Student Journalist Skills

Define the elements of a "hard news" story.

"Hard news" articles are factual, time-sensitive accounts of recent events. These stories generally appear in the first few pages of the newspaper's national, local, and sports sections.

Primary Sources

-a person who has direct knowledge of a situation or who actively participated in the event. Provide essential information (the "who," "what," "when," "where," and "why") that will appear in a news story's opening paragraphs. Investigative journalists also use archives of public records as primary sources.

Direct quote (discuss appropriate usage in news story)

-an exact, word-for-word report of what a person says. Always placed within quotation marks. Quotes enliven a news story and make it more attractive to readers. However, they should only be used when they add color and humanity to the reporting. Devoting several paragraphs to a single quote can lessen the impact of a story and risks turning the news article into a transcript.

Define a catchline, and discuss its role in publication design.

A catchline is an abbreviated title that appears above a photo cutline (and below the photograph). The goal of a catchline is to be creative with two or three words and attract the reader's attention.

Define "conflict of interest," and give reasons for avoiding it in journalism.

A conflict of interest occurs when a reporter or editor has a connection to a story or issue that might influence how they write and cover the story. Some conflicts of interest are obvious (e.g., a reporter who owns stock in a company as part of the business beat). However, conflicts also can arise from personal relationships or off-work activities. For example, most news organizations ban journalists from political involvement. In cases of unavoidable conflict, journalists should disclose them in order to avoid bias and protect their credibility.

Describe why a narrative approach can be effective in writing a feature story.

A narrative, also described as storytelling, features a story with a definite beginning, middle, and end; the reporter includes anecdotes and dialogue that build the story to a satisfying conclusion. Quotes within the story sound realistic, without the canned recitation of a press release. Narration focuses on the people in the story, and their words and actions reveal their motives. This writing style works better with a feature story than with breaking news because of the time required to develop the narrative structure.

Provide an example of an ethical manipulation of images in news publications

A photograph that incorporates special techniques to enhance the presentation of a fireworks display is considered an ethical manipulation, provided the graphic is marked clearly as a photo-illustration. Other permissible special techniques include the use of a telephoto lens or fish-eye lens for photographs.

Define and indirect quote and discuss its use in a news story

An indirect quote does not reproduce exactly a person's remarks, but it is faithful to the meaning of the remarks. Using indirect quotes in tandem with direct quotes can help maintain the flow and narrative of a news article.

Define bias, and discuss why journalists should avoid bias in their work

Bias in journalism refers to conscious (or unconscious) decisions to cover certain stories, or the manner in which journalists produce stories for publication. As a practical matter, reporters cannot mention everything in a story. One of the skills of journalism is the ability to synthesize information; specifically, the reporter must discern between the essential facts to include and the unimportant filler omit. Journalists should seek out both sides of a news story and avoid any perceptions of conflict of interest, as this will undermine the standards of the profession.

Define "citizen journalism," and discuss its role in a newspaper.

Citizen journalism refers to the collection of news and information by individuals without formal journalism training. Examples of citizen journalism include photos taken with a camera phone at a breaking-news scene, and blogs that cover local issues.

Describe clarity, and discuss reasons for its importance in journalism

Clarity attracts a reader's attention and maintains his or her interest throughout the entire article. Student reporters can develop this skill by writing with an active voice, fostering curiosity regarding the world around them, and presenting the information they gather without filters or preconceptions.

Describe brevity, and discuss why it is essential to journalistic writing.

Consumers of printed and electronic media increasingly are pressed for time. They also have many more options for getting their news. As a result, consumers likely will ignore a poorly written story that meanders or fails to maintain its essential focus.

Explain reasons for the use of copyediting symbols in journalism

Copyediting symbols serve as a kind of shorthand when editing a news story. In a deadline environment, a copyeditor can mark corrections quickly on a hard copy by using these symbols (e.g., a period with a circle around it means "insert period at the end of a sentence"). Reporters then can incorporate these changes into the final version of the story.

Describe critical thinking, and discuss reasons why such thinking is important in publishing a student newspaper.

Critical thinking can be viewed as a problem-solving skill. As such, critical thinking involves analyzing and evaluating information and then applying that information with clarity, accuracy, and consistency. When a newspaper staff discusses story ideas, critical thinking is an important step in creating the final product readers will see. Editors and reporters must analyze ideas for their overall audience appeal. They then must determine whether they can gather sufficient relevant information for the story and formulate a plan to complete each story by that issue's deadline.

Explain how journalists use databases as sources of information

Databases are organized collections of information often categorized according to content (e.g., bibliographic, statistical, document-text). In order to find relevant information quickly, journalists should set clear definitions for their search subjects. A search can be expressed as a statement or question. If more than one concept is included, use "or" to combine terms representing the same idea. Use "and" to combine different sets of terms representing that idea. Evaluating information is an important step; even a library database such as Lexis-Nexus includes articles written with a certain amount of bias. The accuracy of research sources depends on the publisher of the material and whether an author's work is critiqued for accuracy.

Give an example of unethical manipulation of an image.

Digitally altering a photo by removing and/or adding elements to the original (e.g., photoshopping) is considered unethical if the changes are not noted in the caption/cutline.

Define editorializing, and discuss reasons for avoiding it in a news story.

Editorializing occurs when reporters insert their own opinions into a news story. Such opinions should be limited to the editorial section of a newspaper, and they should be labeled clearly as such. Opinions expressed in a straight news story should be limited to quotes from sources or persons interviewed for that story. Such quotes add interest and flavor to a news article; however, reporters should be sure to include both sides of the story or issue.

Describe the elements of a feature news article and analysis.

Feature stories, also known as "soft news," are longer-form articles and profiles about people, issues, and events. Analysis examines the reactions and impact of a hard-news story.

Describe the elements of good journalistic writing

Good journalistic writing features short sentences and paragraphs, the use of active verbs, and the avoidance of jargon and vague words. Writers should keep their own opinions out of the story, and the instructor should promote the use of correct grammar and journalism style (e.g., Associated Press style). Other important skills include the ability to revise and edit copy with appropriate proofreading and copyediting symbols.

Explain why journalists should eliminate jargon as much as possible when creating a news story.

Jargon is language used by people who work in a particular field or share a common interest. While people within each specific field understand these terms, such terms often are meaningless to the typical newspaper reader. When writing a story, journalists must consider their audience. Baseball writers do not need to write out "runs batted in," because they know their audience is aware of the abbreviation "RBI." However, including the term "rightsize" in a story about a factory closing obscures the fact that people have lost their jobs because of the closing. Journalists always should strive to write explicitly and precisely.

Define the characteristics that make the World Wide Web an effective medium for journalism

Journalism on the World Wide Web has several advantages: capacity, flexibility, permanence, immediacy, and interactivity. Online forms of journalism can present far more information than can be shown on television. In addition, online journalism disseminates information far more quickly than can a newspaper. Online journalism is also a medium of convergence. A variety of styles and formats can co-exist on a Web site, and it can accommodate traditional media formats (e.g., text, photographs, graphics, audio, and video).

Describe the concept of freewriting, and discuss how this technique can help a journalist

Journalists can use freewriting to work through writer's block. This technique involves writing for a set time about any subject as quickly as possible, without concern for transition, proper punctuation, or grammar. While the result will lack sufficient polish for publication, it can help collect initial thoughts and ideas. Creative writers and writing teachers use freewriting more frequently than do journalists because of the time constraints faced by the latter. Nonetheless, journalists can benefit from the exercise by using it to get in "writing mode."

Describe some effective interview techniques for student journalists.

Journalists depend on interviews to obtain the information necessary to write their stories. Preparing for the interview is critical; if a reporter lacks basic knowledge of his or her subject, the subject quickly will realize the reporter's lack of knowledge and will be less likely to cooperate. Walking into an interview with a basic list of questions is a good idea. Further, be prepared to adapt to improvise if the response to a question opens different line of inquiry. Listen carefully to each response and try to avoid thinking ahead to the next question. You may miss some important information. Another important skill is to ask open-ended questions (e.g., questions that begin with "Why...," "How...," or "Tell me about..."). These sorts of questions allow the interviewee to give a full answer that includes their knowledge and feelings. Avoid questions that can be answered with a simple "Yes" or "No".

Explain online convergence and its relevance for student journalists.

Newspaper readership has declined consistently over the past ten years. People are still interested in current events, but they are more likely to access news online via their computers or smartphones rather than read a newspaper. Online convergence refers to the concept of posting content over a wide variety of media. Newspaper reporters may tape audio or video reports with comments on a blog. Broadcast journalists may post written material for their station's site, accompanied by the graphics and video that appeared in the original story.

Explain how journalists can use the Internet as an information source.

Online research can serve as a good first step when researching a story. However, journalists should keep in mind that anyone with access to an Internet server could upload material to the Web. As such, journalists should examine online information closely for accuracy. Articles from scholarly journals likely are reputable, since most journals require all articles to undergo peer review by experts in the field. Relying on blogs or personal websites can be risky, nonetheless; the quality and reliability of such sites can vary greatly.

Describe persuasive writing and its relevance to writing a news story.

Persuasive writing takes a position for or against an issue. As such, it attempts to convince a reader to take action. This style is not a relevant choice for writing a straight news story, since the objective of straight news is to present both sides of an issue or an event without including a reporter's personal opinion. However, persuasive writing is useful when writing an editorial. In this context, reporters can make an effective case for their point of view by presenting facts to back up their opinions.

Define plagiarism, and describe how to recognize it within a news story

Plagiarism is defined as using the language, thoughts, and ideas of another author without proper credit. The key to recognizing plagiarism lies in knowing the difference between information considered common knowledge versus original ideas put forth by other writers. Poor handling of sources can be confused with plagiarism. Journalism instructors should emphasize correct procedures for quoting, paraphrasing, and citation.

List the design and presentation concepts introduced by yellow journalism.

Publishers who emphasized yellow journalism (such as Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst) were obsessed with increasing the circulation of their newspapers. To attract attention, these papers emphasized large illustrations on their front pages. They also were among the first newspapers to print Sunday supplements in color. In addition, they used comic strips, games, and contests to lure more readers.

Describe the proper manner of citing sources in a news story.

Reporters should identify specifically all sources within a news story, including name (and title, if applicable). Furthermore, reporters should attribute quotes to the one who provided the quote. Such attribution should be clear. Reporters also should specify the manner in which they obtained information from the source (e.g., face-to-face interview, telephone conversation, e-mail reply).

Define secondary sources and their use in journalism

Secondary sources evaluate and interpret information obtained through a primary source. When a government document is issued (for example, the monthly U.S. job report and unemployment rate), journalists often seek out economists and employment experts to explain the numbers and analyze what changes in those numbers mean. Reporters must use care with secondary sources. Many sources interpret information through their own biases, which can distort the facts and undermine the objectivity that is a hallmark of good journalism.

Explain how time constraints differ between print journalism and non-print journalism.

Simply put, print reporters lack time and space; broadcast reporters lack time and time. Deadlines exist in print journalism because presses must begin printing the paper at a specific time. Because delaying a press run is costly and inefficient, all stories must be written and edited prior to printing. The amount of space assigned to a story also requires the reporter to determine what to include in a story (and what to leave out). Deadlines are even more arbitrary in broadcast journalism. A news program cannot begin 15 minutes late, since such a delay would affect the start time for all subsequent programming. A reporter in the field often must go with the facts they have at the start of the broadcast, since there is not sufficient time to obtain additional information.

Explain why reporters should evaluate news sources.

Sources are a lifeline for journalists; without them, reporters would not have access to the information they need to write stories and meet deadlines. At the same time, reporters carefully must cultivate and evaluate their sources. Reporters and their sources have a complicated relationship. Sources may have their own agenda, and they often will attempt to use journalists to present their own point of view to the public. Reporters must understand this tendency and must test the accuracy of any information passed along by sources.

Define stored sources, personal sources, and observational sources, and discuss how reporters utilize these types of sources.

Stored sources are information found in written or electronic files. Reporters use stored sources in the early stages of developing a story; these kinds of sources are helpful especially when researching an investigative article. Personal sources are people who provide journalists with information. These sources are important because timely information is essential for an effective news story. Observational sources refer to information journalists witness in the course of their reporting. Sports stories frequently employ observational sourcing, in which a reporter will explain the ebb and flow of a basketball game, for example.

Explain how the writing of a column differs from the writing of a "straight" news story.

Straight news involves basic reporting; e.g., covering an issue and telling readers what happened. Columnists, by contrast, are essentially opinion writers. They tend to have a regular following of readers who feel they can gain knowledge and insight from the columnist's work. Although often perceived as more interesting than writing straight news, writing a column also proves a more challenging style of writing. Writing a good column involves more than just expressing an opinion. It requires clear thinking and the ability to present the columnist's "case" to the readers. The columnist's opinions must be insightful, convincing, and entertaining.

Define the skills a student journalist should learn.

Student journalists should be able to use language correctly and follow the rules of grammar, punctuation, and spelling. They also must maintain accuracy and pay attention to detail. This attention involves checking the spelling of every name used in a story and wording direct quotations with precision. In addition, a good reporter must possess skepticism. He or she should question sources for possible motives or agendas, and the reporter should verify information by comparing it with other information he or she has gathered and received.

Define some of the factors that affect media coverage

Students must be mindful of how business decisions affect media coverage and how online content has changed the role of journalism in contemporary society. Material obtained online also raises questions regarding accuracy, legitimacy, and copyright issues. The mere fact that content appears online does not mean it is in the public domain and can be used without permission.

Explain the role of an editor of a student newspaper, and describe some of the skills they must possess.

The editor of a student newspaper likely will have spent at least one year on the staff. Accordingly, previous experience as a reporter, photographer, and/or copy editor is helpful. Student editors should have a good grasp of leadership, collaborative, and interpersonal skills. They must also have an excellent command of the language. If reporters file stories with incorrect language or style, then editors must recognize and be willing to change the material or demand that the reporter change it. A broad base of knowledge is essential for an editor; it allows him or her to put events in perspective. A good editor must love the language and how to use it.

Describe the hourglass approach to writing a news story.

The hourglass approach to writing a news story presents a hybrid of the narrative and the inverted-pyramid formats. The first part of the story employs the inverted pyramid format to communicate the basic facts. Next comes the "turn," a transitional device that introduces the narrative and gives the article a structured beginning, middle, and end. As is the case with a narrative, the hourglass works best when reporters have time to develop a story beyond the basics. This approach is particularly effective with subjects that lend themselves to chronological telling (e.g., criminal trials, police stories, etc). The advantage of the hourglass format are that readers can ascertain the facts quickly, and journalists can tell a story creatively rather than merely reciting facts.

Explain why the inverted pyramid is the best format for effective news writing.

The inverted pyramid is a concise style of news writing characterized by presenting information in order from the most important factor to the least important. This style is also known as the "Five W's" because the opening paragraph includes the "who, what, when, where, and why" of the story. This writing style is convenient for time-pressed readers; such as, even I the consumer does not read the article to its conclusion, the article includes sufficient detail for the reader to comprehend the information. Placing less-important facts at the end of the story also allows for quick editing without losing the main points of the story.

Define the advantages and disadvantages of the inverted-pyramid format in journalism

The inverted pyramid is a standard journalism format because it does two things very well: it quickly tells the reader what has happened, and it helps the reporter focus on key facts and identify them within the first few paragraphs. On the other hand, the inverted pyramid does not lend itself to distinctive writing. This characteristic represents one of the drawbacks of this format for journalistic writing. The reporter may not have time to explain and support the opening paragraphs. In addition, space reasons are more likely to dictate deletion of information at the end of a story. Without the motivation to craft the article completely, reporters can fail to sustain their original momentum in many inverted-pyramid stories.

Explain the concepts of an effective lead for a newspaper story

The lead (also spelled "lede") comprises the first few sentences of a news story. A well-written lead is critical for attracting the reader's attention. It functions as the hook that will compel the reader to continue and read the entire article. A lead should include the essential facts, with each sentence and paragraph building upon the last. The lead should avoid vague language and secondary details: instead, it should emphasize active verbs that convey energy and action.

Define the role of advocacy in mass media

The mass media (which now includes online sources such as blogs, videos, and podcasts) can advocate for business concerns or social issues. The goal of social-issue advocacy is to influence public policy. Examples include ads to help elect political candidates or campaigns to improve health and safety. On the business side, companies use advertising to increase awareness and sales of specific products, and then they often employ marketing and public relations campaigns to improve the public perception of a given product or industry.

Describe the concepts that make a journalism story newsworthy.

The most important factors in making a story newsworthy are timeliness, significance, proximity, and prominence. In a digital world, readers are accustomed to continuous news updates, so a story must be current and relevant. Readers are not interested in week-old news. A story that affects a large number of people attracts a large number of people attracts a larger audience. Events that occur near a reader's hometown (or cover a shared experience like a football game) will also prove more newsworthy. Finally, events that involve politicians, celebrities, and other people of note demand more coverage.

Explain the relationship between editors and reporters.

The relationship between editors and reporters can be confrontational. Editors must give reporters sufficient freedom to do their jobs and exercise their best judgment regarding stories they choose and the manner in which they write their stories. At the same time, and editor must maintain the publication's standards. Editors have the final say regarding how the publication appears to the public.

Provide an example of the limits that student journalists face in using material found on the Internet

Time constraints are unavoidable in the field of Journalism. Reporters who access information online (e.g., text or a cartoon graphic) cannot use the material without proper credit. If time constraints prevent the reporter from obtaining the necessary permission prior to deadline, the material cannot be used. Listing a "pending" copyright notice with the online material can be interpreted as a violation of copyright law. Remember that the online source of the material may not be the actual copyright holder.

Explain how journalists use the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) to uncover fraud and corruption.

Under the FOIA, journalists make requests to obtain records of the operations and performance of the federal government. All states have their own version of the federal law (e.g., "Open Records Act," "Right to Know Act"), and state law often covers records at the city, county, or other local levels. The law requires a response to FOIA requests within 10 days. In reality the actual response time is often much longer since more than 600,000 requests are made each year. Despite bureaucratic obstacles, the FOIA has allowed journalists to examine millions of documents and has compelled government to be more accessible and accountable to its citizens.

Provide examples of common types of plagiarism

Using a complete sentence or significant phrase verbatim and with credit constitutes cut-and-paste plagiarism. Writers should set off such content with quotation marks and identify the source. Lifting complete paragraphs and merely switching around a few words also constitutes plagiarism.

Explain why journalism products should respond to all audience segments.

With different backgrounds and learning styles, high-school students reflect myriad changes in society. This diversity will influence how they use--and interact with--media, and how they develop their communication skills. From a practical standpoint, addressing all audience segments also improves the long-term viability of a journalism product. Future readers and viewers will demand attention to the issues and events important to them.

Define leading lines and discuss their use in photo composition.

Within a photographic image, leading lines lead the eye to another point in the photo. Some examples of possible leading lines in photographs include a winding road, a path in the forest, or a fence that carries out to the horizon. By attracting the viewer's eye to different points within the image, leading lines can help create a powerful composition that attracts the viewer's eye. Leading lines often work in conjunction with the rule of thirds, which divides the total image into nine distinct areas.

Define yellow journalism, and describe how it exposed the dangers of ignoring ethical principles in reporting and editing

Yellow journalism, which peaked in the 1890s, was a style of writing and presentation that distorted and exaggerated its content in order to create controversy and increase sales. Yellow journalism had its genesis in New York City newspapers owned by Joseph Pulitzer (New York World) and William Randolph Hearst (New York Journal). Pulitzer and Hearst were engaged in a fierce circulation war. In order to lure more readers, reporters at the aforementioned papers replaced factual news stories with highly opinionated articles featuring fabricated interviews and large, misleading headlines. While the worst excesses of yellow journalism had faded by the early 20th-century, the era serves as a reminder that promotion and sensationalism are a threat to the trust inherent in daily journalism.