T3 Eco

How do C pools change following disturbance through the course of primary succession

Plant and soil C pools increase and level off

How effective is ocean fertalization

in the best case, only a small fraction of new primary production would be exported to deep ocean

Diverse animal communities lower disease spread (lyme disease)

-mouse=best host -squirrels/lizards=worst host bc they dilute virus -ground predators reduce mice -areas with diverse animal communities have less lyme disease (which costs 1.3 billion to treat annually)

Is the biological pump and a + or - feedback on climate

+

Forest Protection as a flexibility mechanism concerns

- Ethical concerns that if used as an "offset", forest protection allows local emissions (and pollution) to continue - There are trade-offs with other uses, for instance forest protection could result in a loss of logging jobs

Disadvantages of ecosystem services

- Ethical issues: "existence value" of a species? What happens when species are too costly? - Which species/places are most important?

Forest Protection as a flexibility mechanism benefits

- Protects biodiversity - Often cheaper to protect forests than to invest in large-scale energy efficiency technology

How to create stabilizing feedback, lowering soil N availability?

-C additions cause burst in microbial activity • High C:N ratio substrate causes microbes to immobilize soil nutrients • Lower soil inorganic N availability to plants • Puts fast-growing (low N- use efficiency), exotic species at a disadvantage • Favors slower-growing native species

Principles of management: adaptive capacity (flexibility to adjust mgmt plan based on new information)

-Example: water provisioning -Each year, major dams in the W. US decide how much water to release downstream and when, instead of having one set release time and amount. This allows them to balance water provisioning with conservation goals

NPP and succession

-It initially increases due to species replacements, N inputs -declines following canopy closure

Positive vs Negative phase of the calanus finmarchicus

-Negative NAO phase Weaker winds in spring strengthened spring phytoplankton bloom (higher light on average), cooler temperatures favor C. finmarchicus -Positive NAO phase Stronger winds in spring weakened spring phytoplankton bloom (lower light on average), warmer temperatures negatively affect C. finmarchicus

Advantages of ecosystem services

-allow comparison of different management options using a common currency -its surprising how much intact ecosystems are worth to society, over and above the extractive value of their goods

Examples of ecosystem services

-catskill mountains watersheds provide NYC drinking water -tourism -coffee (grown in high biodiversity areas)

Atlantic cod theory

-collapse due to technological innovations allowing efficient harvest -dominance in system by dogfish which is preventing population rebound of cod

limitations of species distribution models

-competition might limit establishment -assume individuals can disperse -lots of barriers to dispersal (mountains, highways, canyons,...)

Examples of regime shift

-corals and microalgae in Jamaica -Atlantic cod -invasive grasses in american west

Vultures in india

-farmers used diclofenac to treat fever in livestock, however, vultures consumed dead livestock causing them to get renal failure which resulted in death of vultures. Feral dog population increased and rabies killed many people. Estimated cost of 3 vulture species lost is 24 billion

Modern climate models advantages

-higher spatial resolution -represent more physical, chemical, and environmental processes -include biology and ecology on land/water -leverage considerable intellectual and computational advances -have been vetted (evaluated) for decades

Principles of management: Landscape perspective

-land-water interactions -ex: deforestation upstream often increases streamflow and lowers water quality by increasing sediment -mangroves buffer tropical coastal ecosystems from storms/erosion

Secondary succesion details

-less severe disturbances leave some organisms intact -plants can re-sprout from seedbank Ex: fire, hurricane, pest outbreaks

Principles of management: maximize resilience (ability to rebound following a disturbance)

-maintaining diversity -species diversity: stability through redundancy, insurance hypothesis -genetic diversity: allows them to evolve when conditions change

Value of pollination services

-many food crops rely on animal pollinators -and these pollinators rely on intact forests for habitat -bee pollination from nearby forests increase coffee yields by 15-20%

In the winter the surface cools causing ______. Nutrients then decrease in the summer due to ____

-mixed layer deepening and more nutrients to surface -consumption by phytoplankton and shallow mixed layers that limit vertical supply

6 ways organisms respond to climate change

-move in space -move in time -change behavior -acclimate (change physiology, not DNA) -evolve (change DNA, not physiology) -change in fitness and abundunce

Management for sustainability

-not management for a single product or species -maintain multiple economic goals -addresses interactions between social and ecological processes (mark areas as research zones, preservation zones, fishing zones,...) Ex: douglas fir

Light and Photosynthesis/Photoinhibition

-photosynthesis increases with light, however, at high levels of light photosynthesis can saturate and decline (photoinhibiton)

Things that increase C storage in soil

-reduced/no tillage -use of cover crops (using N fixing crops) -planting crops with high root allocation -organic matter amendments

Sources of uncertainty for climate projections

-scale/resolution -imperfect understanding of natural processes -natural climate variability -unknown future emissions

primary succession details

-severe disturbances remove most living organisms -colonization far from seed source -ex: glaciers, volcano

Properties of disturbance regimes

-severity (amt of organic material removed) -intensity (energy released per unit area/time) -frequency (often or rare) -type (fire, glacier, storm) -size/pattern (small patches or whole landscape) -Timing (soon after another disturbance or many years undisturbed)

Why trust physical climate projections?

-theres confidence that models provide credible quantitative estimates of future climate change. This confidence comes from 1. The foundation of the models lie in accepted physical principles 2. from their ability to reproduce observed features of current climate and past climate changes

Draw a graph showing the trade-off between fast growth and stress tolerance in primary vs secondary colonizers

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Graphs of primary vs Secondary succession

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Know how to draw the seasonal cycles of light, nutrients, temp, and chlorophyll for a subpolar location in the North Atlantic

.

Phosphate graph (nutrient amount vs depth)

.

Ecosystem response to disturbance depends on

4 R's resistance: tendency to not change response: magnitude of change resilience: rate of return to original state recovery: extend of return to original state

Which of the following is true about Solar Radiation Management (SRM)? A. Reducing solar radiation is likely to change photosynthetic rates among plants and phytoplankton B. Reducing solar radiation has been widely tested and studied; the technology is ready to be implemented on a large scale C. SRM directly combats ocean acidification D. The impacts of SRM on the hydrological cycle are well understood

A

W hich would increase resilience of lakes experiencing high P loading (pick all that are correct)? A. Macrophytes growing on the lake bottom B. Zooplankton that consume harmful phytoplankton blooms C. Addition of nitrogen D. Fish stocking

A and B

Ecosystem based approach to managing sustainable fisheries (krill)

A group decides how much krill can be harvested each year in the international waters around antartica. -They decided to lower the harvest amt by 25% in order to maintain critical food source for whales

species distribution models

A) use data on current distribution and correlate with environmental data B) predict future environment and newly sustainable habitat C) Assume that species will move to newly suitable areas

T or F: A. El Niño warm phase events occur every 2-8 years on average B. The climate impacts associated with ENSO are felt on a global scale C. During El Niño years, southern California tends to experience wetter winters, on average D. During a La Niña, the tropical Pacific is warmer than normal

A-true B-true C-true D-false

T or F (and if true what region) A. Stratification increases, nutrient delivery to surface decreases, primary production decreases, export production decreases B. Stratification increases, nutrient delivery to surface decreases, primary production increases, export production increases

A: true in subtropics B: true in subpolar

T of F A. Deep ocean (>1000m) temperatures are increasingly rapidly B. Deep ocean (>1000m) pH is decreasing rapidly C. Surface ocean (<700m) heat content is increasing D. Earth surface temperature changes have been greatest over the oceans

A=F B=F C=T D=F

T or F A. Climate models have significant uncertainty tied to scale/resolution, natural climate variability, imperfect understanding of natural processes, and unknown future emissions B. Climate models can provide accurate forecasts of weather events in the distant future C. Climate models have been used to simulate observed long-term and broad-scale changes in Earth's climate over the past century

A=T B=F C=T

Ocean fertilization method

Adding iron and other nutrients to nutrient deficient areas of the ocean to encourage phytoplankton growth, removing CO2 as a result. Not very effective or safe

When does respiration peak

After GPP (soil takes longer to warm than air in spring) -NEP can be positive in spring and negative in autumn

Which are true? A. Light seasonally limits phytoplankton growth at high latitudes B. In subtropical latitudes, light is usually not limiting C. Deepening the mixed layer tends to reduce the time-averaged light experience by phytoplankton

All of them

Principles of management: conservative interactive controls

Ex: maintain natural disturbance regime Soln: restore the disturbance regime (Dams prevent flooding

In which case is ecosystem nutrient retention likely to be the greatest? A. Limiting nutrient, immediately after a fire B. Non-essential nutrient immediately after a fire C. Limiting nutrient a few years after a fire D. Non-essential nutrient a few years after a fire

B

Wh at is the process by which the U.S. ratifies international treaties (as set out in the US Constitution)? • A. Presidential executive order • B. 2/3 vote in the Senate • C. Simple majority rule in both houses of congress • D. Consensus

B

Which describes predicted shifts in CA ecosystem services? A. Increased C storage caused by increased temperatures B. Lower water availability due to lower rainfall and snowpack, and increased evaporation C. A shift in species ranges, resulting in decreased fire frequency D. All of the above E. None of the above

B

Which accurately describes traits of early- vs late-dominant species in primary succession on floodplains? A. Early successional species produce few seeds but have short life-spans, and are more palatable to herbivores live a long time, and are less palatable to herbivores B. Early successional species produce many seeds but have short life-spans, and are more palatable to herbivores C. Late successional species produce many seeds but

B. Early successional species produce many seeds but have short life-spans, and are more palatable to herbivores

How would net ecosystem C flux (NEP) change as a forest community undergoes early to late primary succession, progressing to a steady state? A. Negative early, then increase and level off at zero B. Negative early, then increase to level off at a positive value C. Start at zero, increase and then decline back to zero D. Positive early, then decrease to level off at zero

C

Which of the following statements about ocean fertilization is not accurate? A. Adding iron to HNLC regions has the potential to sequester more carbon B. Adding macronutrients like N and P to subtropical gyres has the potential to sequester more carbon C. Ocean fertilization has been implemented and tested on a broad scale and confirmed to be without significant ecosystem and human impacts

C

What does positive NEP indicate

C is accumulating

W hich is an example of ecosystem- based management? A. Taking the highest possible fish harvest B. Maintaining the highest possible level of biological diversity at all scales C. Balancing economic and environmental sustainability D. Maintaining populations of rare species at any cost

C. B is just one goal, however, C is the main goal)

Which life history traits would you expect in species dominating late in secondary succession (as compared to early colonizers)? A. Fast growing, small seed size B. Fast growing, large seed size C. Slow growing, large seed size D. Slow growing, small seed size

C. Slow growing, large seed size

Releasing ash and sulfur to atmosphere (eruption)

cools earths temp, however, lowered precipitation and runoff

What is the carbon in and carbon out (terms)

Carbon in: GPP Carbon out: respiration (R)

Bottom-up forcing

Changes in environment and marine phytoplankton associated with ENSO felt in higher trophic levels

What factors might constrain the ability of species to shift their ranges to track climate? • A. Physical barriers to dispersal, such as cities and roads • B. Competition with species already in present in the new range • C. Mutualists that are not present in the new range (pollinators, host plants) • D. All of the above

D

W hy are tropical forests important for climate change? • A. It's the terrestrial biome with the highest pool of C • B. It's the terrestrial biome with the highest flux of C in through NPP each year • C. Tropical forests have a great influence on the Earth's energy balance, without them there would be regional warming • D. Tropical deforestation accounts for 10% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions • E. All of the above

E

Which is an ecosystem service? A. Feeling of human well being gained from the aesthetic appeal of coral reefs B. Pollination by animals C. Carbon sequestration by forests D. Water filtration by wetlands E. All

E

Early colonizers vs late colonizers

Early: produce many seeds, short life span Late: dont produce as many seeds, long time and dominate later

Bottom up example ENSO

El Niño years have higher rainfall, immediate increase in vegetation. This leads to increase in herbivores one year later and predators a year after that

Principles of management: Maintain and enhance stabilizing feedbacks

Ex: population control of herbivores by predators, reintroduction of wolves back to yellowstone)

Imagine a scenario in which the global community collectively decides to implement sulfate aerosol injection starting in 2020. In 2050, the funding for the geoengineering concludes. What is the likely climate outcome over the period from 2020 to 2060?

Global average temperature initially decreases but then dramatically increases when geoengineering ends

Effect of high nutrients and what are the 2 types of nutrients

High nutrients lead to saturated growth and fast growing phytoplankton. The macronutrients are nitrate, phosphate, and silicate. The micronutrient is iron.

Oxygen concentration change

Increased stratification leads to reduced ventilation of ocean interior -oceans warmer (holds less CO2)

solar radiation management (SRM)

Influence climate by reducing the amount of sunlight absorbed by Earth. Also called solar geoengineering or albedo modification.

For herbivores, what must happen for it to be considered a disturbance

It must cause a directional change in species composition and ecosystem function Ex: tree death, bark beetle outbreaks

Does the deep ocean get extremely warmer?

No, its usually only the surface.

Explain ocean acidification

Ocean is getting more acidic (low pH) with more accumulated CO2 in the atmosphere. This affects organisms such as pteropods which dissolve in acidic water.

Pycnocline vs Thermocline

Pycnocline is the depth of the maximum change in density and depth while thermocline is the depth of maximum change in temperature with depth.

Graphs of Pycnocline vs Thermocline

Pycnocline=density goes up Thermocline=temp goes down

T or F: Q1: The thermocline in most parts of the ocean separates cold water below from warm water above. Q2: Nutrient concentrations are generally higher above than below the thermocline.

Q1: true Q2: false

Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR)

Remove excess CO2 from the atmosphere and store the carbon in the land biosphere, ocean, or deep geological reservoirs

Nutrient retention is greater during secondary than primary succession because what

SOM in soil

Argument against geoengineering

SRM and CDR must be continuous and it could cause greater hazard. Human error, and large cost are also some bad things

A s slower-growing species dominate later in succession, how are decomposition and nutrient recycling rates likely to change?

Slow later in succession

W hat are the likely C-cycle feedbacks to atmospheric CO 2 concentrations from lengthened growing seasons of terrestrial plants (in response to rising temperatures)? • A. Amplifying or B. stabilizing?

Stabilizing because longer growing season is associated with increased uptake of atmospheric CO2 in ecosystems and decreased CO2 in atmosphere

Succession and the 2 types

Succession: directional change in ecosystem structure and functioning after disturbance primary: start from parent material (no soil) (all organic material was removed) secondary: disturbance less severe, start with soil, seed bank

T or F Extreme rainfall events and floods are more likely in warmer climate

T

T or F: Chlorophyll reduced in El Niño periods in tropical Pacific and California Current because stratification stronger, upwelling reduced, and nutrient delivery weaker

T

What does the Keeling Curve show?

The amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide is rising due to the burning of fossil fuels

Earth surface temperature

The earth is getting warmer. Some areas where cooling is observed is probably due to changes in overturning circulation

Sea level changes

There is sea levels rising due to melting of ice on land and expansion of seawater

Many temperate and high latitude regions have blooms. What does this mean

These are large seasonal changes in phytoplankton biomass when there is strong light.

Trade-off vs synergy

Trade off: one desirable feature comes at the expense of another Synergy: when multiple desirable outcomes are accomplished through one action

What likely causes a phytoplankton bloom

Warm conditions combined with coastal upwelling

Climate change effect on agriculture

Water shortages cause crop yields to decline when the climate warms

Negative NAO phase

Weaker pressure gradient, weaker winds, wind position shifted further to south

Can interactive controls be managed

Yes (soil resources, disturbance regime, functional groups of organisms, human activities)

Disturbance definiton in terrestrial ecology

a relative discrete event that removes organic material, such as plant biomass and/or soil

iron fertilization experiments

adding iron to iron limited HNLC regions would increase phytoplankton growth

An ecosystem is most likely to maintain it's natural function when stabilizing feedbacks_______ amplifying feedbacks

are greater than

Herbivory

can speed succession by preferentially removing fast-growing species, allowing slow-growing species to establish

Climate change effect on human health

cause heat waves which kill people

Rise in sea level due to what

changes in wind, heat content of ocean, melting of ice, atmospheric pressure

_______ drives global scale variation in species composition among biomes, but local variation in species composition and ecosystem processes is driven by variation in ________ history

climate, disturbance

How does the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) make agreements

consensus

State factors

constrain ecosystem structure/function, but most cannot be locally managed

Much of the upward shift was due to what

contractions at the lower edge of the range

Projected change in diatom biomass

decrease due to increases stratification and reduced nutrients. Smaller plankton will become more dominant

Export production change

decreases globally, but may increase in some high latitudes where phytoplankton growth is light limited

What does shifting phenology cause

earlier spring events

aerosols method

effective, however, not safe. (acid deposition)

Space based method (mirrors on earth)

effective, however, would take decades to work and would likely lower photosynthesis in many places

Facilitation

especially early in succession (introducing organic matter for soil formation, N-fixation

What do the large phytoplankton do

export organic matter from surface

Goal of managing fisheries and forestries

extract maximum sustainable yield

Species replacements are driven by

facilitation

Results of experimental tests of spruce seedlings and different successional stages

facilitation by neighbors was common early in succession and competition was common later

Life-history trade-offs

fast-colonizing (many small seeds) short-lived species replaced by slow-colonizing, long-lived species

exotic species germinate ___ than native species and became _____

faster, abundant

low albedo= ___ temp

high

carbon capture from air

high effectiveness, safety, however, not affordable

low light, deep mixed layer=____ nutrients high light, shallow mixed layer=____ nutrients

high, low

Phosphate is ___ in subpolar (top), southern gyres and _____ in subtropics (bottom). In the ocean surface phosphate is ____ because?

high, low. At surface its low because its been consumed due to biological pump. Phosphate increases as you go down.

earths effective temp depends on

incoming solar radiation

Adding nutrients to subtropical regions would ______ phytoplankton growth and sequester CO2

increase

In subtropical latitudes, deepening the mixed layer tends to ________ the nutrients available to phytoplankton in the surface

increase

In light-limited, high latitude regions of the ocean, anthropogenic climate change is projected to:

increase NPP

Goal of solar geoengineering

increase albedo to cool planet

What does shoaling the mixed layer do to photosynthesis and light

increase photosynthesis and light

The total pool of plant biomass will continue to slowly _____, even as C flux in through NPP ____

increase, declines

Warming and salinity change = ____ stratification and ____ supply of nutrients to surface

increased, reduced

NPP change

increasing nutrient limitation causes NPP to go down

Sinking organic matter does what to oxygen

it consumes oxygen causing low oxygen zones

Argument for geoengineering

it could lessen human suffering and damage to ecosystems

What does deepening the mixed layer do to light

it decreases light

Periods with high phytoplankton biomass are dominated by

large phytoplankton and zooplankton (diatoms and copepods)

regime shift

large, abrupt, persistent changes in the structure and function of a system

What does earlier spring lead to

lengthening of the growing season causing increased NPP

In high latitudes, phytoplankton growth is limited by what

light and temp

high NAO index= ____ abudance

low

Land Use - Afforestation method

low effectiveness

What does a high RCP indicate

more added heat

Droughts effect for future

more wildfires expected due to longer droughts

What is NEP and its equation

net ecosystem production NEP=GPP-R(ecosystem)

marine cloud brightening (ships)

not effective (it would require a global fleet of thousands of ships to do this continuously). Not safe as it affects ocean ecosystems

Whats a way that land managers can identify species at risk of declining with climate change

phenological monitoring

Species can respond to climate change by altering ____

phenology. -seasonal timing of developmental events (leafing, flowering) -determines the environmental conditions and biotic interactions experienced by individuals

What type of shifts are being observed and likely to continue

poleward

Synergy: forest carbon

protection of intact tropical forests prevents carbon emmisions from deforestation

Yellow fever mosquito

range expansion with warming. It carries diseases

What do the small phytoplankton do

recycle carbon and nutrients within the surface

Reducing deforestation, afforestation, and reforestation would _____ CO2 in atmosphere

reduce

What can be done to reduce these changes in the climate and their impacts?

reduce greenhouse gas emissions

if a system is stuck in an alternative stable state, what can you do

remove amplifying feedbacks preventing recovery

IPCC Sixth Assessment Report

report from 66 countries from expert reviewers that look at the best possible review of the evidence on observed and predicted climate change (no politics)

How to push system back to original state

seeding native species, re-introduce mycorrhizae, restoring the disturbance regime

Primary and secondary succession is determined by what

severity. most severe disturbances are glaciers/volcanoes, while least severe are herbivory and fire

Primary succession colonizers have ____ seeds Secondary succession colonizers have _____ seeds and ___ growth rates

small range of seeds sizes and fast

Periods with low phytoplankton biomass are dominated by

small phytoplankton and zooplankton (picoplankton and microzooplankton)

Periods between blooms are dominated by

small picophytoplankton

Stratification

the density difference between the surface and the depth (~200 meters). Stratification makes it harder for layers in the ocean to mix meaning less nutrients to the top.

Resilience is promoted by _____. Give an example

stabilizing feedbacks • In clear lakes macrophytes take up nutrient pulses (stabilizing) • High eutrophication can cause phytoplankton bloom, reduce light and oxygen • Zooplankton can consume phytoplankton, reduce harmful bloom (stabilizing) • fish predators reducing zooplankton can dampen this resilience mechanism

Positive NAO phase

stronger pressure gradient, stronger winds, wind position shifted further to north

species distributions are influenced by

temp

What does an ENSO index describe

temperature anomilies in tropical pacific

ecosystem services

the benefits people obtain from ecosystems

Geoengineering

the deliberate large-scale intervention in earths climate system in order to moderate impacts of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions

What is mixed layer depth

the depth over which the physical characteristics (density, temp) in the upper ocean are nearly uniform (same at the surface)

Deep "mixed" layer

there are more nutrients in the surface which means phytoplankton growth increases

Why do large phytoplankton dominate when nutrients are scare (review this topic again L11 #43,44)

this decoupling between phytoplankton growth and zooplankton grazing allows large cells to survive when nutrients are abundant

Whats is the way that species shift in order to track their climate envelope

towards the pole and up in elevation

Is this a trade-off or synergy: If you protect forested watersheds, there is lower stream runoff for agricultural uses downstream

trade-off

What is thought to be the largest source of uncertainty in projections of future climate?

unknown future emissions

El Nino in tropical and eastern pacific tend to be ____ than normal. La nina in tropical and eastern pacific tend to be __ than normal

warmer, cooler

Water provisioning

warming results in earlier spring streamflow and drier summers

What is a good restoration technique

watering outside of the growing season

Landscape perspective wetlands and barrier islands

• Barrier islands are formed when river sediment is deposited near the mouths of large rivers • Sedimentation rates in the Mississippi river delta have slowed due to dams & levees • Loss of wetland area & barrier islands has contributed to the large impact of hurricanes • Solution: restore/protect wetlands & barrier islands