T3 Eco
How do C pools change following disturbance through the course of primary succession
Plant and soil C pools increase and level off
How effective is ocean fertalization
in the best case, only a small fraction of new primary production would be exported to deep ocean
Diverse animal communities lower disease spread (lyme disease)
-mouse=best host -squirrels/lizards=worst host bc they dilute virus -ground predators reduce mice -areas with diverse animal communities have less lyme disease (which costs 1.3 billion to treat annually)
Is the biological pump and a + or - feedback on climate
+
Forest Protection as a flexibility mechanism concerns
- Ethical concerns that if used as an "offset", forest protection allows local emissions (and pollution) to continue - There are trade-offs with other uses, for instance forest protection could result in a loss of logging jobs
Disadvantages of ecosystem services
- Ethical issues: "existence value" of a species? What happens when species are too costly? - Which species/places are most important?
Forest Protection as a flexibility mechanism benefits
- Protects biodiversity - Often cheaper to protect forests than to invest in large-scale energy efficiency technology
How to create stabilizing feedback, lowering soil N availability?
-C additions cause burst in microbial activity • High C:N ratio substrate causes microbes to immobilize soil nutrients • Lower soil inorganic N availability to plants • Puts fast-growing (low N- use efficiency), exotic species at a disadvantage • Favors slower-growing native species
Principles of management: adaptive capacity (flexibility to adjust mgmt plan based on new information)
-Example: water provisioning -Each year, major dams in the W. US decide how much water to release downstream and when, instead of having one set release time and amount. This allows them to balance water provisioning with conservation goals
NPP and succession
-It initially increases due to species replacements, N inputs -declines following canopy closure
Positive vs Negative phase of the calanus finmarchicus
-Negative NAO phase Weaker winds in spring strengthened spring phytoplankton bloom (higher light on average), cooler temperatures favor C. finmarchicus -Positive NAO phase Stronger winds in spring weakened spring phytoplankton bloom (lower light on average), warmer temperatures negatively affect C. finmarchicus
Advantages of ecosystem services
-allow comparison of different management options using a common currency -its surprising how much intact ecosystems are worth to society, over and above the extractive value of their goods
Examples of ecosystem services
-catskill mountains watersheds provide NYC drinking water -tourism -coffee (grown in high biodiversity areas)
Atlantic cod theory
-collapse due to technological innovations allowing efficient harvest -dominance in system by dogfish which is preventing population rebound of cod
limitations of species distribution models
-competition might limit establishment -assume individuals can disperse -lots of barriers to dispersal (mountains, highways, canyons,...)
Examples of regime shift
-corals and microalgae in Jamaica -Atlantic cod -invasive grasses in american west
Vultures in india
-farmers used diclofenac to treat fever in livestock, however, vultures consumed dead livestock causing them to get renal failure which resulted in death of vultures. Feral dog population increased and rabies killed many people. Estimated cost of 3 vulture species lost is 24 billion
Modern climate models advantages
-higher spatial resolution -represent more physical, chemical, and environmental processes -include biology and ecology on land/water -leverage considerable intellectual and computational advances -have been vetted (evaluated) for decades
Principles of management: Landscape perspective
-land-water interactions -ex: deforestation upstream often increases streamflow and lowers water quality by increasing sediment -mangroves buffer tropical coastal ecosystems from storms/erosion
Secondary succesion details
-less severe disturbances leave some organisms intact -plants can re-sprout from seedbank Ex: fire, hurricane, pest outbreaks
Principles of management: maximize resilience (ability to rebound following a disturbance)
-maintaining diversity -species diversity: stability through redundancy, insurance hypothesis -genetic diversity: allows them to evolve when conditions change
Value of pollination services
-many food crops rely on animal pollinators -and these pollinators rely on intact forests for habitat -bee pollination from nearby forests increase coffee yields by 15-20%
In the winter the surface cools causing ______. Nutrients then decrease in the summer due to ____
-mixed layer deepening and more nutrients to surface -consumption by phytoplankton and shallow mixed layers that limit vertical supply
6 ways organisms respond to climate change
-move in space -move in time -change behavior -acclimate (change physiology, not DNA) -evolve (change DNA, not physiology) -change in fitness and abundunce
Management for sustainability
-not management for a single product or species -maintain multiple economic goals -addresses interactions between social and ecological processes (mark areas as research zones, preservation zones, fishing zones,...) Ex: douglas fir
Light and Photosynthesis/Photoinhibition
-photosynthesis increases with light, however, at high levels of light photosynthesis can saturate and decline (photoinhibiton)
Things that increase C storage in soil
-reduced/no tillage -use of cover crops (using N fixing crops) -planting crops with high root allocation -organic matter amendments
Sources of uncertainty for climate projections
-scale/resolution -imperfect understanding of natural processes -natural climate variability -unknown future emissions
primary succession details
-severe disturbances remove most living organisms -colonization far from seed source -ex: glaciers, volcano
Properties of disturbance regimes
-severity (amt of organic material removed) -intensity (energy released per unit area/time) -frequency (often or rare) -type (fire, glacier, storm) -size/pattern (small patches or whole landscape) -Timing (soon after another disturbance or many years undisturbed)
Why trust physical climate projections?
-theres confidence that models provide credible quantitative estimates of future climate change. This confidence comes from 1. The foundation of the models lie in accepted physical principles 2. from their ability to reproduce observed features of current climate and past climate changes
Draw a graph showing the trade-off between fast growth and stress tolerance in primary vs secondary colonizers
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Graphs of primary vs Secondary succession
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Know how to draw the seasonal cycles of light, nutrients, temp, and chlorophyll for a subpolar location in the North Atlantic
.
Phosphate graph (nutrient amount vs depth)
.
Ecosystem response to disturbance depends on
4 R's resistance: tendency to not change response: magnitude of change resilience: rate of return to original state recovery: extend of return to original state
Which of the following is true about Solar Radiation Management (SRM)? A. Reducing solar radiation is likely to change photosynthetic rates among plants and phytoplankton B. Reducing solar radiation has been widely tested and studied; the technology is ready to be implemented on a large scale C. SRM directly combats ocean acidification D. The impacts of SRM on the hydrological cycle are well understood
A
W hich would increase resilience of lakes experiencing high P loading (pick all that are correct)? A. Macrophytes growing on the lake bottom B. Zooplankton that consume harmful phytoplankton blooms C. Addition of nitrogen D. Fish stocking
A and B
Ecosystem based approach to managing sustainable fisheries (krill)
A group decides how much krill can be harvested each year in the international waters around antartica. -They decided to lower the harvest amt by 25% in order to maintain critical food source for whales
species distribution models
A) use data on current distribution and correlate with environmental data B) predict future environment and newly sustainable habitat C) Assume that species will move to newly suitable areas
T or F: A. El Niño warm phase events occur every 2-8 years on average B. The climate impacts associated with ENSO are felt on a global scale C. During El Niño years, southern California tends to experience wetter winters, on average D. During a La Niña, the tropical Pacific is warmer than normal
A-true B-true C-true D-false
T or F (and if true what region) A. Stratification increases, nutrient delivery to surface decreases, primary production decreases, export production decreases B. Stratification increases, nutrient delivery to surface decreases, primary production increases, export production increases
A: true in subtropics B: true in subpolar
T of F A. Deep ocean (>1000m) temperatures are increasingly rapidly B. Deep ocean (>1000m) pH is decreasing rapidly C. Surface ocean (<700m) heat content is increasing D. Earth surface temperature changes have been greatest over the oceans
A=F B=F C=T D=F
T or F A. Climate models have significant uncertainty tied to scale/resolution, natural climate variability, imperfect understanding of natural processes, and unknown future emissions B. Climate models can provide accurate forecasts of weather events in the distant future C. Climate models have been used to simulate observed long-term and broad-scale changes in Earth's climate over the past century
A=T B=F C=T
Ocean fertilization method
Adding iron and other nutrients to nutrient deficient areas of the ocean to encourage phytoplankton growth, removing CO2 as a result. Not very effective or safe
When does respiration peak
After GPP (soil takes longer to warm than air in spring) -NEP can be positive in spring and negative in autumn
Which are true? A. Light seasonally limits phytoplankton growth at high latitudes B. In subtropical latitudes, light is usually not limiting C. Deepening the mixed layer tends to reduce the time-averaged light experience by phytoplankton
All of them
Principles of management: conservative interactive controls
Ex: maintain natural disturbance regime Soln: restore the disturbance regime (Dams prevent flooding
In which case is ecosystem nutrient retention likely to be the greatest? A. Limiting nutrient, immediately after a fire B. Non-essential nutrient immediately after a fire C. Limiting nutrient a few years after a fire D. Non-essential nutrient a few years after a fire
B
Wh at is the process by which the U.S. ratifies international treaties (as set out in the US Constitution)? • A. Presidential executive order • B. 2/3 vote in the Senate • C. Simple majority rule in both houses of congress • D. Consensus
B
Which describes predicted shifts in CA ecosystem services? A. Increased C storage caused by increased temperatures B. Lower water availability due to lower rainfall and snowpack, and increased evaporation C. A shift in species ranges, resulting in decreased fire frequency D. All of the above E. None of the above
B
Which accurately describes traits of early- vs late-dominant species in primary succession on floodplains? A. Early successional species produce few seeds but have short life-spans, and are more palatable to herbivores live a long time, and are less palatable to herbivores B. Early successional species produce many seeds but have short life-spans, and are more palatable to herbivores C. Late successional species produce many seeds but
B. Early successional species produce many seeds but have short life-spans, and are more palatable to herbivores
How would net ecosystem C flux (NEP) change as a forest community undergoes early to late primary succession, progressing to a steady state? A. Negative early, then increase and level off at zero B. Negative early, then increase to level off at a positive value C. Start at zero, increase and then decline back to zero D. Positive early, then decrease to level off at zero
C
Which of the following statements about ocean fertilization is not accurate? A. Adding iron to HNLC regions has the potential to sequester more carbon B. Adding macronutrients like N and P to subtropical gyres has the potential to sequester more carbon C. Ocean fertilization has been implemented and tested on a broad scale and confirmed to be without significant ecosystem and human impacts
C
What does positive NEP indicate
C is accumulating
W hich is an example of ecosystem- based management? A. Taking the highest possible fish harvest B. Maintaining the highest possible level of biological diversity at all scales C. Balancing economic and environmental sustainability D. Maintaining populations of rare species at any cost
C. B is just one goal, however, C is the main goal)
Which life history traits would you expect in species dominating late in secondary succession (as compared to early colonizers)? A. Fast growing, small seed size B. Fast growing, large seed size C. Slow growing, large seed size D. Slow growing, small seed size
C. Slow growing, large seed size
Releasing ash and sulfur to atmosphere (eruption)
cools earths temp, however, lowered precipitation and runoff
What is the carbon in and carbon out (terms)
Carbon in: GPP Carbon out: respiration (R)
Bottom-up forcing
Changes in environment and marine phytoplankton associated with ENSO felt in higher trophic levels
What factors might constrain the ability of species to shift their ranges to track climate? • A. Physical barriers to dispersal, such as cities and roads • B. Competition with species already in present in the new range • C. Mutualists that are not present in the new range (pollinators, host plants) • D. All of the above
D
W hy are tropical forests important for climate change? • A. It's the terrestrial biome with the highest pool of C • B. It's the terrestrial biome with the highest flux of C in through NPP each year • C. Tropical forests have a great influence on the Earth's energy balance, without them there would be regional warming • D. Tropical deforestation accounts for 10% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions • E. All of the above
E
Which is an ecosystem service? A. Feeling of human well being gained from the aesthetic appeal of coral reefs B. Pollination by animals C. Carbon sequestration by forests D. Water filtration by wetlands E. All
E
Early colonizers vs late colonizers
Early: produce many seeds, short life span Late: dont produce as many seeds, long time and dominate later
Bottom up example ENSO
El Niño years have higher rainfall, immediate increase in vegetation. This leads to increase in herbivores one year later and predators a year after that
Principles of management: Maintain and enhance stabilizing feedbacks
Ex: population control of herbivores by predators, reintroduction of wolves back to yellowstone)
Imagine a scenario in which the global community collectively decides to implement sulfate aerosol injection starting in 2020. In 2050, the funding for the geoengineering concludes. What is the likely climate outcome over the period from 2020 to 2060?
Global average temperature initially decreases but then dramatically increases when geoengineering ends
Effect of high nutrients and what are the 2 types of nutrients
High nutrients lead to saturated growth and fast growing phytoplankton. The macronutrients are nitrate, phosphate, and silicate. The micronutrient is iron.
Oxygen concentration change
Increased stratification leads to reduced ventilation of ocean interior -oceans warmer (holds less CO2)
solar radiation management (SRM)
Influence climate by reducing the amount of sunlight absorbed by Earth. Also called solar geoengineering or albedo modification.
For herbivores, what must happen for it to be considered a disturbance
It must cause a directional change in species composition and ecosystem function Ex: tree death, bark beetle outbreaks
Does the deep ocean get extremely warmer?
No, its usually only the surface.
Explain ocean acidification
Ocean is getting more acidic (low pH) with more accumulated CO2 in the atmosphere. This affects organisms such as pteropods which dissolve in acidic water.
Pycnocline vs Thermocline
Pycnocline is the depth of the maximum change in density and depth while thermocline is the depth of maximum change in temperature with depth.
Graphs of Pycnocline vs Thermocline
Pycnocline=density goes up Thermocline=temp goes down
T or F: Q1: The thermocline in most parts of the ocean separates cold water below from warm water above. Q2: Nutrient concentrations are generally higher above than below the thermocline.
Q1: true Q2: false
Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR)
Remove excess CO2 from the atmosphere and store the carbon in the land biosphere, ocean, or deep geological reservoirs
Nutrient retention is greater during secondary than primary succession because what
SOM in soil
Argument against geoengineering
SRM and CDR must be continuous and it could cause greater hazard. Human error, and large cost are also some bad things
A s slower-growing species dominate later in succession, how are decomposition and nutrient recycling rates likely to change?
Slow later in succession
W hat are the likely C-cycle feedbacks to atmospheric CO 2 concentrations from lengthened growing seasons of terrestrial plants (in response to rising temperatures)? • A. Amplifying or B. stabilizing?
Stabilizing because longer growing season is associated with increased uptake of atmospheric CO2 in ecosystems and decreased CO2 in atmosphere
Succession and the 2 types
Succession: directional change in ecosystem structure and functioning after disturbance primary: start from parent material (no soil) (all organic material was removed) secondary: disturbance less severe, start with soil, seed bank
T or F Extreme rainfall events and floods are more likely in warmer climate
T
T or F: Chlorophyll reduced in El Niño periods in tropical Pacific and California Current because stratification stronger, upwelling reduced, and nutrient delivery weaker
T
What does the Keeling Curve show?
The amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide is rising due to the burning of fossil fuels
Earth surface temperature
The earth is getting warmer. Some areas where cooling is observed is probably due to changes in overturning circulation
Sea level changes
There is sea levels rising due to melting of ice on land and expansion of seawater
Many temperate and high latitude regions have blooms. What does this mean
These are large seasonal changes in phytoplankton biomass when there is strong light.
Trade-off vs synergy
Trade off: one desirable feature comes at the expense of another Synergy: when multiple desirable outcomes are accomplished through one action
What likely causes a phytoplankton bloom
Warm conditions combined with coastal upwelling
Climate change effect on agriculture
Water shortages cause crop yields to decline when the climate warms
Negative NAO phase
Weaker pressure gradient, weaker winds, wind position shifted further to south
Can interactive controls be managed
Yes (soil resources, disturbance regime, functional groups of organisms, human activities)
Disturbance definiton in terrestrial ecology
a relative discrete event that removes organic material, such as plant biomass and/or soil
iron fertilization experiments
adding iron to iron limited HNLC regions would increase phytoplankton growth
An ecosystem is most likely to maintain it's natural function when stabilizing feedbacks_______ amplifying feedbacks
are greater than
Herbivory
can speed succession by preferentially removing fast-growing species, allowing slow-growing species to establish
Climate change effect on human health
cause heat waves which kill people
Rise in sea level due to what
changes in wind, heat content of ocean, melting of ice, atmospheric pressure
_______ drives global scale variation in species composition among biomes, but local variation in species composition and ecosystem processes is driven by variation in ________ history
climate, disturbance
How does the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) make agreements
consensus
State factors
constrain ecosystem structure/function, but most cannot be locally managed
Much of the upward shift was due to what
contractions at the lower edge of the range
Projected change in diatom biomass
decrease due to increases stratification and reduced nutrients. Smaller plankton will become more dominant
Export production change
decreases globally, but may increase in some high latitudes where phytoplankton growth is light limited
What does shifting phenology cause
earlier spring events
aerosols method
effective, however, not safe. (acid deposition)
Space based method (mirrors on earth)
effective, however, would take decades to work and would likely lower photosynthesis in many places
Facilitation
especially early in succession (introducing organic matter for soil formation, N-fixation
What do the large phytoplankton do
export organic matter from surface
Goal of managing fisheries and forestries
extract maximum sustainable yield
Species replacements are driven by
facilitation
Results of experimental tests of spruce seedlings and different successional stages
facilitation by neighbors was common early in succession and competition was common later
Life-history trade-offs
fast-colonizing (many small seeds) short-lived species replaced by slow-colonizing, long-lived species
exotic species germinate ___ than native species and became _____
faster, abundant
low albedo= ___ temp
high
carbon capture from air
high effectiveness, safety, however, not affordable
low light, deep mixed layer=____ nutrients high light, shallow mixed layer=____ nutrients
high, low
Phosphate is ___ in subpolar (top), southern gyres and _____ in subtropics (bottom). In the ocean surface phosphate is ____ because?
high, low. At surface its low because its been consumed due to biological pump. Phosphate increases as you go down.
earths effective temp depends on
incoming solar radiation
Adding nutrients to subtropical regions would ______ phytoplankton growth and sequester CO2
increase
In subtropical latitudes, deepening the mixed layer tends to ________ the nutrients available to phytoplankton in the surface
increase
In light-limited, high latitude regions of the ocean, anthropogenic climate change is projected to:
increase NPP
Goal of solar geoengineering
increase albedo to cool planet
What does shoaling the mixed layer do to photosynthesis and light
increase photosynthesis and light
The total pool of plant biomass will continue to slowly _____, even as C flux in through NPP ____
increase, declines
Warming and salinity change = ____ stratification and ____ supply of nutrients to surface
increased, reduced
NPP change
increasing nutrient limitation causes NPP to go down
Sinking organic matter does what to oxygen
it consumes oxygen causing low oxygen zones
Argument for geoengineering
it could lessen human suffering and damage to ecosystems
What does deepening the mixed layer do to light
it decreases light
Periods with high phytoplankton biomass are dominated by
large phytoplankton and zooplankton (diatoms and copepods)
regime shift
large, abrupt, persistent changes in the structure and function of a system
What does earlier spring lead to
lengthening of the growing season causing increased NPP
In high latitudes, phytoplankton growth is limited by what
light and temp
high NAO index= ____ abudance
low
Land Use - Afforestation method
low effectiveness
What does a high RCP indicate
more added heat
Droughts effect for future
more wildfires expected due to longer droughts
What is NEP and its equation
net ecosystem production NEP=GPP-R(ecosystem)
marine cloud brightening (ships)
not effective (it would require a global fleet of thousands of ships to do this continuously). Not safe as it affects ocean ecosystems
Whats a way that land managers can identify species at risk of declining with climate change
phenological monitoring
Species can respond to climate change by altering ____
phenology. -seasonal timing of developmental events (leafing, flowering) -determines the environmental conditions and biotic interactions experienced by individuals
What type of shifts are being observed and likely to continue
poleward
Synergy: forest carbon
protection of intact tropical forests prevents carbon emmisions from deforestation
Yellow fever mosquito
range expansion with warming. It carries diseases
What do the small phytoplankton do
recycle carbon and nutrients within the surface
Reducing deforestation, afforestation, and reforestation would _____ CO2 in atmosphere
reduce
What can be done to reduce these changes in the climate and their impacts?
reduce greenhouse gas emissions
if a system is stuck in an alternative stable state, what can you do
remove amplifying feedbacks preventing recovery
IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
report from 66 countries from expert reviewers that look at the best possible review of the evidence on observed and predicted climate change (no politics)
How to push system back to original state
seeding native species, re-introduce mycorrhizae, restoring the disturbance regime
Primary and secondary succession is determined by what
severity. most severe disturbances are glaciers/volcanoes, while least severe are herbivory and fire
Primary succession colonizers have ____ seeds Secondary succession colonizers have _____ seeds and ___ growth rates
small range of seeds sizes and fast
Periods with low phytoplankton biomass are dominated by
small phytoplankton and zooplankton (picoplankton and microzooplankton)
Periods between blooms are dominated by
small picophytoplankton
Stratification
the density difference between the surface and the depth (~200 meters). Stratification makes it harder for layers in the ocean to mix meaning less nutrients to the top.
Resilience is promoted by _____. Give an example
stabilizing feedbacks • In clear lakes macrophytes take up nutrient pulses (stabilizing) • High eutrophication can cause phytoplankton bloom, reduce light and oxygen • Zooplankton can consume phytoplankton, reduce harmful bloom (stabilizing) • fish predators reducing zooplankton can dampen this resilience mechanism
Positive NAO phase
stronger pressure gradient, stronger winds, wind position shifted further to north
species distributions are influenced by
temp
What does an ENSO index describe
temperature anomilies in tropical pacific
ecosystem services
the benefits people obtain from ecosystems
Geoengineering
the deliberate large-scale intervention in earths climate system in order to moderate impacts of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions
What is mixed layer depth
the depth over which the physical characteristics (density, temp) in the upper ocean are nearly uniform (same at the surface)
Deep "mixed" layer
there are more nutrients in the surface which means phytoplankton growth increases
Why do large phytoplankton dominate when nutrients are scare (review this topic again L11 #43,44)
this decoupling between phytoplankton growth and zooplankton grazing allows large cells to survive when nutrients are abundant
Whats is the way that species shift in order to track their climate envelope
towards the pole and up in elevation
Is this a trade-off or synergy: If you protect forested watersheds, there is lower stream runoff for agricultural uses downstream
trade-off
What is thought to be the largest source of uncertainty in projections of future climate?
unknown future emissions
El Nino in tropical and eastern pacific tend to be ____ than normal. La nina in tropical and eastern pacific tend to be __ than normal
warmer, cooler
Water provisioning
warming results in earlier spring streamflow and drier summers
What is a good restoration technique
watering outside of the growing season
Landscape perspective wetlands and barrier islands
• Barrier islands are formed when river sediment is deposited near the mouths of large rivers • Sedimentation rates in the Mississippi river delta have slowed due to dams & levees • Loss of wetland area & barrier islands has contributed to the large impact of hurricanes • Solution: restore/protect wetlands & barrier islands