejudices leads to overly positive behaviour If situation calls for negative behaviour, ambivalent prejudices leads to overly negative behaviour

Affect misattribution procedure

A priming procedure Examines whether the affect (emotion) associated with a prime is transferred to a neutral stimulus

Correlation Coefficient

A statistic that describes the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables: -1 ≤ r ≥ 1 0 = no relationship -1 or 1 = perfect relationship Positive or negative sign indicates the direction of correlation: Positive: as scores on one variable go, scores on the other variable also go up Negative: as scores on one variable go up, scores on the other variable go down

Hypothetical constructs

Abstract concepts used in theories and studied in research Cannot be directly observed

Advantage and limitation of Implicit cognition measures

Advantage: low likelihood of social desirability response bias Limitation: can only show that one concept is more positively evaluated than another: Do not show absolute levels of prejudice E.g., difference could indicate more liking for one stimulus than another: Versus one stimulus is liked and the other is disliked

Beliefs about older adults

Age is a basic social category Categories of age-related stereotypes: Intolerance of others Health and physical appearance Personality traits Dejected Lack of interest in activity

Cognitive dissonance

Another way of looking at ambivalent attitudes Holds that: - People prefer their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours to be consistent - Inconsistencies lead to negative emotional state called cognitive dissonance People are motivated to reduce this dissonance Threats to self-image play no role

Characteristics of contemporary prejudices

Are expressed in ways that can be justified Are sometimes unconscious May be coupled with remnants of old-fashioned prejudices

Assessing prejudice

Attitude Questionnaires: Respondents rate the extent to which they agree or disagree with statements about groups Problem: can lead to socially desirable responding More subtle measures of prejudice try to avoid socially desirable responding Examples: Indicating resentment toward a group Are members of other groups seen as violating important values?

Prejudice

Attitude directed toward people because they are members of a specific social group -Based on emotion -Originates from several sources: Perceived threat Disgust of some groups Personality traits (e.g., right-wing authoritarianism) - Implicit prejudices: Reactions toward groups or individuals that occur automatically outside conscious awareness - Explicit prejudices: Attitudes that people are aware of and can easily control

Stereotypes

Beliefs and opinions about characteristics, attributes, and behaviors of members of groups: Come from shared beliefs that are part of culture Often contain a "kernel of truth" Are both descriptive and prescriptive Can sometimes be positive

Types of discrimination

Blatant: Unequal and harmful treatment that is intentional, visible, and easily documented Covert: Unequal and harmful treatment that is hidden, purposeful, often, maliciously motivated and is done in an attempt to assure failure for that individual Interpersonal: One person treats another person unfairly based on group membership Organizational: The practices, rules, and policies of formal organizations (e.g., corporations, government agencies) Have discriminatory outcomes Institutional: Norms, policies, and practices associated with a social institution result in different outcomes for members of different groups Cultural: One group retains the power to define the culture's value system

Modern-symbolic prejudice

Concept developed in early 1970s Set of beliefs about Black people as a group rather than as individuals Black people seen as morally inferior to White people because they supposedly violate traditional American values Contrasted with Old-fashioned Prejudice: Belief in the biological inferiority of Black people and the stereotypes of low intelligence, laziness, etc. Social change has led most White Americans to reject most aspects of old-fashioned prejudice as an explicit attitude

Operational definitions

Concrete representations of hypothetical constructs Are directly observable Predictions - restate hypotheses in terms of operational definitions

Stereotypes of lesbians and gay men

Cross over of gender-role expectations: - Gay men Are rated as more similar to heterosexual females than to heterosexual males Especially on physical characteristics and social roles - Lesbians Are seen as more similar to heterosexual men than to heterosexual women Sexual Orientation Hypothesis Prediction that people are more likely to believe feminine men are gay than to believe masculine women are lesbians Sexual orientation is stronger in gay men

Psychological disengagement

Defensive detachment of self-esteem from outcomes in a particular domain: Feelings of self-worth are not dependent on successes or failures in that domain Results in distancing of self from areas in which group expected to fail

Aversive prejudice

Describes the attitude of people who: -try to ignore the existence of minority group people -try to avoid contact with them -are at most polite, correct, and cold when interactions with minority group members cannot be avoided

Affective Priming Paradigm

Exposure to a member of a category activates concepts associated with that category Uses a prime - a stimulus (such as a picture of a person) associated with a stigmatized group versus a non-stigmatized group Dependent variable: Speed people recognize positive and negative words associated with the primes Faster response = stronger association

Modern sexism: hostile and benevolent sexism

Dimensions of Modern Sexism 1)Hostile sexism - negative beliefs Punishes nontraditional women Hostile sexist beliefs are discrimination part of the affect-discrimination paradox 2) Benevolent sexism - more positive beliefs Rewards traditional women Benevolent sexist beliefs are affection part of the affect-discrimination paradox Reward "appropriate" behaviour and punish "inappropriate" behaviour

Using multiple research strategies

Each strategy has advantages and limitations Therefore, if the results of studies that used different research strategies all point to the same conclusion, we can have high confidence in that conclusion

What is race

Early 17th century - very broad; any group of people with common features Late 17th/early 18th century onwards - narrowed; groups of people sharing common physical characteristics (especially skin colour) "Racialization" Necessary for the emergence of racism as an ideology Natural hierarchy of groups of people ("superior" vs. "inferior") Early 17th century - very broad; any group of people with common features Late 17th/early 18th century onwards - narrowed; groups of people sharing common physical characteristics (especially skin colour) "Racialization" Necessary for the emergence of racism as an ideology Natural hierarchy of groups of people ("superior" vs. "inferior")

The effects of self stereotyping

Endorsing ageist beliefs about oneself can lead to: Stereotype threat affecting performance on memory tests Higher levels of loneliness and worse subjective health Shorter life expectancy Endorsing positive stereotypes can improve older adults self-perceptions and behaviors

Ageism

Evaluative judgments about someone simply due to their advanced age Most people slow down with age: But middle and old age can bring stability and happiness When does old age begin? Young (ages 20 to 35) Middle aged (ages 35 to 60) Young-old (ages 60 to 75) Old-old (ages 75 to 85) Oldest-old (ages 85+) Primary aging vs secondary aging "successfully age"

Improving womens chances for success

Expose girls to role models Teach girls about gender-based occupational discrimination: Higher self-confidence Greater interest in pursuing science Let women know they can speak out against gender bias

Stigma of disability: attitudes towards pwds

Extent of stigma depends on a number of factors, such as whether or not the disability is: Concealable Aesthetically appealing Controllable Potentially dangerous College students' explicit attitudes are generally positive Attitudes vary by type of disability However, PWD's actual experiences don't match these reported positive attitudes

Stresssors of minority stress model

External Stressors Objective events which a stigmatized group member may or may not identify as acts of discrimination: Examples: micro-aggressions, bullying, violence Internal Stressors Stigmatized group members' expectation that they will be rejected because of group membership Internal and external stressors are interdependent Exposure creates a toxic environment that damages health and well-being Negative effects can be reduced for individuals who have good coping skills

Age based discrimination

Four areas in which discrimination against older adults is particularly acute: Under-representation in the media Discrimination in the workplace Language people use in conversation with older people Treatment of older adults in the health care system

Sexism

Gender Stereotypes Both descriptive and prescriptive Conveyed through media, parents, and peers

Types of Privilege

Group Privilege Unearned favored state conferred simply because of one's: Race, gender, social class, or sexual orientation Privilege for one group entails loss for other groups White Privilege Whites seldom consider how their race affects their daily life Whites, when learning about privilege, sometimes feel under attack: Other Types of Privilege Male Privilege Heterosexual Privilege Socio-economic Privilege Christian Privilege Ability (Able-bodied) Privilege

Ambivalent Prejudice

Holds that White Americans: Genuinely accept the principles of racial equality Have developed genuinely positive attitudes toward Black people: But those attitudes coexist with lingering negative attitudes Having both positive and negative beliefs about minority groups results in ambivalent attitudes and behaviour Situation cues these positive or negative beliefs

Theory and Application

If findings confirm hypotheses, researchers can have confidence in the accuracy of the theory: If results are inconsistent with theory, the theory must be revised When confident in accuracy, researchers can apply theories to real-life situations: E.g., interventions designed to reduce prejudice and discrimination Research can be conducted to: Evaluate the effectiveness of the application Improve the theory

Implicit cognition measures (IAT)

Implicit Association Test (IAT): Assesses extent to which unassociated concepts make responding more difficult -Uses Response Competition: Two responses compete against one another: a habitual response and an opposing response The stronger the habitual response, the longer it takes to suppress it and make the opposing response In prejudiced people, negative responses to a stigmatized group are more likely to be habitual and so take longer to suppress

Culture

Is a unique meaning and information system: - Shared by a group - Transmitted across generations Allows the group to: -Meet basic needs of survival -Pursue happiness and well-being -Derive meaning from life Culture influences stereotyping and prejudice because: -Group members hold beliefs in common -People operate within their cultural context but are often unaware of it -Cultural beliefs reinforce the use of social categories Stereotypic beliefs about social groups work to maintain social hierarchy

The male gender role

Judged more harshly in feminine roles than females are in masculine roles Hyper-masculinity: Men are expected to be strong and tough Not feminine Negative consequences: Low self-esteem Drug use Anti-gay prejudice Hostile and benevolent beliefs

Stereotype threat

Key Features: 1)It's a general process 2)It can affect everyone, even high status groups 3)Stems from situational pressures that bring the stereotype to mind, not merely from internalization of the stereotype 4)The nature of the threat varies by the context of the stereotype: - Stereotype threat operates by changing the way information is processed - Reduces working memory capacity - Most likely to occur when tasks are difficult or frustrating

Stigma by association

Members of the dominant group can receive a courtesy stigma when they associate with members of a stigmatized group Can have negative social consequences if a member of the dominant group associates with a stigmatized person

The experience and consequence of mental health illness discrimination

Mental illness is usually concealable and people often choose not to disclose it Many experience discrimination because of their mental illness However, experiences of fair treatment are also common Stigma decreases the chances that people who need help will seek treatment People with mental illness are less optimistic about the future

Three major theories of contemporary prejudice

Modern-symbolic prejudice Aversive prejudice Ambivalent prejudice

Gender stereotypes

Most fundamental aspect of gender belief system Two constellations of traits: Agentic - competence cluster that represent men's traits E.g., independent, strong, and self-confident Communal - warmth-expressive cluster that represents women's traits E.g., emotional, helpful, and kind Gender polarization Accuracy?

Communication between the pwds and the nondisabled

Most nondisabled individuals have had limited interactions with PWDs: Leads to uncertainty about how to interact Often leads to anxiety Leads to negative stereotypes Both nondisabled and disabled people feel awkward in social interactions that involve members of both groups

confronting sexism

Most women are generally inclined to confront sexism, but in reality most don't Confronting has negative and positive consequences for the confronter Negative - social costs Positive - competence, self-esteem, empowerment; reduced stereotype in perpetrators

the social consequences of anti-fat prejudice

Obese people are more likely to experience depression and low self-esteem Anti-fat prejudice is linked to eating disorders and obesity Overweight people experience employment discrimination at least some of the time

subtypes of women and men

Over 200 gender-associated subtypes have been identified: Occupation, family roles, ideologies, physical features, and sexuality People categorize subtypes by gender, then as traditional or modern, and finally by age When evaluating others, people distinguish between liking and respect Roles occupied by the person being rated affect one's ratings of being liked: Housewives are liked Businessmen are respected

Intersectionality

People belong to many social groups at once To fully understand how people are viewed, intersectional identities must be considered Intersectionality affects people's experiences

Recognising Discrimination

People compare their experiences to a set of expectations for what constitutes discrimination - Are more likely to claim discrimination if: 1)The behavior comes from an outgroup 2)They attribute negative treatment to an uncontrollable attribute 3) It is not masked by humor or flattery Individual differences - People who identify highly with their group are more likely to report discrimination -Possibly more sensitive to possible discrimination - Stigma consciousness

Appearance

People who are physically attractive enjoy many advantages People who are physically unattractive can experience prejudice and discrimination based solely on their appearance Benefits of Being Physically Attractive Physically attractive people have: More friends Better social skills A more active sex life Economic advantages Attractiveness only has a marginal effect on well-being and life satisfaction Preferences for the attractive result in lookism: Lookism - positive stereotypes, prejudice, and preferential treatment accorded to physically attractive people or, more generally, to people whose appearance matches cultural values

Personal/Group Discrimination Disrepancy

People's belief that their group, as a whole, is more likely to be discriminated against than they, themselves, are as individuals Explanations: -Cognitive A function of the way people process information People use different comparison standards to judge their own vs. group's level of discrimination -Motivational People have reasons for believing they are not personally discriminated against 1)Want to deny or minimize own experiences with discrimination 2)Distance themselves from the negative attributes associated with their group 3)Strong need to affiliate and bond with other people

Ability

Persons with disabilities (PWDs): Do not view themselves negatively Are just as likely to lead full and happy lives as are more able-bodied people Even so, prejudice and discrimination are a fact of life for PWDs Defining Disability Legal: Disability -physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities of an individual, a record of such an impairment, or being regarded as having such an impairment Disability is a social construct - results in Ableism

Ableism

Persons with disabilities experience ableism: A prejudice against or disregard for the needs of persons with disabilities Is created by social, political, and environmental obstacles that turn impairments into disabilities Creates handicaps in the PWD's environments

Scientific Racism

Prior to 1920s and into the 1930s The interpretation of research results to show minority groups in a negative light Tried to "prove" superiority of dominant group and justify status quo Prejudice was viewed as a natural response to "backward" peoples

Basic categories

Race Gender Age

Stereotype content model and ageism

Reflect the stereotype content model: Older adults are seen as low on competence, but high on warmth Benevolent ageism - older adults are thought to be kind, but also in need of care: Weak but wonderful

Research Strategies

Research strategy: General approach to doing research Defined in terms of how data are collected Strategies most commonly used in prejudice research: Correlational studies Experiments Ethnographic studies Content analysis Meta-analysis

Fear of Death and Dying

Research suggests older adults do not fear death or deny it but for younger people, fear of death makes aging threatening Younger people cope with this threat by distancing themselves from older adults Based on Terror Management Theory Fear of Death of the Self Older people fear death of the self: Deterioration of physical appearance and abilities To cope, older adults promote a positive self-image

Correlation Studies

Researchers measure two or more variables and look for relationships among them Surveys are a common example

Content analysis

Researchers study products people create: E.g., documents, photographs, and works of art Themes are identified to understand the topics being studied

Experiments

Researchers take steps to ensure that the three criteria for causality are met Can then determine if one variable caused another variable to change Independent variable = proposed cause: - Researchers manipulate the independent variable by creating two or more conditions Dependent variable = proposed effect Laboratory experiments: Research carried out in a highly controlled environment High control but also high artificiality Field experiments: Research carried out in a natural setting: As much control as possible maintained High naturalism (low artificiality) but low control Individual difference variables: Nonmanipulated variables (e.g., personality traits, attitudes) Cannot draw causal conclusions for nonmanipulated variables: Manipulated variables can also be part of these studies

Gender Belief System

Set of beliefs about men and women The traits and roles they should possess Perceptions of role violators Learning begins early and continues throughout life Encompasses stereotype content, attitudes toward roles for men and women, and perceptions of those who violate expectations

Heterosexism and sexual prejudice

Sexual stigma (societal level): Negative regard, inferior status, and relative powerlessness that society collectively accords to any non-heterosexual behavior, identity, relationship, or community Stigmatized at the societal level through laws Sexual prejudice (personal level): Negative attitudes based on sexual orientation Stigmatized at the personal level through others' anti-gay prejudice

Self report vs psysiological and implicit

There are relatively low correlations between scores on self-report measures and scores on physiological and implicit measures Why does the low correlation exist? Each type of measure assesses somewhat different things: People can control responses on self-report measures Responses to physiological and implicit measures are automatic and so are more difficult to control Difference in type of response assessed leads to low correlation even though all are measures of prejudice

mental illness

Stereotypes about people with mental illness include that they are: Withdrawn Depressed Tense Unpredictable Dangerous Aggressive Attitudes toward mental illness are more negative than attitudes toward physical disabilities

Why is anti-fat prejudice acceptable

The attribution-value model proposes that prejudice is directed toward social groups that have characteristics seen as contrary to majority group values

Women are wonderful effect

The basic category "woman" is viewed more positively than the basic category "man"

stigma of disability: anxiety about interacting with pwds

The nondisabled experience two types of anxiety: 1) Aesthetic anxiety - fears engendered by people whose appearance deviates markedly from the usual human form or includes physical traits regarded as unappealing Based in cultural beliefs about PWDs Leads to shunning those who are physically unattractive 2) Existential anxiety - perceived threat that a disability could interfere with functional capacities deemed necessary to the pursuit of a satisfied life: Leads to the belief that PWDs are helpless and dependent Anxiety due to uncertainty about unstructured social encounters

women in the workplace

The number of women in higher education and the workplace continues to increase But many jobs remain gender segregated Leads to sticky floor - traditionally female jobs do not offer many advancements Women in professional jobs often reach the glass ceiling - an invisible barrier that prevents them from reaching the highest levels Women navigate a labyrinth The obstacles that women face have become more surmountable Paths to the top exist as some women find the paths to success: But they can be difficult to discover and they can be circuitous

Variables & Postulates

Theories organize knowledge by proposing links among variables: Variable - a characteristic on which people differ Postulates - links among variables proposed by theories

Discrimination-affective paradox

Women are viewed positively but still experience discrimination Gender-based prejudice is still widespread: Affects women more negatively than men: i.e., wage gap inadequate health care, lack of access to education, missing girls & women

What is race?

Three false assumptions: -That biological differences are equal to cultural differences; -That biological makeup determines the cultural achievements of a group; and -That biological makeup limits the type of culture a group can develop.

Tokenism

Token status occurs when: There is a preponderance of one group over another, and only a few members from the "other" group are represented Majority group members can have stigmatizing experiences from being a minority in a particular context Three perceptual tendencies affect tokens 1) Visibility - tokens capture awareness because of their uniqueness 2)Contrast - differences between token and dominant group are exaggerated 3)Assimilation - members of dominant group distort token's characteristics to fit the stereotype Actions of token are seen as representative of the entire group Tokens may feel isolated Can lead to a chilly climate

Discrimination

Treating people differently from others based primarily on membership in a group Can be verbal or behavioral Occurs on various levels in society: From the individual to the cultural

Stereotype content of ambivalent attitudes

Two aspects of stereotypes: warmth and competence - People like groups perceived as warm and respect groups perceived as competent - Stereotypes can have mixed content: E.g., group is friendly (warm) but lazy (not competent) leads to mixed, ambivalent emotions

Value systems of ambivalent attitudes

Two sets of American values: Individualism: Emphasizes personal responsibility, hard work as the means to success, and self-reliance Egalitarianism: Belief that all people should be treated equally and people have a responsibility to help disadvantaged others

Role congruity theory

Two types of prejudice prevent women from pursuing high-level positions Belief that women are less likely than men to be successful in leadership roles Can prevent women from seeking high-level jobs and from being selected for them when they do seek them Higher probability of women receiving negative evaluations if in jobs Female leaders violate expectations about what: Leaders should be like Women should be like

Ethnographic Studies

Uses qualitative data collection techniques to understand how people experience and interpret events in their daily lives Examples include: Observation of events Interviews Ethnographic research emphasizes: Studying behaviour in context in which it occurs Naturalism over control Understanding events from the participants' points of view

Validity

Validity refers to a measure's consistency: Does it assess the characteristic it is intended to assess? Does it assess all aspects of that characteristic? Does it assess only that characteristic (and not something else)? Social Desirability Response Bias: People's tendency to give socially desirable responses Reduces the validity of a measure Assessed by collecting a variety of research evidence, including: (1) Convergent evidence - degree to which scores on a measure correlate with scores on measures of related characteristics and behaviours (2) Discriminant evidence - extent to which a measure does not assess characteristics that it is not supposed to assess: For example, social desirability response bias

Sources of Ambivalent Attitudes

Value systems and Stereotype content

Minority Stress Model

Vulnerability to Stress -Chronic experience of prejudice or major individual incidences of prejudice can produce chronic stress associated with disease -Stigmatized groups members also experience non-normative life events that produce high levels of stress Situational factors unrelated to one's minority group membership are sources of general stress that affect people's well-being - Examples: job loss, illness, or death of a loved one Minorities experience additional stressors

Behavioral compensation

When people expect to be discriminated against, can compensate by changing behavior to disconfirm stereotype Members of stigmatized groups must overcome added burdens As levels of prejudice increase, higher levels of compensation are required Ability to compensate depends on -Demands of prejudice-related situation must not be so high that person cannot overcome them -Person must acquire skills needed for compensation: -May be unintended consequences - misjudging requirements of situation

Women in faculty roles

Women in professional roles face a double bind in the fact that perceptions of a female faculty member are: Similar to male gender role Different from the female gender role Women can and do meet the demands of the leadership role But resolving the double bind is not easy: Being too similar to a man can actually work against a woman She then violates the expectations of her own gender role

When does old age begin?

Young (20-35); middle age (35-60), young-old (60-75), old-old (75-85) and oldest-old (85 and older; Erber, 2013).

Unobtrusive measures

behavioural measures that appear to have nothing to do with prejudice and discrimination Examples include: Helping another person Maintaining distance from another person

Principled conservatism

characterized by endorsement of politically conservative beliefs, such as individualism and the importance of social advancement solely on the basis of merit along with low scores on implicit prejudice