Test #3

Piaget's de-emphasis on language as a source of cognitive development was challenged by Vygotsky's sociocultural theory,___________________________

which stresses the social context of cognitive development.

Semantic

word meanings, to figure out grammatical rules

Environmental

Family: expectations of sons vs. daughters Teachers: actions that extend gender-role learning Peers: reinforcement for gender-typed play Broader social environment

Gender:________tend to be slightly ahead of ________ in early vocabulary growth.

Girls, boys

Language and verbal reasoning about mental states:

Left prefrontal cortex plays a crucial role. Understanding the mind requires the ability to reflect on thoughts, which language makes possible. Children who use complex sentences with mental state words perform better on false-belief tasks.

Role of adults:

Listening attentively Elaborating on what children say Modeling correct usage Stimulating children to talk further

Temperament:

Shy inhibited toddlers often wait longer to speak. When they do, their vocabulary increases rapidly, but they stay slight behind their age-mates.

Social Interaction

Social experiences promote understanding of the mind.

Logical Thought

When preschoolers are given tasks that are simplified (smaller numbers) and made relevant to their everyday lives (familiar objects), they do not display the illogical characteristics that Piaget saw in the preoperational stage. (appears gradually)

Types of Words

a. Children fast-map labels for objects especially rapidly and add verbs as they develop understandings of relationships between objects and actions. b. Children learning languages such as Chinese, in which nouns are often omitted from sentences, whereas verbs are stressed, acquire verbs sooner and more readily than their English-speaking agemates.

Inability to Conserve (first one)

a. Conservation refers to the idea that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes. b. Inability to conserve highlights several related aspects of preoperational children's thinking.

Complex Structures

a. Gradually, children master more complex grammatical structures. b. By the end of early childhood, children use most of the grammatical constructions of their language competently

Mutual exclusivity bias-

assumption that words refer to entirely separate (non-overlapping categories).

Children use more private speech when tasks are challenging but within their__________________

zone of proximal development.

Sustained attention improves in toddler hood

because of a steady gain in children's ability to inhibit impulses and keep their mind on a competing goal

Sensitivity to children's readiness to learn:

building on children's current thinking (Do not impose new skills before the child is ready)

Bootstrapping

children group together agent words (things that perform actions) and then action words (the actions caused)

The __________________ emphasizes children's thinking, or reasoning about fairness and justice

cognitive-developmental perspective

uninvolved child-rearing style

combines low acceptance and involvement with little control and general indifference to issues of autonomy.

Aphasia

communication disorders due to damage to these structures.

Authoritative parents exercise _____________but avoid ________________.

confrontive control, coercive control

fast-mapping-

connecting new words with underlying concepts after only a brief encounter.

Children learn from ________________ that support planning, such as directions for playing games and recipes for cooking.

cultural tools

High Behavioral control-

degree to which parents monitor activities, provide consistent clear guidelines for acceptable behavior -Higher behavioral control is associated with lower antisocial behavior

All theories of moral development recognize that conscience begins to take shape in ____________

early childhood

Piaget called children's utterances to themselves __________, reflecting his belief that young children have difficulty taking the perspectives of others.

egocentric speech

Expansions:

elaborating on children's speech, increasing its complexity

Preschoolers who experience the _____________ recall more information about past events than those who experience the repetitive style.

elaborative style

Each major theory of development emphasizes a different aspect of morality. Psychoanalytic theory stresses the __________ of conscience development. Freud's view of conscience development, in which fear of punishment and loss of parental love motivate moral behavior.

emotional side

Parental support-

emotionally positive environment, nurturing, provide companionship. Associated w/ higher levels of interpersonal competence and confidence

Interactionist perspective

emphasizes an interaction between inner capacities and environmental influences

At first, the child's morality is_____________ by adults, gradually, it becomes regulated by__________.

externally controlled, inner standards

Children build their vocabularies quickly by connecting new words with their underlying concepts through a process called __________

fast-mapping

Vygotsky, who saw language as the _______________________, believed that children speak to themselves for self-guidance and that as they get older and find tasks easier, their self-directed speech is internalized as silent, inner speech.

foundation for all higher cognitive processes

Mastery of gender constancy occurs in a three-step sequence:

gender labeling, gender stability, and gender consistency

Young children organize their experiences into___________-, or masculine and feminine categories, that they use to interpret their world and guide their behavior

gender schemes

Some experts believe that ____________________

grammar is a product of general cognitive development

Preschoolers seem to use ____________ only when wrestling with unfamiliar topics, too much information, or contradictory facts that they can't make sense of.

illogical reasoning

As boys and girls separate, _____________ helps sustain their separate social worlds

in group favoritism

Conscience formation is promoted by a type of discipline called _______, in which an adult helps make the child aware of feelings by pointing out the effects of the child's misbehavior on others.

induction

High self-esteem contributes to preschoolers' _________ as they master new skills; children who anticipate disapproval give up easily when faced with a challenge.

initiative

Elaborative reminiscing that focuses on young children's ____________ plays an important role in early self-concept development.

interal states

Capacity for _______________ is present early on in mutual gaze, exchange of vocal and emotional signals, imitation, and joint play

intersubjectivity

To promote cognitive development, social interaction must have two vital features:

intersubjectivity and scaffolding.

Infant directed speech (IDS):

is a form of communication that is makes up of short sentences, with high-pitched, exaggerated expression, clear pronunciation, distinct pauses between speech segments, clear gestures to support verbal meaning, and repetition of new words in a variety of contexts.

Androgyny

is a gender identity in which the individual scores high on both masculine and feminine personality characteristics—evidence that children can acquire a mixture of positive qualities traditionally associated with each gender. Androgynous individuals tend to show certain traits in certain situations (masculine independence or feminine sensitivity).

Gender identity

is an image of oneself as relatively masculine or feminine in characteristics. -By middle childhood you can rate gender identity based on how children rate themselves (ambitious, competitive, and self-sufficient is how those with a high masculine identity rate themselves, they also rate themselves low on affectionate, cheerful, and soft-spoken)

Age 1:

Babies view people as intentional beings who can share and influence one another's mental states.

Self Esteem

is the aspect of self-concept that involves judgments about our own worth and the feelings associated with those judgments. (These evaluations of our own competencies affect our emotional experiences, future behavior, and long-term psychological adjustment)

Metacognition—

is thinking about thinking. Ideas and understanding about how thinking and other mental states work. Processes to plan, monitor, and assess ones understanding and mental perforation.

permissive child-rearing style

is warm and accepting but uninvolved. Permissive parents are either overindulgent or inattentive and, thus, engage in little control.

Evidence that grammatical development is an extended process raises questions about ___________________.

Chomsky's language acquisition device (LAD).

Specialized language areas in the brain and a sensitive period for development have also been interpreted as supporting _____________.

Chomsky's theory

Syntactic bootstrapping-

learning word meanings by observing how words are used in syntax—in the structure of sentences.

To foster ______________, parents tend to rely on warmth and reasoning. Do you want your child to act good because they are afraid of punishment or because they love what is true, good, and beautiful. -punishment also tends to discriminate rather than generalize.

long term goals

Cognitive developmental theory

maintains that children acquire gender constancy— which is an understanding of the biologically based permanence of their gender—and use this knowledge to guide their behavior.

Sociodramatic play-

make believe play with others. By preschool year children have deep understanding of role relationships and story lines (E.g kids running around last night playing Airbender)

Girls exposed prenatally to high levels of androgen's show more ______________ behavior

masculine

Episodic memory

memory for everyday experiences, involves recalling complex, meaningful information and improves sharply between ages 3 and 6

Piaget described preschoolers in terms of what they cannot understand, comparing them to older children who are capable of operations—

mental representations of actions that obey logical rules.

Social learning theory focuses on how ___________ is learned.

moral behavior

Preschoolers in diverse cultures distinguish ___________, which protect people's rights and welfare, from ____________ (customs such as table manners) and matters of personal choice, such as choice of friends and hairstyle

moral imperatives, social conventions

At the extreme, uninvolved parenting is a form of child maltreatment called_________________

neglect

Preschoolers' self-concepts largely consist of _____________

observable characteristics

Telegraphic speech occurs _____________________

once the child has about 200-250 words—child uses high content, two word phrases, eliminating smaller, less important words (E.g. the, to, is.)

Gender schema theory:

perspective that combines elements of both social learning theory and cognitive-developmental theory, has gained favor as an explanation for children's gender typing

Children also become better at ___________ as long as tasks are familiar and not too complex.

planning

Social learning theory

preschoolers acquire gender-typed responses through modeling and reinforcement and only later organize these behaviors into gender-linked ideas about themselves.

Research over the past three decades supports Vygotsky's perspective, and children's self-directed speech is now called

private speech

Intersubjectivity:

process by which two participants arrive at shared understanding of a task (common ground for communication. Adults try to promote it when they put their own thoughts in ways kids can grasp)

Authoritarian parents also engage in _______________, manipulating children's verbal expressions, individuality, and attachments to parents

psychological control

Production requires__________of word and the concept it stands for.

recall

Comprehension requires only _______________ of word meaning

recognition

Gender types

refers to any association of objects, activities, roles, or traits with one sex or the other in ways that conform to cultural stereotypes.

Grammar

refers to the way we combine words into meaningful phrases and sentences

-Children as young as 2 realize that make-believe play is ______________ and different form the real world

representational

Autobiographical memory—

representations of personally meaningful, one-time events—develops as preschoolers' cognitive and conversational skills improve

Recasts:

restructuring incorrect speech into correct form

_____________refers to teaching about school or school like tasks

scaffolding

Children who consistently experience induction may form a ________ for the negative emotional consequences of harming others

script

Like adults, preschoolers remember familiar, repeated events in terms of ___________—general descriptions of what occurs and when it occurs in a particular situation

scripts

According to one view, young children rely on _________________

semantics

-Children actually use more private speech when others are around suggesting that it has a ____________

social function

According to_________________, moral behavior is acquired through reinforcement and modeling.

social learning theory

Babies _____________, that is their brains analyze speech for patterns—sequences of sounds that occur together. As a result babies learn commonly occurring speech sounds, what we call___________, and they also learn which sounds or phonemes tend to go together. Later on they will learn the meanings of these sounds.

statistical learner, phonemes

Babies are able to figure out where words begin and end based on this ____________-. Babies learn to discriminate which syllables tend to occur together. Therefore, they assume that these syllables much belong to the same word. On the other hand syllables that occur infrequently tend to signal a word boundary. Ex. KONICHIWA and The boy walks.

statistical learning

authoritarian child-rearing style

style is low in acceptance and involvement, high in coercive control, and low in autonomy granting.

Between ages 2 and 3, English-speaking children use simple sentences that follow a ________________; children learning other languages adopt the word orders of adult speech in those languages.

subject-verb-object word order

Theory of mind-

the ability to attribute mental states—beliefs, ideas, emotions—to oneself and others and realize that someone else may have mental states that differ from your own.

Piaget also regarded egocentrism as responsible for children's animistic thinking—

the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities.

Piaget viewed egocentrism—

the failure to distinguish the symbolic viewpoints of others from one's own—as the most fundamental deficiency of preoperational thinking -Children tend to assume that others think, feel, and perceive the same way they do

authoritative child-rearing style

the most successful approach, involves high acceptance and involvement, adaptive control techniques, and appropriate autonomy granting.

Preoperational children have difficulty with hierarchical classification:

the organization of objects into classes and sub classes on the basis of similarities and differences -Piaget's class inclusion problem demonstrates this limitation

Self Concept

the set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual define who he or she is.

A subtype of the interactionist perspective

the social interactionist perspective- suggests that a child tries to communicate, which cues caregivers to provide appropriate language experiences, which then helps the child related the content and structure of language to its social meaning

Understanding scale models for real-world spaces does not develop until about age ______

three

Sensorimotor activity leads to __________________

to internal images of experience, which children then label with words

Caregiver-child conversation:

using rich vocabularies is important as these will be the words that are first produced by the child

2.5 year old's have a hard time with dual representation-

viewing a symbolic object as both an object in its own right and a symbol.

Sign Language

Deaf infants exposed to sign language from birth babble with their hands. Deaf infants not exposed to sign language will stop babbling entirely.

Harsh punishment has several undesirable side effects:

(Harsh punishment, such as slapping and angry yelling, is Ineffective as a disciplinary tactic.) (1) It provides children with adult models of aggression. (2) Harshly treated children focus on their own distress rather than sympathetically orienting to others' needs. (3) Because harsh punishment gives adults immediate relief, they are likely to punish more frequently over time. (4) Because adults whose own parents used corporal punishment are more accepting of such discipline, use of physical punishment may transfer to the next generation.

Authoritative part 2

*Acceptance: high *Involvement: high *Control: adaptive *Autonomy: appropriate -Independent, friendly, self-assertive & cooperative, motivated to achieve, regulate their own behavior effectively (emotionally and socially)

Permissive part 2

*Acceptance: high *Involvement: low *Control: low *Autonomy: high -tend to be dependent and moody, low in social skills and self control

Authoritarian part 2

*Acceptance: low *Involvement: low *Control: high *Autonomy: low -children are withdrawn, little sociability, not friendly, behave uneasily. -Girls=dependent -Boys=hostile

Uninvolved part 2

*Acceptance: low *Involvement: low *Control: low *Autonomy: indifferent -Children experience considerable emotional development disruptions, feel unloved and emotionally detached. Impedes physical and cognitive growth

Psychoanalytic

*Freud: -Children identify with same sex parent; obey superego to avoid guilt -current view: emphasizes inductive discipline

Memory recognition

- Easier for young children and adults - Nearly perfected by age 4 or 5

Discovery learning

- children are encouraged to learn and provided opportunities for spontaneous interaction with environment (Does not just present prepackaged knowledge in verbal form.)

Piaget's Preoperational Stage

-Ages 2-7 -Characterized by increase in representation or symbolic activity: *Development of make-believe play *Gains in understanding of symbol-real-world relations

Self Concept

-As early as age 2, parents use narratives of past events to impart rules, standards for behavior, and evaluative information about the child. -Cultural values play a role in how parents tell narratives about their child. -As they talk about personally significant events and as their cognitive skills advance, preschoolers come to view themselves as persisting over time.

Newborn Sense of Hearing Unlies Language Acquisition

-Can hear a wide variety of sounds at birth -Prefer complex sounds to pure tones -Learn sound patterns within days -Sensitive to voices, and biologically prepared to learn language

Ethnic minority parents often have distinct child-rearing beliefs and practices:

-Chinese parents are often more controlling. -Hispanic, Asian Pacific Island, and Caribbean families combine insistence on respect for parental authority with high parental warmth. -Low-SES African-American parents tend to expect immediate obedience, believe that strict parenting fosters self-control and vigilance.

Findings of longitudinal study comparing personal storytelling of Irish-American and Chinese families:

-Chinese parents emphasized severity of children's misbehavior and its impact on others. -Irish-American parents attributed transgressions to spunk and assertiveness, downplayed seriousness. -Differing emphasis in children's self-image: -Chinese children: belonging, obligations to others Irish-American children: autonomy

First speech sounds: -Cooing (around 2 months) -Babbling (around 6 months

-Cooing—speech comprise of vowel like noises..called cooing because of the pleasant "oo" qaulity. -Babbling- repeated consonant-vowel combinations Ex. Mamama. Nanana. Dadada. (babbling initially includes many sounds of spoken languages, but within caregiver interaction begins to modify the babbling to sound patterns like those in adult speech.)

Social conventions

-Customs determined by consensus -Examples: table manners, politeness rituals

How should we approach gender identity, including gender roles with children?

-Delay preschoolers' exposure to gender -stereotyped messages. -Model nontraditional gender roles and provide nontraditional alternatives. -Ensure that children spend time in mixed-gender activities. -Point out exceptions to gender stereotypes.

Matters of personal choice

-Do not violate rights; up to the individual -Examples: friends, hairstyle, leisure activities

Erikson's Theory of Initiative:

-Eagerness to try new tasks, join activities with peers -Trying out new skills through play -Acting out family scenes and highly visible occupations

Animistic and magical beliefs:

-Even infants have begun to distinguish animate from inanimate. -Preschoolers' notions of magic are flexible and appropriate.

The role of guilt

-Freud was correct that guilt motivates moral action; guilt reactions are evident by the end of toddlerhood. -Parents can influence children by inducing empathy-based guilt, explaining that the child is causing someone distress, and by helping children deal with guilt feelings constructively. -Contrary to Freud's belief, moral development is a gradual process that extends into adulthood.

Gender-Stereotyped Beliefs and Behaviors (part 2)

-From an early age, children view gender in terms of activities and behaviors. -Preschoolers associate common objects, occupations, colors, and behaviors with gender. -Gender-stereotyped beliefs influence play preferences and personality traits. -Gender-stereotyped beliefs strengthen in early childhood as a product of: *gender stereotyping in the environment. *young children's cognitive limitations

Cochlear implant:

-If auditory input is not restored until after age 2, children remain behind in language development. -If implantation occurs after age 4, language delays are severe and persistent.

Sensitive Period for development

-If we could find evidence that a sensitive period coincided with brain liberalization then the view that language has unique biological properties would be supported

The children's contribution

-In addition to good discipline, children's characteristics affect the success of parenting techniques. -To foster early moral development, parents must tailor their disciplinary strategies to their child's personality. - power assertion undermines the child's capacity for efffortful control. -Parents of impulsive children can foster conscience development through warm, harmonious relationships and combining firm correction of misbehavior with induction.

Information Processing: Planning

-In early childhood, children become better at planning. -Effective planning is mastered around age 5, with gains in inhibition and working memory. -Children learn from parental encouragement and cultural tools that support planning.

Broca's area

-In left frontal lobe of cerebral cortex -Role in grammatical processing and language production -touches motor section -damage to the frontal cortex

Wernicke's area

-In left temporal lobe -Role in comprehending word meaning

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

-Language structures the perception and categorization of experience -The structure of the language influences what we tend to perceive.

Benefits of Make Believe Play

-Leads to gains in social competence. -Strengthens cognitive capacities: -Sustained attention -Inhibition of impulses -Memory -Logical reasoning -Language and literacy -Imagination, creativity, perspective taking -Imaginary companions enhance pretend play.

Memory recall

-Much poorer than recognition in young children -Associated with language development -Hindered by limited working memory, lack of skill at using memory strategies

Theories of Language Development

-Nativist (Noam Chomsky): Innate language acquisition device (LAD) -Interactionist: Interaction between child's inner capacities and environmental influences -Social-interactionist (subtype of interactionist): Importance of children's social skills and language experiences

Limitations of the Nativist Perspective

-One critique is that there is no complete description of what these abstract grammatical rules are or even an agreed on list of how many there are (Specifying the universal grammar) Secondly, we would expect children to apply the innate grammatical structure to all relevant cases, but children tend to use grammatical forms in piecemeal, learning and making errors along the way. This suggest that there is more experimentation and learning that Chomsky assumed.

Erikson's theory of Guilt

-Overly strict superego, or conscience, leading to too much guilt -Related to excessive threats, criticism, punishment from adults

Preschoolers' Moral Understanding

-Preschoolers have some well-developed ideas about morality. -At age 4, children approve of telling the truth and disapprove of lying, even when a lie remains undetected.

Moral imperatives

-Protect people's rights and welfare -Violations viewed as more wrong than violations of social conventions

Enhancement of Make-believe play:

-Provide sufficient space and play materials. -Encourage children's play without controlling it. -Offer a variety of realistic materials as well as materials without clear functions. -Ensure that children have many rich, real-world experiences to inspire positive fantasy play. -Help children solve social conflicts constructively.

Importance of Modeling

-Social learning theorists believe that children learn to behave morally largely through modeling—by observing and imitating people who demonstrate appropriate behavior. -Preschoolers are more likely to copy the prosocial actions of an adult who displays warmth and responsiveness, competence and power, and consistency between assertions and behavior. -At the end of the preschool years, children who have had consistent exposure to caring adults tend to behave prosocially whether or not a model is present.

Information Processing: Attention

-Sustained attention improves in toddler hood and early childhood. -Children gain in ability to inhibit impulses and focus on a competing goal. -Gains in working memory permit more complex play and problem-solving goals. -Adult scaffolding of attention supports gains in language and executive function

Vygotskian classrooms promote assisted discovery

-Teachers guide children's learning with explanations, demonstrations, and verbal prompts. -Children with varying abilities engage in peer collaboration, working together in groups.

Challenges to Vygotsky's theory:

-Verbal dialogues are not the only means through which children learn. -Vygotsky says little about how basic motor, perception, attention, memory, and problem-solving skills contribute to higher cognitive processes -Children in village and tribal cultures typically learn through observation and participation in adult work.

What Makes Authoritative Child Rearing Effective?

-Warm, involved parents model caring concern and confident, self-controlled behavior. -Children are more likely to comply and internalize control that appears fair and reasonable. -Authoritative parents convey to children that they are competent, fostering self-esteem and maturity. -Supportive aspects of the authoritative style are powerful sources of resilience.

Characteristics of good models of moral behavior:

-Warmth and responsiveness -Competence and power -Consistency between assertions and behavior -Models are most influential in early years. -Later, children internalize prosocial rules

Scripts

-become more elaborate and spontaneous with age. -help children interpret and predict everyday experiences. -assist children in recall, make-believe play, and planning.

Cognitive Developmental:

-children are active thinkers about social rules -children make moral judgement based on concepts of justice and fairness

Effectiveness of occasional punishment is increased by

-consistency. -a warm parent-child relationship. -explanations.

Induction

-gives children information about how to behave that they can use in future situations. -encourages empathy and sympathetic concern, which motivate prosocial behavior. -gives children reasons for changing their behavior, encouraging them to adopt moral standards that make sense. -Encourages children to form a script that deters future transgressions.

Private Speech:

-is used for self-guidance, especially when tasks are in zone of proximal development. -gradually changes into whispers and silent lip movements. -is used more and over a longer period by children with learning problems.

Social Learning:

-modeling prenotes moral behavior -children internalize prosocial rules -harsh punishment has negative side effects

Toddlers: Parents should

-play make-believe with toddlers. -have frequent conversations. -read and talk about storybooks together

To support children's dual representation:

-point out similarities between models and real-world spaces. -expose young children to symbols (picture books, drawings, make-believe, maps).

How do different language styles develop?

-referential style children often have an interest in exploring objects. -expressive children tend to be highly sociable, and their parents often use verb routine "How are you? " that support social relationships

Language style

-referential- vocabularies consist of words that refer to objects. -expressive- more social formulas and pronouns.

Infants: Parents should

-respond to coos and babbles. -establish and respond to joint attention. -play social games

Alternatives to punishment include:

-time out (removing children from immediate setting). -withdrawal of privileges

According to overlapping-waves theory, children:

-try a variety of strategies to solve challenging problems. -observe which strategies work best, which work less well, and which are ineffective. -gradually select strategies on the basis of accuracy and speed.

Babies are able to distinguish between stress patterns such as ma-ma and ma-ma, between 2 and 3 syllable words, and two different languages, spoken by the same speaker so long as the rhythmic pattern differs.

........

Again, while we see some specialization it's important to note that these regions are not solely (or even primarily ) responsible for specific language capacities. Damage to nearby regions of the cerebral cortex and abnormalities in the left hemisphere related to the initial brain damage have an affect

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Around 7-8 months once infants can locate words they start to find additional statistical cues that signify word boundaries like syllable stress patterns—In English onset of a strong syllable like hap-py and rab-bit signifys a new word. By 10 months babies detect words that start with weak syllables by listening for sounds regularities before and after the word. Ex. Sur-prise.

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There is also evidence that learning a second language is harder after a sensitive period, further supported by There seems to be a biologically based time frame to optimum language development, but the boundaries of this window remain unclear.

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Discipline that relies too heavily on threats of punishment or withdrawal of love makes children anxious and frightened, so that they cannot think clearly and do not internalize moral rules

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Individual differences exist in the extent to which children endorse gender-typed views

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Induction, which is effective as early as age 2, motivates children's active commitment to moral standards.

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This includes deaf children: Those exposed to no sign language (either discouraged or who were spoken to verbally) develop homesign, a spontaneous gestural communication system. Homesign is very similar in basic grammatical structure to hearing children's verbal language. Those experiencing even inexpert sign language attain correct rule usage and consistent grammar on a comparable timetable to hearing age mates

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Best way to help babies detect words within the speech stream is to give them isolated examples of the words "Kitty!" along with the same word used in a normal sentence "Look at the kitty drinking milk"

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Evidence that preschool children can be trained to perform well on Piagetian problems also supports the idea that operational thought is not absent at one point in time and present at another.

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In children with left hemisphere brain damage, if the right hemisphere acquires the language functions form the left, it localizes in pretty much the same sport that typically supports language in the left hemisphere, suggesting that those brain structures are disposed for language processing.

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Those who learn ASL in adolescence and adulthood never acquire it as proficiently as those who learn in childhood.

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-In the nativist view, the LAD enables children, no matter which language they hear, to speak in a rule-oriented fashion as soon as they pick up enough words -Children everywhere reach major language milestones in a similar sequence—evidence that provides support for the nativist perspective.

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3-4 year olds will report that hitting is worse than eating ice cream with your fingers.

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By age 3½, children also describe themselves in terms of typical emotions and attitudes, and by age 5, they have a sense of their own personality traits.

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Once children form three-word sentences, they also make small changes that enable speakers to express meanings flexibly and efficiently—for example, adding -s for plural.

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Children of authoritarian parents are likely to be anxious, unhappy, and low in self-esteem and self-reliance.

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Cultures matter as well—English toddlers use more object words than Chines Japanese, and Korean toddlers who have more action and social routine words

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From birth on infants prefer IDS to other kinds of adult talk and by 5 months they are more emotionally responsive to it.

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Preschoolers spend shorter times involved in tasks and are more easily distracted than school-age children.

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By age 3, same-sex peers positively reinforce one another for gender-typed play, while criticizing children who engage in "cross-gender" activities

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Controversy persists over whether a universal, built-in language-processing device exists or whether children draw on general cognitive-processing procedures.

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- Some neo-Piagetian theorists believe that a related set of competencies develops over an extended period, depending on brain development and specific experiences. -This flexible stage notion provides a better account of the complexity of early childhood thinking.

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-Now, children who were not exposed to adults who were fluent in the elaborate sign language had smaller vocabularies and less complex grammar BUT they did generate their own language system, which seems to support Chomsky's notion of a innate ability or nativist perspectice

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Girls tend to have more organized and detailed narratives about past events than boys. And compared with Asian children, Western children typically include more talk about their own thoughts and emotions.

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Parents with conflict-ridden marriages and with mental health problems are more likely to be punitive and to have hard-to-manage children, whose disobedience evokes more parental harshness.

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Vygotsky saw make-believe play as a unique, broadly influential zone of proximal development in which children try out a variety of challenging activities and acquire many new competencies.

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A warm, sensitive parent-child relationship seems to foster a more positive, coherent early self-concept.

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By detaching thought from action we become much better at thinking than in the sensorimotor period. Piaget thought that sensory motor activity leads to internal images of experience, which children then label with words. However, he underestimate how language assists in cognitive development of children

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Children of uninvolved parents display poor emotional self-regulation, school achievement difficulties, and antisocial behavior

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Gender schematic thinking can skew memories—male nurses will be remembered as doctors. Gender schematic thinking does not seem problematic per se, but rather only if those things that we attribute to males or females limit them in understanding themselves.

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Lack of hierarchical classification also demonstrates preoperational children's centration and irreversiblity

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Children of permissive parents are impulsive, disobedient, and rebellious. They are also overly demanding and dependent on adults, and show less persistence on tasks.

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Preschool teachers encourage girls, but not boys, to participate in adult-structured activities and give more overall attention to boys than to girls.

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Longitudinal findings reveal a link between physical punishment and later child and adolescent aggressiveness.

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Authoritative parenting is linked to many aspects of competence throughout childhood and adolescence.

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Gender Stereotyped beliefs and behaviors

1. Children as young as 18 months have begun to acquire subtle, common associations with gender. 2. Around age 2, children use gender terms appropriately and sort out what gender categories mean in terms of activities and behaviors. 3. Boys tend to be more active, impulsive, assertive, and overtly aggressive, whereas girls tend to be more fearful, dependent, emotionally sensitive, compliant, and skilled at understanding self-conscious emotions. 4. Between ages 3 and 4, children's gender-stereotyped beliefs strengthen, and children apply them as blanket rules rather than flexible guidelines.

Toddlers typically say their first word at around 12 months of age and combine two words between 1½ and 2 years. By age 6, children comprehend about ________ words, speak in elaborate sentences, and are skilled conversationalists.

10,000

By age ____________, children can resist the "pull" of their attention toward a dominant stimulus

6 and 7

over-regularization

Children sometimes overextend the rules to words that are exceptions, an error. Example: "My toy car breaked."

___________ comprehension develops ahead of production.

At all ages

With growing symbolic mastery, play: includes more complex combinations of schemes.

Children combines schemes such as pouring AND drinking.

Age 2:

Children display clearer grasp of others' emotions and desires

Age 4:

Children realize that both beliefs and desires determine behavior, and become aware of false beliefs(ones that do not represent reality—can guide people's behavior.)

Age 3:

Children realize that thinking is internal, but focus only on desires, not beliefs (By age 3 children realize that thinking takes place inside their heads and that a person than think about something without seeing, touching, or talking about.)

With growing symbolic mastery, play: detaches from real-life conditions associated with it.

Early on children only use realistic objects in their place—they have trouble using an object with an obvious function as a symbol for another object (Ex. Using a toy train as a telephone) -They begin to imagine objects and events without any support from the real world—it doesn't have to be tied to the real world.

Adults use two styles to elicit children's autobiographical narratives

Elaborative and repetitive

_____________________- less affected by gender constancy than by children's beliefs about how close the connection must be between their own gender and their behavior

Gender role adoption

How do infant's increase their vocabularies so quickly?

In their second year they improve in their ability to categorize experiences, recall words, and grasps social cues to meaning (E.g. eye gaze, pointing, handling objects). Steady increase in rate of word learning through preschool years

Young children self judgement:

Learning things in school Making friends Getting along with parents Treating others kindly

Becoming a communicator: -Joint attention (appears 3-4 months, more accurate 10-11 months) -Give-and-take (around 3 months) -Pre-verbal gestures (around 1 year)

Joint attention- child attends to or observes the same object or event as the caregiver who often labels. Joint attention facilitates language development. -Joint attention is related to longer sustained attention, increased comprehension of language, production of meaningful gestures and words, and faster vocabulary development by 2 y.o. -give and take is when mothers and infants mutually imitate pitch, loudness, and duration of each others sounds. -pre-verbal gestures- direct adults attention, influence their behavior, and can be very helpful information. E.g. pointing or holding an object up.

______________ seems to be uniquely human. That is, attempts to teach nonhuman primates language has only had limited success—they never seem to learn grammar!

Language acquisition

Make believe play

Make-believe offers a rich context for thinking about the mind

-Linguist Noam Chomsky proposed ____________ which suggests that all children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD), an innate system containing a universal grammar, or set of rules common to all languages.

Nativist perspective

Authoritative

Nature of Demands & Responsiveness to Children: -------------------------------------------------------- *high demands, high repsonsiveness Characteristics: ----------------- *firm, setting clear and consistent limits Relationship with Child: -------------------------- *They are relatively strict but emotionally supportive, they encourage independence. They try to reason with their child and give the rational for an imposed punishment.

Authoritarian

Nature of Demands & Responsiveness to Children: -------------------------------------------------------- *high demands; low responsiveness Characteristics: ----------------- *controlling, punitive, rigid, cold Relationship with Child: -------------------------- *parents word is law, they value strict, unquestionable obedience from their child. They do not tolerate expression of disagreement

Permissive

Nature of Demands & Responsiveness to Children: -------------------------------------------------------- *low demands, high responsiveness Characteristics: ------------------ * lax and inconsistent feedback Relationship with child: -------------------------- *They require little of there child, and they don't see themselves as holding much responsibility for how their child turns out. They place little or no limits or control on their child's behavior

Uninvolved

Nature of Demands & Responsiveness to Children: -------------------------------------------------------- *low demands, low responsiveness Characteristics: ----------------- *displaying indifferent, rejecting behavior Relationship with Child: --------------------------- *They are detached emotionally and see their role as only providing food, clothing, and shelter. In its extreme form, this parenting style results in neglect, a form of child abuse.

Underextension:

applying words too narrowly

Low Psychological control-

Parental control that impeded emotional and psychological development; make the child believe what you believe through unhealthy guilt (not guilt-based empathy) -High psych control are associated with higher depression

Both _________________classrooms emphasize active participation and acceptance of individual differences.

Piagetian and Vygotskian

With growing symbolic mastery, play: becomes less self-centered.

Play becomes less self-centered-Children move from engaging only themselves (E.g feeding themselves) to directing pretend actions toward objects (E.x like when they feed a dol). -Children realize that characters/actors who act and are acted on can be independent themselves (E.g Doll can feed itself)

Executive function:

Several aspects of executive function predict false-belief mastery. Gains in inhibition predict false-belief task performance. WHY? Perhaps because it requires the suppression of an irrelevant response—others know and believe what I know and believe.

Moral reasoning: Kohlberg's approach

Pre-conventional- Concrete interests of the individual Stage 1: Follow rules to avoid punishment Stage 2:Obedience occurs because of rewards received Conventional-Interested in pleasing others by being good members of society Stage 3: "Good boy"- maintain the respect of others Stage 4: social-order-maintaining morality- society says what is right Post-conventional- ppl use moral principles, broader than any particular society Stage 5: Morality of contract: Do what is right because of implicit social contracts—society has agreed upon them. Stage 6:Morality of conscience: Follows laws based on universal ethical principles.

_____________thinking is rigid, limited to one aspect of a situation at a time, and strongly influenced by the way things appear at the moment

Preoperational children's

_______________tend to have bigger vocabularies because there are more object labels than social terms

Referential children

Baumrind's parenting style

Responsiveness and demandingness: -Authoritative -Authoritarian -Permissive -Neglectful -Acceptance & involvement, control, autonomy granting

In granting social experience a fundamental role in cognitive development, _______________ theory helps us understand the wide cultural variation in children's cognitive skills.

Vygotsky's

Guided participation

a broader term than scaffolding referring to shared endeavors between more and less expert participants, varying across situations and cultures.

Categorization

a. Preschoolers organize their everyday knowledge into nested categories at an early age. -categories like function, behaviors, and natural kind (animate vs. inanimate). b. During the second and third years, children's categories differentiate, and they form many basic-level categories ("chairs," "tables"). c. By the third year, children easily move between basic-level categories and general categories ("furniture"), and they break down basic-level categories into subcategories ("rocking chairs," "desk chairs"). d. Preschoolers' rapidly expanding vocabularies and general knowledge support their skill at categorizing. e. Young children ask many questions about their world and generally get informative answers, which are particularly well-suited to advancing their conceptual understanding

Ecocentrism

a. When researchers use simplified tasks with familiar objects, 3-year-olds show clear awareness of others' vantage points, challenging Piaget's assumption of egocentric thinking. b. In conversation, preschoolers adapt their speech to fit the needs of their listeners. c. Piaget also overestimated preschoolers' animistic beliefs.

Piaget argued that preschoolers' egocentric bias prevents them from_____________, or reflecting on and revising their faulty reasoning in response to their physical and social worlds.

accomodating

Preschoolers can distinguish moral imperatives from social conventions by _______________ of their experiences.

actively making sense

Acceptance of individual differences:

activities for individual children and small groups -Children go through the same stages, but at different rates. Children are judge based on their own prior performance, not on standardized testing.

Scaffolding:

adjusting support offered during a teaching session to fit child's current level of performance. --adults help break the task into manageable units, suggest strategies, offer rational for using them (E.g. Ollie building legos) -Children take the language from these dialogues and make them a part of there private speech.

______________of attention helps children overcome frustration and sustain direction on challenging tasks.

adult scaffolding

By _______________, preschoolers have several self-judgments—for example, about learning things well in school, making friends, getting along with parents, and treating others kindly.

age 4

irreversibility

an inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and then reverse direction, returning to the starting point.

Gender schema theory—

an information-processing approach to gender typing, combining social learning and cognitive-developmental features—explains how environmental pressures and children's cognition's work together to shape gender-role development.

Preschoolers can engage in reasoning by____________about physical changes and can think logically about cause and effect in familiar contexts.

analogy

-Masculine identity is a better predictor of self-esteem, so is ____________

androgyny

Gender constancy tasks can be considered a type of _____________-reality problem, in that children must distinguish what a person looks like from who he or she really is

appearance

Overextension:

applying words too broadly

centration:

—the tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation, neglecting other important features. -They are easily distracted by the perceptual appearance of objects. -They treat the initial and final states in a problem as unrelated events, ignoring the dynamic transformation between them.