Test 3 Anthropology 16-22

phratry

A unilineal descent group composed of a number of supposedly related clans (sib)

general-purpose money

A universally accepted medium of exchange

class

A category of people who have about the same opportunity to obtain economic resources, power, and prestige.

patriclans

A clan tracing descent through the male line.

slaves

A class of people who do not own their own labor or the products thereof.

Cash Crops

A cultivated commodity raised for sale rather than for personal consumption by the cultivator.

avunculocal residence

A pattern of residence in which a married couple settles with or near the husband's mother's brother

neolocal residence

A pattern of residence whereby a married couple lives separately, and usually at some distance, from the kin of both spouses.

siblings

A person's brothers and sisters

caste

A ranked group often associated with a certain occupation, in which membership is determined at birth and marriage is restricted to members of one's own caste.

lineage

A set of kin whose member trace descent from a common ancestor through known links

clan or sib

A set of kin whose members believe themselves to be descended from a common ancestor or ancestress but cannot specify the links back to that founder; often designated by a totem also called a sib

group marriage

Marriage in which more than one man is married to more than one women at the same time; not customary in an known human society.

Who does the most work in most cultures- males or females and why? Or is this not a simple question?

Not simple because it varies depending on the place. The status of both genders changes. less complex societies seem to approach more equal status for males and females in a variety of areas of life.

horticulture

Plant cultivation carried out with relatively simple tools and methods; nature is allowed to replace nutrients in the soil, in the absence of permanently cultivated fields.

gender stratification

The degree of unequal access by the different genders to prestige, authority, power, rights, and economic resources.

unilocal residence

a pattern of residence (patrilocal, mantrilocal, or avunculocal) that specifies just one set of relatives that the married couple lives with or near

bilocal residence

a pattern of residence in which a married couple lives with or near either the husband's parents or the wife's parents.

patrilocal residence

a pattern of residence in which a married couple lives with or near the husband's parents.

matrilocal residence

a pattern of residence in which a married couple lives with or near the wide's parents

totem

a plant or animal associated with a clan (sib ) as a means of group identification; may have other special significance for the group.

secondary subsistence activities

activities that involve the preparation and precessing of food either to make it edible or to store it.

unilineal descent

affiliation with a group of kin through descent links of one sex only

If hunting and gathering requires the lowest energy input, then why aren't there more hunter/gatherers in the world?

b/c food producers can support more people in a given territory than foragers can, they may have had a competitive advantage in confrontations with foragers.

What are some reasons for why males and females tend to do different jobs?

difference in strength. compatibility of tasks with child care. expendability of men and economy of effort considerations.

monogamy

marriage between only one man and only one women at a time

non sororal polygyny

marriage of a man to two or more women who are not sisters

non fraternal polyandry

marriage of a women to two or more men who are not brothers

How do warfare and political leadership affect who does what work?

men usually fight in war and women stay home and take care of children on make things for the war etc... older times

Do all kinds of restrictiveness always go together?

no not always. more complex societies tend to be more restrictive toward premarital heterosexual sex than less complex societies. societal tolerance of homosexuality is associated with tolerance of abortion and infanticide with famines and food shortages.

What is a slave? What is manumission?

slaves are people who do not own their own labor, and as such they present a class. is the granting of freedom to slaves - was built into the Nupe system

sororal polygyny

the marriage of a man to two or more sisters at the same time

polyandry

the marriage of one woman to more than one man at a time

How did stratification occur, and how old is this pattern?

Anthropologists aren't sure why it emerged. inequality in burial suggested inequality in life.(grave goods) it emerged recently (8,000 years ago)- based on archaeological evidence and the fact that certain cultural features associated with with stratification developed recently.

what is the difference between voluntary labor, corvee labor, and forced labor?

voluntary labor= voluntary in the sense that no formal organizatino within the society compels people to work and punishes them for not working. corvee labor= system of required labor existed in the Inca Empire and each male commoner was assigned three plots of land to work: a temple plot a state plot and his own plot. all subsistence work. had to work for others but also themselves. forced labor= an indirect form of forced labor is taxation. 33% is average in US. Others pay taxes by performing a specific amount of hours of labor of by giving up a certain percentage of what they produce.

Chayonov's rule

when there are less albed bodies who can work and more consumers in a household then the people will work harder. if there are more abled bodies workers (less children) then they work not as hard as individuals

intensive agriculture

Food production characterized by the permanent cultivation of fields and made possible by the use of the plow, draft animals or machines, fertilizers, irrigation, water-storage technique, and other complex agricultural techniques.

complex foragers

Foraging societies that depend heavily on fishing are more likely to have bigger and more permanent communities and more social inequality than foragers who depend mostly on game and plants. there is also more competitiveness, higher population density, food storage, occupational specialization, resource ownership and slavery.

What are the different divisions of labor?

1) gender and age - men and women usually have different job (stereotypes) and children aren't strong enough or developed enough to do specific jobs either. in other countries children have more responsibility of taking care of siblings and doing house work and animal tending.

extended family

A family consisting of two or more single-parent, monogamous, polygynous or polyandrous families linked by a blood tie.

potlatch

A feast among Pacific Northwest Native Americans at which great quantities of food and goods are given to the guests in order to gain prestige for the host(s).

slash-and-burn

A form of shifting cultivation in which the natural vegetation is cut down and burned off. The cleared ground is used for a short time and then left to regenerate.

pastoralism

A form of subsistence technology in which food getting is based directly or indirectly on the maintenance of domesticated animals.

marriage

A socially approved sexual and economic union, usually between a man and a women, that is presumed, both by the couple and by others to be more or less permanent and that subsumes reciprocal rights and obligations between the two spouses and their future children.

bride price (or bride wealth)

A substantial gift of goods or money given to the bride's kin by the groom or his kin at or before the marriage

dowry

A substantial transfer of goods or money from the bride's family to the bride.

corvee

A system of required labor

socialization

A term anthropologists and psychologists use to describe the development, through the direct and indirect influence of parents and other or children s patterns of behavior and attitude and values that conform to cultural expectations also called enculturation.

extensive or shifting cultivation

A type of horticulture in which the land is worked for short periods and then left to regenerate for some years before being used again

Unequal in death box

African Americans die more often from cardiovascular disease versus European Americans same goes for most diseases kidney, cancer, injuries, diabetes etc. maybe because of subtle discrimination in medial attention. they are more likely to get an angiogram which injects radioactive die into the heart to look for defects in blood flow vs. a bypass. also possible difference in genetics, difference in lifestyle, and class difference.

secondary institutions

Aspects of culture, such as religion, music, art, folklore, and games, which presumably reflect or are projections of the basic or typical personality in a society.

food getting method for specific cultures and places.

Australian aborigines, = foraging (mainly plants) The Inuit Eskimo (Sea and Land mammals and fish. (alaska) The Yanomamo= tropical forests= horticulture slash and burn The soamoans= horticulture three tress rural greece intensive agriculture= rural vietnam The Basseri- The lapps= pastoralism

prestige

Being accorded particular respect of honor.

gender differences

Differences between females and males that reflect cultural expectations and experiences.

subsistence economies

Economies in which almost all able-bodied adults are largely engaged in getting food for themselves and their families.

What role dose technology have in determining a groups economic system?

Every society uses technology which includes tools, constructions, and required skills. Even though foragers and horticulturalists tend to think of tools as "owned" by the individuals who made them. the sharing of tools is so extensive that individual ownership does not have much meaning. Among intensive agriculturalists, toolmaking tends to be a specialized activity. Tools tend not to be shared, except mainly by those who have purchased them together.

generalized reciprocity

Gift giving without any immediate or planned return.

reciprocity

Giving and taking (not politically arranged) without the use of money.

balanced reciprocity

Giving with the expectation of a straightforward immediate or limited-time trade.

steppe

Grassland with a dry, low grass cover

How might enculturation and child training practices influence gender stratification?

It can influence it by teaching the children what their roles in society "should" be. This from the start teachers them that is how they should act. It teaches them that men are more powerful and that they should be more privileged and free to do what they want.

What was the Kula Ring and what was it an example of?

It is a ceremonial exchange of valued shell ornaments between Trobiand Islanders who live on the coast of New Guinea. two ornaments 1) white shell armbands which are given in a counterclockwise direction and red shell necklaces in clock wise direction. The possession of one or more of these ornaments allow a man to organize an expedition to the home of one his trading partners. This means that they get all of their trading done within a two or three day visit and have accomplished a years worth of trading. Also they get to keep someone for one year and that brings more excitement vs. a life long item. It is an example of balanced reciprocity

classificatory term

Kinship terms that merge or equate relatives who are genealogically distinct from one another; the same term is used for a number of different kin.

foraging

May be generally defined as a food-getting strategy that obtains wild plant and animal resources through gathering, hunting, scavenging, or fishing; also known as food collection.

What did the early anthropologists Margaret Mead and Bronislaw Malinowski contribute to the field of culture and the individual (also know as culture and personality?)

Mead showed that there was actually not a lot of emotional turmoil going on with samoan adolescent girls. This challenges the question of whether psychological development in adolescence was the same in all societies. Malinowski- went against the idea that young males compete against their father's for their mothers sexual attention. He/she discovered that it is really hostility towards their fathers due to disciplinary actions.

affinal kin

One's relatives by marriage (Brian's family to elsa)

What does the work of Piaget (done principally in Western society) not neccessarily explain intellectual functioning in non-western populations?

Paget's theory says that the development of thinking in humans involves a series of stages. you can't get to the higher stage before you have completed the lower stage. This is incorrect because the test that measure knowledge favor Western cultures vs. non western cultures in the questions they ask. They mainly focus on math and science and other countries may focus on other subject and hands on things as well so it doesn't test them accordingly to their environment.

What has been wrong with popular concepts of what race is? What has this led to in history? What is the anthropological opinion on the concept of race?

People think that the classification of people into categories such as "white" or "black" reflects important biological resources. - not true people who live in Africa has such a wide variation in genes. technically we are all African since that is where modern humans first emerged. It has led people to think that they are better than other due to the color of their skin. ex: Adolf Hitler (Aryan Race) all supposed to be blond haired, blue eyed, white skinned people who were tall as well. When important people from other countries that were important economically to south Africa they would be considered white (Japanese not chinese) Anthropologists say that "race" is not a scientifically useful device for classifying humans. "racial" classifications should be recognized as social categories to which individuals are assigned, by themselves and others, on the basis of supposedly shared biological traits. If people of different races are viewed as inferior they are more likely going to end up on the lower rungs of the social ladder in a socially stratified society.

hunter-gatherers

People who collect food from naturally occurring resources, that is, wild plants, animals, and fish (minimizes heavy dependence on fishing)

peasants

Rural people who produce food for their own subsistence but who must also contribute or sell their surpluses to others (in towns and cities) who do not produce their food

class societies

Societies containing social groups that have unequal access to economic resources, power and prestige.

egalitarian societies

Societies in which all people of a given age-sex category have equal access to economic resources, power and prestige.

rank societies

Societies that do not have any unequal access to economic resource or power , but with social groups that have unequal access to status positions and prestige.

power

The ability to make others do what they do not want to do or influence based on the threat of force.

redistribution

The accumulation of goods (or labor) by a particular person or in a particular place and their subsequent distribution.

primary subsistence activities

The good getting activities: hunting, gathering, fishing, herding, and agriculture

manumission

The granting of freedom to a slave

commercialization

The increasing dependence on buying and selling, with money usually as the medium of exchange.

fraternal polyandry

The marriage of a woman to two or more brother at the same time.

ethnicity

The process of defining ethnicity usually involves a group of people emphasizing common origins and language, shared history, and selected aspects of cultural difference such as a difference in religion. Because different groups are doing the perceiving, ethnic identities often cary with whether one is inside or outside the group.

exogamy

The rule specifying marriage marriage to a person from outside one's own group (kin or community)

endogamy

The rule specifying marriage to a person within one's own group (kin, caste, community)

primary institutions

The sources of early experiences, such as family organization and subsistence techniques, that presumably help form the basic, or typical personality found in a society.

optimal foraging theory

The theory that individuals seek to maximize the returns (in calories and nutrients) on their labor in deciding which animals and plants thy will go after

personality integration of culture

The theory that personality or psychological processes may account for connections between certain aspects of culture.

what is the problem in the San Joaquin Valley of California? Why is pumping for water noa permanent answer?

They have a salinization problem. b/c it is also the fastest disappearing aquifer.

What ares have anthropologists tended to focus upon? What are some aspects of child training that anthropologists have studies cross-culturally?

They have tended to focus upon the development of a child in it's dependent stages and how much the parents and others influence children. children are also agents and actors of socialization and they like to study how they conform to cultural expectations. They learn from peers as well. which can change their behavior greatly. How quickly parents respond to children's "needs", how much infants are held, how much parents play with infants and young children, how much warmth and affection they show children, how much they expect children to comply with adult or assert themselves, and how aggressive they want children to be. other countries respond to baby crying quicker than in US but US plays with children vs. other places such as africa. most trust and optimism in infants who were held more by their mothers.

market or commercial exchange

Transactions in which the "prices" are subject to supply and demand, whether or not the transactions occur in a market place.

kindred

a bilateral set of close relatives

matriclans

a clan tracing descent through the female line.

levirate

a custom whereby a man is obliged to marry his brother's widow.

sororate

a custom whereby a women is obliged to marry her deceased sister's husband

nuclear family

a family consisting of a married couple and their young children

independent family

a family unit consisting of one monogamous (nuclear family) or one polygynous or one polyandrous family.

matrilineage

a kin group whose members trace descent through known links in the female line from a common female ancestor

patrilineage

a kin group whose members trace descent through known links in the male line from a common male ancestor.

family

a social and economic until consisting minimally of a parent and a child.

What is marriage? Why are the Na of China so different?

a socially and economic union, usually between a man and women.

double descent or double unilineal descent

a system that affiliates individuals with a group of matrilineal kin for some purposes and with a group of patrilineal kin for other purposes.

moiety

a unilineal descent group in a society that is divided into two such maximal groups; there may be smaller unilineal descent groups as well

Why do money and market exchange develop?

anthropologists link the origins of money to various noncommercial "payments" such as taxes that have to be paid to a political authority. money will be found in societies at higher levels of economic development or in lower ones where higher societies have introduced it. market exchange is more likely to happen in higher level as well like goods labor land and credit.

descriptive term

can only represent one relationship

What is a caste system? How does it work in India and Japan?

caste- is a ranked group which membership is determined at birth, and marriage is restricted to member of one's own caste. India- untouchables are at the bottom who do all of the hard and dirty work. Brahmans are at the top who do the clean work as priests. Japan- Burakumin are like the untouchables of India. -farm laborer, leatherworker, basket weaver. but it has been abolished discrimination against them

cross-cousins

children of siblings of the opposite sex. One's cross-cousins are the father's sisters' children and mother's brother's children.

parallel cousins

children of siblings of the same sex. one's parallel cousins are the father's brother's children and the mother's sister's children

How do domestic production, tributary production, industrial and post-industrial production differ?

domestic production= people labored to get food and to produce shelter and implements for themselves and their kin (family). usually families had the right to exploit productive resources and control the products of their labor. industrial societies= much of the work is based on mechanized production as in factories but also in mechanized agriculture. only capitalists corporations, or governments can afford the expenses of production. most people labor for others as wage earners. wages can buy food and support the family, but when they are out of a job they can't they need food stamps. Tributary production = found in nonindustrial societies in which most people still produce their own food but an elite or aristocracy controls a portion of production (including specialized crafts.. pots) post-industrial = our own and developed economies are moving this way. many areas of commerce, computers have radically transformed the workplace. much of manual work in industry is disappearing because of robots (computers) telecommuting- work wages from home through telephone or computers.

what are the three advantages for which people compete as stratification increases?

economic resources, power, and prestige

know the differences between egalitarian, ranked and class societies

egalitarian= social groups do not have unequal access to economic resources, power, or prestige; they are unstratified.- no level of classes based on social ability and rank ranked= social groups do not have unequal power, but they do have equal access to prestige- very stratified class= social groups have unequal access to economic resources, power, and prestige. even more stratified than ranked.

what is ethnicity? are there also ethnic prejudices? Positive aspects to ethnicity?

ethnicity usually involves a group of people emphasizing common origins and language, shared history, and selected cultural differences such as a difference in religion. yes, there are. some cultures think they are better than others. U.S for instance. Also negative stereo types. Ethnic differences are usually associated with inequalities of wealth, power, and prestige. non-violent civil rights movement

What is a leveling device? Example

example is a potlatch (chiefs) give away blankets, pieces of copper, canoes, lots of food, trying to even it out. reputation is enhanced by not keeping the wealth but by redistributing it. Another example is the Melanesian pig feasts where people would try to have the biggest feast for everyone where there would be tons of left overs. Another is in Latin America the wealthiest families will spend almost a years wage on a fiesta that celebrate important village saints.

how do the "rules" which govern land use/ownership vary among foragers, horticulturals and pastoralists (more communal "ownership") and agriculturalists and intensive agriculturalists? (individual or private ownership)

foragers- generally don't have any private ownership of land. If there is collective ownership it is always by groups of related people or by territorial groups.Land is not bought and sold. reason= land doesn't have instrisic value to them. instead the presence of game and plant life is valuable. communal land because of fluctuation in land value due to game movement. when the land is really good and consistent then people tend to maintain exclusive rights to particular land because they are likely to stay longer. horticulturalists- most don't have individual or family ownership of land. This could be because rapid depletion of the soil necessitates pastoralists-like foragers they generally need to know the potential of a large area of land. and like horticulturalists, pastoralists must move on when a resource is exaughsted (until grass renews itself). they depend on subsistence (maintaining) on human manipulation of animals. intensive agriculturalists- individual ownership of land resources including the right to use the resources and the right to sell or dispose of them is common. probably because they use the land season after season.gives it more of a permanent value.

Deforestation of the Amazon summary

forest puts a lot of moisture in the atmosphere because of evaporation of gallons of water from rain. If environmental changes to it happen the it will become drier which also means more fires. Amazon forest is in danger and other forests as well due to the demand for humans faming , demand for wood, hamburger, and gold., also land to grow crops. trying to encourage development instead of destruction.

What is the difference between gender and sex?

gender is what you are born with but sex is what you associate yourself with.

indirect dowry

good given by the groom's kin to the bride (or her father who passes most of them to her ) at or before her marriage.

prairie

grassland with a high grass cover

What factors have pushed humans to switch from collecting to producing food.

happened 10,000 years ago. began to cultivate and then domesticate plants and animals. 1) population growth in regions of bountiful wild resources pushed people to move to marginal areas, where they tried to reproduce their former abundance. 2) Global population growth filled up most of the world's habitable regions and forced people to utilize a broader spectrum of wild resources and to domesticate plants and animals. 3)Climatic change- hotter, drier summers and colder winters, favored settling near seasonal stands of wild grain; population growth in such areas would force people to plant crops and raise animals.

Hunting/ gathering characteristics

hunter gatherers collect food like wild plants and animal resources through gathering, hunting, scavenging, or fishing ( also called foragers) Live mostly in deserts, arctic, and dense tropical forests ( marginal areas of the earth) most live in small communities in sparsely populated territories and follow a nomadic lifestyle, no permanent settlements. don't recognize individuals land rights. don't have different classes of people and tend to not have a full time political official. only men hunt large marine and land animals and do most of the fishing , and women usually gather wild plant foods. get food more from gathering than from hunting, women do more gathering and contribute more to subsistence. spend a lot of time gathering and hunting and on house work.

ego

in the reckoning of kinship, the reference point or focal person.

What accounts for differences in personality in adulthood?

include a difference in perceptual style known as field independence versus field dependence (may be due to economic differences) and difference in display of aggression

What kinds of cultures emphasize obedience training? which value independence?

independence- US obedience training- other countries

What different motives exist for stimulating production? does everybody follow a "profit motive"?

not all cultures have the same motives. in a way they do but also don't. hunter gatherer's, horticulturalists, and some agriculturalists have the desire to exchange for more than it is worth. work because they must and to support family. Work harder if there are more consumers in a house hold. subsistence is important for people listed above. That is what they want. there are some societies where some people work harder then they need to for their own families subsistence.- they do this so they can gain respect. also could work harder for specific occasions such as a wedding. In commercial economies like ours we strive to improve one's standards of living through making more money. people also work to gain respect and and influence others by giving some of their money away. sharing is less practiced in our culture vs. subsistence economies- we would think it is ridiculous to give away so much that you then become poor.

special-purpose money

objects of value for which only some goods and services can be exchanged.

Why does the Migratory labor pattern occur? and how does commercialization happen.

one way commercialization can occur is for member of a community to become migratory workers, traveling to a place nearby that offers the possibility of working for wages. Another is when a simple, self-sufficient hunting or agricultural society comes to depend more on trading for its livelihood. another is when those cultivating the soil produce more than they require for subsistence. the surplus is then sold for cash. income must be used to pay rent or taxes and then the last way is through commercial agriculture -- everything is produced for sale instead of personal use.

consanguineal kin

one's biological relatives; relatives by birth

examples of open and closed class systems

open- U.S, Canada, Finland, Sweden closed- Japan, India, also sub-saharan African societies- only some occupational specialties are performed by a certain caste and also untouchables and can't marry outside of group.

What are some reasons for differences in child training around the world?

parents in US say for crying that they don't want their children to be clingy and dependent on them so they don't go to them right away. They think that in other countries since 20% of babies die in first year that they hold them more to protect them from snakes, insects, and fires on the ground and that they try not to interact with their infants in more emotional ways such as play to protect them emotionally in case they do end up dying.

polygamy

plural marriage; one individual is married to more than one spouse simultaneously. polygyny and polyandry are types of polygamy (the marriage of one man to more than one women at a time

Horticulture

simple farming techniques have tended to yield more food from a given area than s generally available to foragers. it is able to support larger, more densely populated communities. they also tend to stay in places longer or permanently because they rely hugely rely on trees that keep producing for a long time. recently these societies have been showing the beginnings of social differentiation. - certain possessions.

Pastorialism

practiced mainly in grassland and other semiarid habitats. most pastoralists are nomadic, moving camp fairly frequently to find water and new pasture for their herds. others may move from one settlement to another in different seasons so not as much or send some people out to travel with the herds in different seasons. they are usually very small communities, that are a group of related families. they may own their animals but community makes decisions as a whole about when and where to move them. trade is usually necessary for the pastoral groups to survive and they are more vulnerable to famine and food shortages. overgrazing in small territories has increased the risk of desertification due to drought as well.

postpartum sex taboo

prohibition of sexual intercourse between a couple from a period of time after the birth of their child.

incest taboo

prohibition of sexual intercourse or marriage between mother and son, father and daughter, and brother and sister; often extends to other relatives.

different kinds of reciprocity

reciprocity- consists of giving and taking without the use of money; (gift giving) generalized= goods or services are given to another; without any apparent expectation of a return gift . all societies have some form of reciprocity ex: parents give children food, clothing, labor but don't calculate how much they will reciprocate years later. It can be very unselfish but benefits people greatly. = take care of children well , children will take of you when older. people share also due to unpredictability- so wild game of water in specific places balanced= is explicit and short term- involves either an immediate exchange of goods or services or an agreed-upon exchange over a limited period of time. ( called Barter) usually involves labor. gift exchanges are personal vs. commodities

what are redistributive economies and market/commerical exchange?

redistributive= is the accumulation of goods or labor by a particular person, or in a particular place for the purpose of subsequent distribution. it is important in societies that have political hierarchies (chiefs) market/commercial exchange= where "prices" depend on supply and demand, tends to occur with increasing levels of economic productivity. usually involves money or all-purpose medium. world is becoming a single market system.

gender roles

roles that are culturally assigned to genders.

rules of descent

rules that connect individuals with particular sets of kin because of known or presumed common ancestry.

Intensive Agriculture

societies with intensive agriculture are more likely to have towns and cities, high degree of craft specialization, complex political organization, large difference in wealth and power.also work longer hours than horticulturalists. there is also a higher chance of food shortage and famines than horticulture even though it produces more. due to market demands, usually focus on one crop- weather changes, disease. etc

What is a cash crop? examples of some?

soil produce that is then sold for money. lettuce, beets, potatoes

projective tests

tests that utilize ambiguous stimuli; test subjects must project their own personality traits in order to structure the ambiguous stimuli.

ambilineal descent

the rule of descent that affiliates individuals with groups of kin related to them through men or women

patrilineal descent

the rule of descent that affiliates individuals with kin of both sexes related to them through men only

matrilineal descent

the rule of descent that affiliates individuals with kin of both sexes related to them through women only

bilateral kinship

the type of kinship system in which individuals affiliate more or less equally with their mother's and father's relatives; descent groups are absent

sex differences

the typical differences between females and males that are most likely due to biological difference.

What is gender stratification? Give some examples of how this has affected women.

the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and privilege between men and women women get paid less and don't get recognized for what they do. has also caused for different standards and expectations from each gender.

How does the setting (including school) in which children find themselves influence their development?

their cognitive thinking improves and gets better with the more schooling that they have. They could be more aggressive due to what setting they are in.

economic resources

things that have value in a culture, including land, tools and other technology, goods, and money

How do individuals act as agents of culture change?

women movements in china.

bride service

work performed by the groom for his bride's family for a variable length of time either before or after the marriage.

Do other societies have a more liberal notion of gender than our own? examples?

yes they do . they are more open and okay with it.