Test

Skill differentiation

Who performs various tasks

Sequential Interdependence

With this type of interdependence, different tasks are done in a prescribed order, and the group is structured such that the members specialize in these tasks. Although members in groups with sequential interdependence interact to carry out their work, the interaction occurs only between members who perform tasks that are next to each other in the sequence Moreever, the member performing the task in the latter part of the sequence depends on the member performing the task in the earlier part of the sequence but not the other way around An example is the assembly line

Organizational Structure Characteristic

Work specialization The degree to which tasks in an organization are divided into separate jobs Chain of command Answers the question of who reports to whom and signifies formal authority relationships Centralization Refers to where decisions are formally made in organizations Formalization The degree to which rules and procedures are used to standardize behaviors and decisions in an organization

Organizational Characteristics (work specialization, span of control) and pros/cons of them How they connect?

Work specialization is the way in which tasks in an organization are divided into separate jobs. In some organizations, this categorization is referred to as a company's division of labor. How many tasks does any one employee perform? To some degree, work specialization is a never-ending trade-off among productivity, flexibility, and worker motivation. Take an assembly-line worker at Ford as an example. Henry Ford was perhaps the earliest (and clearly most well-known) believer in high degrees of work specialization. He divided tasks among his manufacturing employees to such a degree that each employee might perform only a single task, over and over again, all day long. Having only one task to perform allowed those employees to be extremely productive at doing that one thing. It also meant that training new workers was much easier when replacements were needed. However, there are trade-offs when organizations make jobs highly specialized. Highly specialized jobs can cause organizations to lose the ability associated with employees who can be flexible in what they do. By spending all their time performing specialized tasks well, employees fail to update or practice other skills. Accounting majors, for example, might specialize in taxes or auditing. Some larger companies might hire these graduates for their ability to do either auditing or tax—but not both. Other companies might be looking for an accountant who can perform either aspect well, depending on how they divide up accounting duties within their organization. Still other companies might want to hire "general managers" who understand accounting, finance, management, marketing, and operations as a part of their job. Thus, high levels of specialization may be acceptable in larger firms with more employees but can be problematic in smaller firms in which employees must be more flexible in their job duties. Aetna, the Hartford, Connecticut- based health insurer, publishes more than 1,300 different job titles, each of which has its own list of the competencies that employees in those jobs must perform.2 Organizations may also struggle with employee job satisfaction when they make jobs highly specialized. If you recall from Chapter 4 on job satisfaction, we discussed five core characteristics of jobs that significantly affect satisfaction. One of those characteristics was variety, or the degree to which the job requires a number of different activities involving a number of different skills and talents.3 Employees tend to be more satisfied with jobs that require them to perform a number of different kinds of activities. Even though you might be very efficient and productive performing a job with only one task, how happy would you be to perform that job on a daily basis? One of the most famous films in early motion picture history was Modern Times, a film in which Charlie Chaplin was relegated to performing the same task over and over, very quickly. The movie ridiculed work specialization and the trend of treating employees as machines. The chain of command within an organization essentially answers the question "Who reports to whom?" Every employee in a traditional organizational structure has one person to whom they report. That person then reports to someone else, and on and on, until the buck stops with the CEO (though in a public company, even the CEO is responsible to the board of directors). The chain of command can be seen as the specific flow of authority down through the levels of an organization's structure. There are some companies such as Washington-based video-game maker Valve Corporation whose 300 employees work with no managers or assigned projects. (Valve's website lets you know the company has been "boss free" since its founding in 1996.4 ) However, these types of organizations are the exception and not the norm. Most organizations depend on a chain of command's flow of authority to attain order, control, and predictable performance.5 Some newer organizational structures make this chain of command a bit more complex. It has become common to have positions that report to two or more different managers. A newer trend for a number of companies, such as Oracle, is to have co-CEOs. However, Whole Foods and Chipotle have recently dropped their co-CEO structures primarily to streamline decision making. Chipotle CEO Steve Ells stated that, "a single, focused message to our teams and a focus on just the things that have made us successful is what we need now."6 For one example of how chain of command can greatly affect operations within an organization see this chapter's OB on Screen. A manager's span of control represents how many employees he or she is responsible for in the organization. The organizational charts in Figure 15-1 provide an illustration of the differences in span of control. In the top chart, each manager is responsible for leading two subordinates. In most instances, this level would be considered a narrow span of control. In the bottom chart, the manager is responsible for 10 employees. Typically, this number would be considered a wide span of control. Of course, the key question in many organizations is how many employees one manager can supervise effectively. Answering that question requires a better understanding of the benefits of narrow and wide spans of control. Narrow spans of control allow managers to be much more handson with employees, giving them the opportunity to use directive leadership styles while developing close mentoring relationships with employees. A narrow span of control is especially important if the manager has substantially more skill or expertise than the subordinates. Early writings on management assumed that the narrower the span of control, the more productive employees would become.7 However, a narrow span of control requires organizations to hire many managers, which can significantly increase labor costs. Moreover, if the span of control becomes too narrow, employees can become resentful of their close supervision and long for more latitude in their day-to-day decision making. In fact, current research suggests that a moderate span of control is best for an organization's productivity.8 This relationship is illustrated Note that organizational performance increases as span of control increases, but only up to the point that managers no longer have the ability to coordinate and supervise the large numbers of employees underneath them. Most organizations work hard to try to find the right balance, and this balance differs for every organization, depending on its unique circumstances. However, there is no question that spans of control in organizations have increased significantly in recent years.9 Although extremely rare, organizations such as Coca-Cola have gone through structures in which vice presidents have had up to 90 employees reporting to them!10 An organization's span of control affects how "tall" or "flat" its organizational chart becomes. For example, the top panel of Figure 15-1 depicts a tall structure with many hierarchical levels and a narrow span of control, whereas the bottom panel depicts a flat organization with few levels and a wide span of control. Think about what happens when an organization becomes "taller." First, more layers of management mean having to pay more management salaries. Second, communication in the organization becomes more complex as each new layer becomes one more point through which information must pass when traveling upward or downward. Third, the organization's ability to make decisions becomes slower, because approval for decisions has to be authorized at every step of the hierarchy. Over the past three decades, organizations worked to become flatter to reduce the costs associated with multiple layers of management and increase their ability to adapt to their environment. When Intel, for example, announced a reduction in its managerial ranks of 1,000 positions (or 1 percent of its 100,000 employees), a spokesperson announced that "This [layoff] is designed to improve costs and improve decision making and communications across the company."11 McDonald's recently reorganized in a way that is supposed to make their decision making faster and more focused on their customers. CEO Steve Easterbrook added, "Our new structure will be supported by streamlined teams with fewer layers and less bureaucracy."12 Centralization reflects where decisions are formally made in organizations. If only the top managers within a company have the authority to make final decisions, we would say that the organization has a highly "centralized" structure. In contrast, if decision-making authority is pushed down to lower-level employees and these employees feel empowered to make decisions on their own, an organization has a "decentralized" structure. Decentralization becomes necessary as a company grows larger. Sooner or later, the top management of an organization will not be able to make every single decision within the company. Centralized organizational structures tend to concentrate power and authority within a relatively tight group of individuals in the firm, because they're the ones who have formal authority over important decisions. Many organizations are moving toward a more decentralized structure. A manager can't have 20 employees reporting to him or her if those employees aren't allowed to make some decisions on their own. Airbus, the French manufacturer of airplanes, is doing its best to decentralize decision making within the company. CEO Fabrice Brégier believes it's taking the company way too long to make decisions. "We make some of the world's most complex products, but that doesn't mean we have to be overly complex about how we do things." His goal is to give Airbus's production managers more independence to set priorities and move more quickly. Brégier states, "We need to funnel this down to just the people required to make decisions."13 Greg Page, Executive Chairman of Cargill, a $100 billion conglomerate with 70 separate business units, says the company's senior governing body has only six people on purpose. He states, "By keeping the [leadership team] too small to conduct the day-to-day affairs of the company, it forces that accountability and ownership down the line. The role of the [team] is to put our noses in and keep our fingers out."14 However, it's also important to realize that some organizations might choose to hold on to centralized control regardless of how big they get. Pennsylvania-headquartered Sheetz convenience stores are one of the fastest-growing store operators in the country, with 440 outlets and annual revenues of $7 billion. Still run as a family business, the Sheetz family likes to maintain a high degree of control over what happens. While most companies decentralize as they get bigger for the sake of sanity, the Sheetz family has not ceded much control to those outside the family. Soon-to-be-CEO Joe Sheetz believes having the family retain decision-making rights is a big part of the company's success, saying, "We don't play well with others."15 Have the organizations where you've worked been largely centralized or decentralized? See our OB Assessments feature to find out. A company is high in formalization when there are many specific rules and procedures used to standardize behaviors and decisions. Although not something you can necessarily see on an organizational chart, the impact of formalization is felt throughout the organization. Rules and procedures are a necessary mechanism for control in every organization. Although the word formalization has a somewhat negative connotation, think about the reactions if McDonald's made its most popular menu items in different ways at each location. Or think about this: Would it bother you if every time you called Dell for technical support, you got an operator who treated you differently and gave you conflicting answers? Formalization is a necessary coordination mechanism that organizations rely on to get a standardized product or deliver a standardized service. Alcoa's Michigan Casting Center, a leading automotive part supplier, was plagued by the fact that it could have two machine operators running the same machine on two different shifts and get up to a 50 percent performance difference in output and quality between the workers. The company conducted a study to identify the best practices for each machine in its plant. These best practices became standard operating procedures for each worker, and that formalization allowed the company to get a more predictable level of output.16 Companies such as W.L. Gore, the Newark, Delaware-based manufacturer of Gore-Tex, fall at the other extreme when it comes to formalization.17 Whereas most companies have titles for their jobs and job descriptions that specify the tasks each job is responsible for, Bill Gore (company founder) felt that such formalization would stifle communication and creativity. After one of his employees mentioned that she needed to put some kind of job title on a business card to hand out at an outside conference, Gore replied that she could put "supreme commander" on the card for all he cared. She liked the title so much that she followed through on his suggestion, and it became a running joke throughout the company.18 Recent research supports Gore's view. A manager might try to make employees feel more empowered by decentralizing decision making, but evidence suggests this effect is negated when the employees' job roles have a high level of formalization.19

When it comes to floor time in a typical 8 person team meeting

3 people do over 75% of the talking

How to get high goal interdependence

A high degree of goal interdependence exists when team members have a shared vision of the team's goal and align their individual goals with that vision as a result. • Develop a formalized mission statement that members buy into.

Outcome Interdependence

A high degree of outcome interdependence exists when team members share in the rewards that the team earns Pay, bonuses, formal feedback and recognition, pats on the back, extra time off, and continued team survival

What are the pros and cos of a tall and flat organizational State two disadvantages of a tall Short answer

A manager's span of control represents how many employees he or she is responsible for in the organization. The organizational charts in Figure 15-1 provide an illustration of the differences in span of control. In the top chart, each manager is responsible for leading two subordinates. In most instances, this level would be considered a narrow span of control. In the bottom chart, the manager is responsible for 10 employees. Typically, this number would be considered a wide span of control. Of course, the key question in many organizations is how many employees one manager can supervise effectively. Answering that question requires a better understanding of the benefits of narrow and wide spans of control. Narrow spans of control allow managers to be much more handson with employees, giving them the opportunity to use directive leadership styles while developing close mentoring relationships with employees. A narrow span of control is especially important if the manager has substantially more skill or expertise than the subordinates. Early writings on management assumed that the narrower the span of control, the more productive employees would become.7 However, a narrow span of control requires organizations to hire many managers, which can significantly increase labor costs. Moreover, if the span of control becomes too narrow, employees can become resentful of their close supervision and long for more latitude in their day-to-day decision making. In fact, current research suggests that a moderate span of control is best for an organization's productivity.8 This relationship is illustrated in Figure 15-2. Note that organizational performance increases as span of control increases, but only up to the point that managers no longer have the ability to coordinate and supervise the large numbers of employees underneath them. Most organizations work hard to try to find the right balance, and this balance differs for every organization, depending on its unique circumstances. However, there is no question that spans of control in organizations have increased significantly in recent years.9 Although extremely rare, organizations such as Coca-Cola have gone through structures in which vice presidents have had up to 90 employees reporting to them!10 An organization's span of control affects how "tall" or "flat" its organizational chart becomes. For example, the top panel of Figure 15-1 depicts a tall structure with many hierarchical levels and a narrow span of control, whereas the bottom panel depicts a flat organization with few levels and a wide span of control. Think about what happens when an organization becomes "taller." First, more layers of management mean having to pay more management salaries. Second, communication in the organization becomes more complex as each new layer becomes one more point through which information must pass when traveling upward or downward. Third, the organization's ability to make decisions becomes slower, because approval for decisions has to be authorized at every step of the hierarchy. Over the past three decades, organizations worked to become flatter to reduce the costs associated with multiple layers of management and increase their ability to adapt to their environment. When Intel, for example, announced a reduction in its managerial ranks of 1,000 positions (or 1 percent of its 100,000 employees), a spokesperson announced that "This [layoff] is designed to improve costs and improve decision making and communications across the company."11 McDonald's recently reorganized in a way that is supposed to make their decision making faster and more focused on their customers. CEO Steve Easterbrook added, "Our new structure will be supported by streamlined teams with fewer layers and less bureaucracy."12

An essential condition for high performance teamwork is

A shared goal

Inspirational Appeal

A tactic designed to appeal to the targets values and ideals

Team

A team consists of two or more people who work interdependently over some time period to accomplish common goals related to some task oriented purpose

Business Environment Contingencies

An organization's business environment consists of its customers, competitors, suppliers, distributors, and other factors external to the firm, all of which have an impact on organizational design. One of the biggest factors in an environment's effect on structure is whether the outside environment is stable or dynamic. Stable environments don't change frequently, and any changes that do occur happen very slowly. Stable environments allow organizations to focus on efficiency and require little change over time. In contrast, dynamic environments change on a frequent basis and require organizations to have structures that are more adaptive.25 In a classic example, Sony made a well-publicized corporate mistake when it failed to meet the needs of its changing business environment to match Apple's iPod.26 Because it took it so long to recognize and adapt to this environmental shift, Sony struggled to be profitable for a long time. More recently, Sony has come under fire again for its organizational structure when it failed to learn from a major computer hacking scandal in 2011 and fell victim to a similar, but more serious attack in 2014 because its units didn't communicate with one another.27 Some would argue that the world is changing so fast that the majority of companies can no longer keep up.

Types of Team Conflict- how to deal with or handle them

Another important interpersonal process is conflict management which involves the activities that the team uses to manage conflicts that arise in the course of its work Relationship conflict refers to disagreements among team members in terms of interpersonal relationships or incompatibilities with respect to personal values or preferences This type of conflict centers on issues that are not directly connected to the team's task. Relationship conflict is not only dissatisfying to most people, it also tends to result in reduced team performance Task conflict in contrast, refers to disagreements among members about the team's task. Logically speaking, this type of conflict can be beneficial to teams if it stimulates conversations that result in the development and expression of new ideas Research findings, however, indicate that task conflict tends to result in reduced team effectiveness unless several conditions are present First, members need to trust one another and be confident that they can express their opinions openly without fear of reprisals. Second, team members need to engage in effective conflict management practices. In fact, because task conflict tends to be most beneficial to teams when relationship conflict is low, there are reasons to focus conflict management efforts on trying to reduce this aspect of conflict.48 Third, there's some evidence that task conflict may benefit teams when they're composed in certain ways. First, when trying to manage conflict, it's important for members to stay focused on the team's mission. If members do this, they can rationally evaluate the relative merits of each position.51 Second, any benefits of task conflict disappear if the level of the conflict gets too heated, if parties appear to be acting in self-interest rather than in the best interest of the team, or if there's high relationship conflict Third, to effectively manage task conflict, members need to discuss their positions openly and be willing to exchange information in a way that fosters collaborative problem solving.53 If you've ever had an experience in an ongoing relationship in which you tried to avoid uncomfortable conflict by ignoring it, you probably already understand that this strategy tends to only make things worse in the end.

Action processes

Are important as the taskwork is being accomplished Monitoring progress toward goals Systems monitoring Helping behavior Coordination

Transition processes

Are teamwork activities that focus on preparation for future work Mission analysis Strategy formulation Goal specification

When it comes to making decisions, teams are

Better than the average of its members, but not necessarily as good as the best performer

Taskwork Processes- Boundary spanning

Boundary Spanning involves activities with individuals and groups other than those who are considered part of the team Ambassador activities refer to communications that are intended to protect the team, persuade others to support the team, or obtain important resources for the team Task coordinator activities involves communications that are intended to coordinate task related issues with people or groups in other functional areas Scout activities refer to things team members do to obtain information about technology competitors or the broader marketplace

Team Cohesion- pro and con

Cohesion happens when members of teams develop strong emotional bonds to other members of their team and to the team itself This emotional attachment tends to foster higher levels of motivation and commitment to the team, and as a consequence cohesiveness tends to promote higher levels of team performance The higher team performance means a higher team cohesion In highly cohesive teams members may try to maintain harmony by striving toward consensus on issues without ever offering seeking or seriously considering alternative viewpoints and perspectives This drive toward conformity at the expense of other team priorities is called groupthink and is thought to be associated with feelings of overconfidence about the teams capabilities

Matrix Structures

Combine two types of structure into one

What is a strong culture?- Pros/Cons of it

Culture strength exists when employees definitively agree about the way things are supposed to happen within the organization (high consensus) and when their subsequent behaviors are consistent with those expectations (high intensity).

Chain of Command

Deals with reporting relationships within an organization, capturing the flow of authority down through the levels of the organization

Decision making styles

Decision making styles capture how a leader decides as opposed to what a leader decides. It is a continuum Autocratic- Leader makes the decision alone Consultative- Leader presents the problem to employees gets their input but then makes the final decision alone Facilitative- Leader presents the problem to a group of employees and seeks consensus on the solution Delegative- Leader gives employees the responsibility for making the decision

Time Driven Model of Leadership

Decision significance Importance of commitment Leader expertise Likelihood of commitment Shared objectives Employee expertise Teamwork skills

Bureaucratic structures

Designed for efficiency and rely on high levels of work specialization formalization centralization of authority rigid and well defined chains of command and relatively narrow spans of control Functional structures Multi divisional structures Product structures Geographic structures Client based structures Matrix structures

Functional structure

Employees are grouped by the functions they perform for the organization

When it comes to conflict, the highest performing teams should

Encourage conflict about tasks; discourage conflict about personalities

Coalitions

Enlisting other people to help influence the target

Formalization

Extent of specific rules and procedures used to standardize behaviors and decisions Companies that have a lot of rules are formal, those with fewer rules, less formal

Team states

Feelings and thoughts that coalesce in the minds of team members Cohesion happens when members of teams develop strong emotional bonds to other members of their team and to the team itself Potency refers to the degree to which members collectively believe that the can be effective across a variety of situations and tasks Shared Mental Models refer tot he level of common understanding among team members with regard to important aspects of the team and its task Transactive Memory refers to how specialized knowledge is distributed among members in a manner that results in an effective system of memory for the team

Organizational structure

Formally dictates how jobs and tasks are divided among and coordinated between individuals and groups within the company

Stages of team development

Forming Members try to understand their boundaries in their team Storming Members are committed to their own ideas they bring to their team Norming Members realize they need to work together to accomplish team goals cooperation Performing Members are comfortable working within their roles makes progress toward goals Adjourning Members experience emotions as they ultimately have to separate from the team

Team Development Stages

Forming Members try to understand their boundaries in their team Storming Members are committed to their own ideas they bring to their team Norming Members realize they need to work together to accomplish team goals cooperation Performing Members are comfortable working within their roles makes progress toward goals Adjourning Members experience emotions as they ultimately have to separate from the team

Team development Give examples of each stage that happened at each stage Long answer

Forming Members try to understand their boundaries in their team Storming Members are committed to their own ideas they bring to their team Norming Members realize they need to work together to accomplish team goals cooperation Performing Members are comfortable working within their roles makes progress toward goals Adjourning Members experience emotions as they ultimately have to separate from the team

Consultation

Getting others to participate in planning and making decisions

Taskwork Processes- Decision Making

Group Decision Making The decisions made by groups are often different from those made by individuals Factors influence decision making Decision informity- Do members possess adequate information about their own task responsibilities Staff validity- Do members make good recommendations to the team leader Hierarchal sensitivity- Does the leader effectively weigh the ideas of the members

Personality Traits- Supplementary and Complementary Fit

Having smart people on the team is important Many smart people are good for the the team Supplementary fit- people are more comfortable and productive when they are similar to others People have different knowledge, skills, and abilities One should complement the other Complementary fit- people fit when they fill an unment need of the team. The person fits the team not because he or she is the same as everyone else but because he or she brings something unique to the collective that makes it whole The supplementary and complementary idea is the same for personality but it depends on the personality Three traits are especially critical in teams Agreeable people tend to be more cooperative and trusting, tendencies that promote positive attitudes about the team and smooth interpersonal interactions Conscientious people tend to be dependable and work hard to achieve goals Extraverted people tend to perform more effectively in interpersonal contexts and are more positive and optimistic in general Surface level characteristics Task related characteristics Org. department/unit Org. tenure Education level Formal credentials and tiles Membership in professional associations Relationship related characteristics Sex Age Race Ethnicity Socioeconomic status Deep level characteristics Task related characteristics Knowledge and expertise Ideas and perspectives Cognitive abilities and skills Physical abilities and skills Relationship related characteristics Personality Values Attitudes Political views Social identity Culture Religion Surface level diversity can lead to problems initially because people may have difficulty communicating with others who are perceived to be different These problems tend to fade over time as members gain experience with one another Deep level diversity differences with respect to attitudes, values, and personality, may not cause problems initially but it can lead to problems over time

Team Composition- Ability

Having smart people on the team is important Many smart people are good for the team Supplementary fit- people are more comfortable and productive when they are similar to others People have different knowledge, skills, and abilities One should complement the other Complementary fit- People fit when they fill an unmet need of the team. The person fits the team not because he or she is the same as everyone else but because he or she brings something unique to the collective that makes it whole

All of the following can minimize the free rider problem in teams except

Increase the size of the team

Day to Day Leadership

Initiating Structure Defining and structuring the roles of employees for goal attainment Consideration Creating job relationships characterized by mutual trust respect and consideration of employees feelings

Initiating Structure and Consideration leadership- when to use when (high/low) and readiness

Initiating Structure Defining and structuring the roles of employees for goal attainment Consideration Creating job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect, and consideration of employees feelings Readiness The degree to which employees have the ability and the willingness to accomplish their specific tasks R1 Low Eager but inexperienced Telling Initiating Structure High Consideration Low R2 Moderate Tasks seem harder than expected Selling Initiating Structure High Consideration High R3 Moderate Starting to work well together Participating Initiating Structure Low Consideration High R4 High Firing on all cylinders Delegating Initiating Structure Low Consideration Low

Groupthink

Is a phenomenon where people tend to confirm with group decisions to avoid feeling outcast leading to errors in decision making

Process loss

Is getting less from the team than you would expect based on the capabilities of its individual members Coordination loss Production blocking Motivational loss

Example of Process Gain

Is getting more from the team than you would expect according to the capabilities of its individual members

Process gain

Is getting more from the team than you would expect according to the capabilities of its individual members

Influence

Is the use of an actual behavior that causes behavioral or attitudinal changes in others Internalization Most effective Target agrees with and becomes committed to request Compliance Target is willing to perform request but does so with indifference Resistance Target is opposed to request and attempts to avoid doing it

Leadership

Is the use of power and influence to direct the activities of followers toward goal achievement

Leader Member Exchange Theory

Leaders dont treat all subordinates the same In group members High quality relationships Great mutual trust and respect Less reliance on formal power/authority Higher performance, satisfaction, and lower turnover intentions Out group members Low quality relationships Rely more on formal power Little latitude to negotiate work roles • When a leader manages multiple followers, should the leader develop differential relationships (LMX differentiation) with the followers? What are the pros and cons if the leader have differential relationships with followers? A critical task of an effective leader is to cultivate these high-quality exchange relationships with everyone in his/her group "The relationship with one's supervisor is a lens through which the entire work experience is viewed." ( Gerstner & Day, 1997)

When it comes to creativity, teams are

Less creative than individuals

Legitimating

Making reference to a higher level manger or authority or depending on your personal authority position

Interpersonal Processes

Manner in which team members manage their relationships, such as motivating and confidence building, and conflict management Types of team conflict Relationship conflict- Based on incompatibilities with respect to personal values or preferences Task conflict- Based on disagreements about the teams task

Define matrix structure Pros and Cons Short answer

Matrix Structures Combine two types of structure into one Matrix structures are more complex designs that try to take advantage of two types of structures at the same time. Companies such as Xerox, General Electric, and Dow Corning were among the first to adopt this type of structure.48 Figure 15-5 provides an example of a matrix structure. In this example, employees are distributed into teams or projects within the organization on the basis of both their functional expertise and the product that they happen to be working on. Thus, the matrix represents a combination of a functional structure and a product structure. There are two important points to understand about the matrix structure. First, the matrix allows an organization to put together very flexible teams based on the experiences and skills of their employees.49 This flexibility enables the organization to adjust much more quickly to the environment than a traditional bureaucratic structure would. Second, the matrix gives each employee two chains of command, two groups with which to interact, and two sources of information to consider. This doubling of traditional structural elements can create high stress levels for employees if the demands of their functional grouping are at odds with the demands of their product- or client-based grouping.50 The situation can become particularly stressful if one of the two groupings has more power than the other. For example, it may be that the functional manager assigns employees to teams, conducts performance evaluations, and decides raises—making that manager more powerful than the product- or client-based manager.51 Although matrix structures have been around since the 1960s, the number of organizations using them is growing as teams become a more common form of organizing work. They have also become more common in global companies, with the functional grouping balanced by a geographic grouping. In fact, numerous companies now have matrix structures with enough layers to be considered four- or five-dimensional.52 Fiat-Chrysler's matrix structure is incredibly complicated with CEO Sergio Marchionne sitting right in the middle with 38 direct reports! (You can compare that with GM CEO Mary Barra's 12 and Ford CEO Mark Fields's 17.)53 Bristol-Myers Squibb, the New York-based biopharmaceutical company, is heavily matrixed throughout the company. As Jane Luciano, former vice president of global learning and organizational development, explained, "We have the matrix every way it can be organized, including geographically, functionally, and on a product basis. Based on our size and in a highly regulated industry, the matrix helps us to gain control of issues as they travel around the globe and to leverage economies of scale."54

Mechanistic and Organic structures

Mechanistic Rigid chain of command High work specialization Narrow span of control High centralization High formalization Organic Weak chain of command Low work specialization Wide span of control Decentralized decisions Little formalization

Influential Tactics

Most Effective Rational Persuasion Consultation Inspirational Appeals Moderately Effective Ingratiation Personal Appeals These are Softer Tactics Least Effective Pressure Coalitions Exchange Legitimating These are harder tactics

Client structure

Multi divisional structure Employees grouped around a specific client

Geographic structure

Multi divisional structure Employees grouped by location

Product structure

Multi divisional structure Employees grouped around products

Sources of Power

Organizational Power Legitimate power Reward power Coercive power Personal Power Expert power Referent power Legitimate Power that comes from formal authority based on job position or mutual agreement Reward Power that comes from ability to control the allocation of rewards valued by others and to remove negative sanctions Coercive Power that comes from ability to apply punishment Peer pressure is a form Expert Power that comes from possessing knowledge or skills that others value Referent Occurs when others identify with, like, or otherwise respect the person

Power Sources and which ones are more effective

Organizational Power •Legitimate power Power that comes from formal authority based on job position or mutual agreement •Reward power Understanding that people in certain roles can request certain behaviors of others •Coercive power Power that comes from ability to apply punishment Peer pressure is a form of coercive power •Personal Power •Expert power Power that comes from possessing knowledge or skills that others value •Referent power Occurs when others identify with, like, or otherwise respect the person the personal forms of power are more strongly related to organizational commitment and job performance than are the organizational forms. If you think about the authorities for whom you worked the hardest, they probably possessed some form of expertise and charisma, rather than just an ability to reward and punish.

Person organization fit

Person-Organization Fit: the degree to which an person's personality traits, values, and preferences match the culture of an organization. • Employees judge fit by thinking about the values they prioritize the most, then judging whether the organization shares those values.

Power and Influence and Job Performance and Commitment relationships

Power and Influence have a moderate positive effect on Performance. Power and Influence can have a moderate positive effect on Commitment.

Taskwork- Creative Behavior

Process Gain Teams increase creative behavior Process Loss Teams decrease creative behavior Brainstorming is a frequently used taskwork process to increase the creative behavior of teams. It involves a face to face meeting of team members in which each offers as many ideas as possible about some focal problem or issue Builds moral and results in sharing knowledge that might otherwise be locked inside the minds of individual members 1. Express all ideas that come to mind no matter how strange 2. Go for quantity of ideas rather than quality 3. Dont criticize or evaluate the ideas of others 4. Build on ideas of others Brainstorming rarely works as wells as individual idea generation People tend to social loaf in groups Members may be hesitant to express ideas that are not well developed Production blocking occurs when members have to wait their turn to give ideas

Why was there process loss at your team?-state three Short answer

Process loss is getting less from the team than you would expect based on the capabilities of its individual members Coordination loss Members have to work to not only accomplish their own tasks but also coordinate their activities with the activities of their teammates There were some instances where we lacked coordination between what our specific individual assignments were and how they relate to the other tasks that the team members were doing Production blocking Such coordination losses are often driven by this Which occurs when members have to wait on one another before they can do their part of the team task This happened during the final write up Motivational loss The loss in team productivity that occurs when team members dont work as hard as they could

Reasons for Process Loss and how to mitigate it

Process loss is getting less from the team than you would expect based on the capabilities of its individual members Coordination loss One factor is that in teams, members have to work to not only accomplish their own tasks, but also coordinate their activities with the activities of their teammates.5 Although this extra effort focused on integrating work is a necessary aspect of the team experience, it's called coordination loss because it consumes time and energy that could otherwise be devoted to task activity Production blocking which occurs when members have to wait on one another before they can do their part of the team task. Motivational loss the loss in team productivity that occurs when team members don't work as hard as they could. Taskwork Processes Creative Behavior Process Gain Teams increase creative behavior Process loss Teams decrease creative behavior Brainstorming is a frequently used taskwork process to increase the creative behavior of teams. It involves a face-to- face meeting of team members in which each offers as many ideas as possible about some focal problem or issue. Builds morale and results in sharing knowledge that might otherwise be locked inside the minds of individual members. 1) Express all ideas that come to mind, no matter how strange. 2) Go for quantity of ideas rather than quality. 3) Don't criticize or evaluate the ideas of others. 4) Build on the ideas of others. Brainstorming rarely works as well as individual idea generation. • People tend to social loaf in groups. • Members may be hesitant to express ideas that are not well developed. • Production blocking occurs when members have to wait their turn to give ideas. Decision Making •Group Decision Making •The decisions made by groups are often different from those made by individuals. • Factors influence decision making • Decision informity - Do members possess adequate information about their own task responsibilities? • Staff validity - Do members make good recommendations to the team leader? • Hierarchical sensitivity - Does the leader effectively weigh the ideas of the members? Boundary Spanning • Boundary Spanning involves activities with individuals and groups other than those who are considered part of the team. • Ambassador activities refer to communications that are intended to protect the team, persuade others to support the team, or obtain important resources for the team. • Task coordinator activities involve communications that are intended to coordinate task-related issues with people or groups in other functional areas. • Scout activities refer to things team members do to obtain information about technology, competitors, or the broader marketplace. Teamwork processes the interpersonal activities that facilitate the accomplishment of the team's work but do not directly involve task accomplishment itself. • Behaviors that create the setting or context in which taskwork can be carried out. • Three types of teamwork processes Transition processes are teamwork activities that focus on preparation for future work. •Mission analysis •Strategy formulation •Goal specification Action processes are important as the taskwork is being accomplished. •Monitoring progress toward goals •Systems monitoring •Helping behavior •Coordination Interpersonal Processes manner in which team members manage their relationships, such as motivating and confidence building, and conflict management. •Types of team conflict •Relationship conflict - Based on incompatibilities with respect to personal values or preferences •Task conflict - Based on disagreements about the team's task

Influential Tactics and which ones are more effective

Rational Persuasion The use of logical arguments and hard facts to show the target that the request is a worthwhile one Consultation Getting others to participate in planning and making decisions Inspirational Appeal A tactic designed to appeal to the targets values and ideals Ingratiation Use of praise, flattery, or humor Personal Appeals Use of friendship and loyalty to convince others of a course of action Pressure The use of coercive power through threats and demands Exchange Tactic Used when the requestor offers a reward of resource in exchange for performing a request Coalitions Enlisting other people to help influence the target Legitimating Making reference to a higher level manger or authority or depending on your personal authority position Most Effective Rational Persuasion Consultation Inspirational Appeals Moderately Effective Ingratiation Personal Appeals These are Softer Tactics Least Effective Pressure Coalitions Exchange Legitimating Harder Tactics

Team processes

Refer to various types of activities and interactions that occur within teams and contribute to their ultimate end goals

Task Interdependence

Refers the degree to which team members interact with and rely on other team members for the information, materials, and resources needed to accomplish work for the team

Span of Control

Represents how many people report to a given manager

Restructuring

Restructuring has a weak negative effect on Performance Restructuring has a moderate negative effect on Commitment

Know the correlation between restructuring and performance

Restructuring has a weak negative effect on Performance.

Mechanistic

Rigid chain of command High work specialization Narrow span of control High centralization High formalization

Team Composition - Things that make up a team

Role- The behaviors a person is expected to display in a given context Leader-staff roles- Leader makes decisions for the team and provides direction and control over members who perform assigned tasks Team task roles refer to behaviors that directly facilitate the accomplishment of team tasks Team building roles refer to behaviors that influence the quality of the teams social climate Individualistic roles reflect behaviors that benefit the individual at the expense of the team

Task Interdependence and Performance / Commitment relationships

Task Interdependence has a moderate positive effect on Team Performance. However the correlation is higher in teams involved in more complex knowledge work rather than less complex work Task Interdependence has a weak relationship with Team Commitment. However, the correlation is stronger for teams involved in more complex knowledge work than in teams involved in less complex work

Relationship between Task Interdependence and Performance and what will impact it

Task Interdependence has a moderate positive effect on Team Performance. However, the correlation is higher in teams involved in more complex knowledge work rather than less complex work

Organizational culture

Shared social knowledge within an organization regarding the values, norms, and rules that shape the attitudes and behaviors of its employees Artifacts Visible organizational structures and processes Espoused Values Written strategies, goals, values, and philosophies Underlying Assumptions Unconscious, taken for granted beliefs, perceptions, thoughts, and feelings

Centralization

Shows where decisions are made in the organization Centralized: Managers at the top of the organizational chart make decisions Decentralized: All employees even low level ones at the bottom of the organizational chart make decisions

Reciprocal interdependence

Similar to sequential interdependence, members are specialized to perform specific tasks. However, instead of a strict sequence of activities, members interact with a subset of other members to complete the team's work. To understand reciprocal interdependence, consider a team of people who are involved in a business that designs custom homes for wealthy clients. After meeting with a client, the salesperson would provide general criteria, structural and aesthetic details, and some rough sketches to an architect who would work up some initial plans and elevations. The architect then would submit the initial plans to the salesperson, who would review the plans with the customer. Typically, the plans need to be revised by the architect several times, and during this process, customers have questions and requests that require the architect to consult with other members of the team. For example, the architect and structural engineer may have to meet to decide where to locate support beams and load-bearing walls. The architect and construction supervisor might also have to meet to discuss revisions to a design feature that turns out to be too costly. As a final example, the salesperson might have to meet with the designers to assist the customer in the selection of additional features, materials, and colors, which would then need to be included in a revision of the plan by the architect.

Organizational Design (simple, product, matrix) and which one to use when and pro/con of them

Simple structures are perhaps the most common form of organizational design, primarily because there are more small organizations than large ones. In fact, more than 80 percent of employing organizations have fewer than 19 employees.37 Small accounting and law firms, family-owned grocery stores, individual-owned retail outlets, independent churches, and landscaping services are all organizations that are likely to use a simple structure. Figure 15-3 shows a simple structure for a manager-owned restaurant. The figure reveals that simple structures are just that: simple. Simple structures are generally used by extremely small organizations in which the manager, president, and owner are all the same person. A simple structure is a flat organization with one person as the central decision-making figure; it is not large enough to have a high degree of formalization and will have only very basic differences in work specialization. A simple structure makes perfect sense for a small organization, because employees can come and go with no major ripple effects on the organization. However, as the business grows, the coordinating efforts on the part of the owner/manager become increasingly more complex. In the case of our restaurant, let's assume that the growth of the restaurant requires the owner to spend time doing lots of little things to manage the employees. Now the manager has lost the ability to spend time focusing on the actual business at hand. The manager then decides to add a supervisor to handle all of the day-to-day organizing of the restaurant. This arrangement works well until the owner decides to open a second restaurant that needs to have its own supervisor. Now let's assume that this second restaurant is much larger, leading the owner to decide to have separate supervisors directly in charge of the waitstaff and the kitchen. All of a sudden, our little restaurant has three layers of management! When you think of the word "bureaucracy," what thoughts come to mind? Stuffy, boring, restrictive, formal, hard to change, and needlessly complex are some of the terms that have a tendency to be associated with bureaucracies. Those unflattering adjectives aside, chances are very good that you either currently work in a bureaucracy or will after you graduate. A bureaucratic structure is an organizational form that exhibits many of the facets of the mechanistic organization. Bureaucracies are designed for efficiency and rely on high levels of work specialization, formalization, centralization of authority, rigid and well-defined chains of command, and relatively narrow spans of control. As mentioned previously, as an organization's size increases, it's incredibly difficult not to develop some form of bureaucracy There are numerous types of bureaucratic structures on which we might focus. The most basic of these is the functional structure. As shown in Figure 15-4, a functional structure groups employees by the functions they perform for the organization. For example, employees with marketing expertise are grouped together, those with finance duties are grouped together, and so on. The success of the functional structure is based on the efficiency advantages that come with having a high degree of work specialization that's centrally coordinated.38 Managers have expertise in an area and interact with others with the same type of expertise to create the most efficient solutions for the company. As illustrated in our previous example of the fast-growing restaurant, many small companies naturally evolve into functionally based structures as they grow larger. However, small companies experiencing rapid growth are not the only organizations to benefit from a functional structure. Macy's, the New York-based clothes store, has a more traditional functional structure. The 150-year-old retailer used to be organized around geographic regions, but has restructured to be more functionally based with buying, planning, and marketing now all operating out of one location in New York. Macy's hopes that the efficiencies generated by the change in structure will afford it enough cost savings to get a jump on its competitors like JCPenney and Kohl's. Indeed, Macy's believes the changes have saved the company $500 million over two years.39 Functional structures are extremely efficient when the organization as a whole has a relatively narrow focus, fewer product lines or services, and a stable environment. The biggest weaknesses of a functional structure tend to revolve around the fact that individuals within each function get so wrapped up in their own goals and viewpoints that they lose sight of the bigger organizational picture. In other words, employees don't communicate as well across functions as they do within functions. The Sony example also highlights this danger, in that hardware engineers failed to communicate with software developers, which prevented the hardware and software people from seeing all the pieces of the puzzle.40 Even in the example directly above, Macy's then-CEO Terry Lundgren worried about the company's ability to cater to local tastes with a functional structure. To deal with this, he assigned specific managers in each region to be aware of and responsible for unique local needs.41 In contrast to functional structures, multi-divisional structures are bureaucratic organizational forms in which employees are grouped into divisions around products, geographic regions, or clients (see Figure 15-4). Each of these divisions operates relatively autonomously from the others and has its own functional groups. Multi-divisional structures generally develop from companies with functional structures whose interests and goals become too diverse for that structure to handle. For example, if a company with a functional structure begins to add customers that require localized versions of its product, the company might adopt a geographic structure to handle the product variations. Which form a company chooses will likely depend on where the diversity in its business lies. Product structures group business units around different products that the company produces. Each of those divisions becomes responsible for manufacturing, marketing, and doing research and development for the products in its own division. Boeing, Procter & Gamble, Hewlett-Packard, and Sony are companies that have developed product structures. Product structures make sense when firms diversify to the point that the products they sell are so different that managing them becomes overwhelming. Campbell Soup Company recently organized into a product-based structure that it expects to allow it to expand into faster-growing spaces. Campbell will now be organized into "Americas Simple Meals and Beverages," "Global Biscuits and Snacks," and "Packaged Fresh" divisions. President and CEO Denise Morrison expects the new structure to generate an extra $200 million over the next three years through the efficiencies the company will gain.42 Toyota Motor Corp. has announced that it will reorganize into seven units focusing on product classes (such as compact cars, midsize vehicles, commercial vehicles, and the luxury Lexus brand). Spokesman Ryo Sakai says, "By breaking the company down to a smaller framework than before, each one can decide more quickly how to respond to changes."43 However, there are downsides to a product structure. One of those downsides arises when the divisions don't communicate and they don't have the ability to learn from one another. Facebook uses multiple methods to try to overcome the barriers that size and organizational structure create such as strict onboarding processes, mentoring, and other methods designed to make people interact and not build up walls even though they are organized into different groups. One senior manager went as far as to say, "We want to be the anti-Sony, the anti-Microsoft—we look at companies like that and see what we don't want to become."44 Not all companies want their divisions to share though—they want them to compete. Even though it has changed since then, when he first started as Fiat-Chrysler CEO, Sergio Marchionne reorganized so that Dodge, Jeep, and Chrysler were essentially operating as separate companies, each with its own CEO. These companies were being forced to compete with each other for marketing and development resources. Marchionne believed that the competition would help to turn all three car brands around.45 See this chapter's OB at the Bookstore to read about some of the dangers of adopting a multi-divisional structure. Geographic structures are generally based around the different locations where the company does business. The functions required to serve a business are placed under a manager who is in charge of a specific location. Reasons for developing a geographic structure revolve around the different tastes of customers in different regions, the size of the locations that need to be covered by different salespeople, or the fact that the manufacturing and distribution of a product are better served by a geographic breakdown. When the Regus Group (a UK company) and HQ Global Workplaces (a U.S. company) merged, they came together to form the world's largest supplier of meeting spaces and office suites. The new Regus Group now has more than 3,000 office suite facilities in 900 cities across 120 countries. When they merged, HQ and Regus had different structures. Considering the necessarily geographic-based business (i.e., the distances between facilities and the range of customers), the new Regus Group is structured by geographic region.46 Many global companies are also organized by geographic location. IBM was one of the first, but that has changed for them, as described in our OB Internationally feature. One last form of multi-divisional structure is the client structure. When organizations have a number of very large customers or groups of customers that all act in a similar way, they might organize their businesses around serving those customers. For example, small banks traditionally organize themselves into divisions such as personal banking, small business banking, personal lending, and commercial lending. Similarly, consulting firms often organize themselves into divisions that are responsible for small business clients, large business clients, and federal clients. Goldman Sachs is no different, organizing around investment banking, securities, merchant banking, realty management, and other services. Matrix structures are more complex designs that try to take advantage of two types of structures at the same time. Companies such as Xerox, General Electric, and Dow Corning were among the first to adopt this type of structure.48 Figure 15-5 provides an example of a matrix structure. In this example, employees are distributed into teams or projects within the organization on the basis of both their functional expertise and the product that they happen to be working on. Thus, the matrix represents a combination of a functional structure and a product structure. There are two important points to understand about the matrix structure. First, the matrix allows an organization to put together very flexible teams based on the experiences and skills of their employees.49 This flexibility enables the organization to adjust much more quickly to the environment than a traditional bureaucratic structure would. Second, the matrix gives each employee two chains of command, two groups with which to interact, and two sources of information to consider. This doubling of traditional structural elements can create high stress levels for employees if the demands of their functional grouping are at odds with the demands of their product- or client-based grouping.50 The situation can become particularly stressful if one of the two groupings has more power than the other. For example, it may be that the functional manager assigns employees to teams, conducts performance evaluations, and decides raises—making that manager more powerful than the product- or client-based manager.51 Although matrix structures have been around since the 1960s, the number of organizations using them is growing as teams become a more common form of organizing work. They have also become more common in global companies, with the functional grouping balanced by a geographic grouping. In fact, numerous companies now have matrix structures with enough layers to be considered four- or five-dimensional.

Relationship between task interdependence and performance What type of task impacts this relationship As task becomes more interdependent what happens

Task Interdependence has a moderate positive effect on Team Performance. However, the correlation is higher in teams involved in more complex knowledge work rather than less complex work

The most important skills that team members nee to have are

Task and people skills

Readiness

The degree to which employees have the ability and the willingness to accomplish this specific tasks R1 Low Eager but inexperienced Telling Initiating Structure High Consideration Low R2 Moderate Tasks seem harder than expected Selling Initiating Structure High Consideration High R3 Moderate Starting to work well together Participating Initiating Structure Low Consideration High R4 High Firing on all cylinders Delegating Initiating Structure Low Consideration Low

Temporal stability of team membership

Structural linkages may be short erm or long lasting

Why does Organization Culture Matter

Study with 1,900 CEOs and CFOs from companies that represent 20% of the U.S. market capitalization (Graham et al., 2017) Corporate Culture is the highest

Team Characteristics that make up team diversity

Surface level characteristics Task related characteristics Org. department/unit Org. tenure Education level Formal credentials and titles Membership in professional associations Relationship related characteristics Sex Age Race Ethnicity Socioeconomic status Deep level characteristics Task related characteristics Knowledge and expertise Ideas and perspective Cognitive abilities and skills Physical abilities and skills Relationship related characteristics Personality Values Attitudes Political views Social identity Culture Religion Surface level diversity can lead to problems initially because people may have difficulty communicating with others who are perceived to be different These problems tend to fade over time as members gain experience with one another Deep level diversity differences with respect to attitudes values and personality may not cause problems initially but it can lead to problems over time Depends on time, type of team, what is the diversity, interdependence of the team, task at hand

The most commonly cited problem with regard to teamwork is

Sustaining motivation

Benefits and Costs of levels of task interdependence

Task interdependence refers to the degree to which team members interact with and rely on other team members for the information, materials, and resources needed to accomplish work for the team. The type of task interdependence with the lowest degree of required coordination is pooled interdependence With this type of interdependence, group members complete their work assignments independently, and then this work is simply "piled up" to represent the group's output. The next type of task interdependence is called sequential interdependence With this type of interdependence, different tasks are done in a prescribed order, and the group is structured such that the members specialize in these tasks. Although members in groups with sequential interdependence interact to carry out their work, the interaction occurs only between members who perform tasks that are next to each other in the sequence. Moreover, the member performing the task in the latter part of the sequence depends on the member performing the task in the earlier part of the sequence, but not the other way around. Reciprocal interdependence is the next type of task interdependence Similar to sequential interdependence, members are specialized to perform specific tasks. However, instead of a strict sequence of activities, members interact with a subset of other members to complete the team's work. comprehensive interdependence requires the highest level of interaction and coordination among members as they try to accomplish work. In groups with comprehensive interdependence, members have a great deal of discretion in terms of what they do and with whom they interact in the course of the collaboration involved in accomplishing the team's work It's important to note that there's no one right way to design teams with respect to task interdependence. However, it's also important to recognize the trade-offs associated with the different types. On the one hand, as the level of task interdependence increases, members must spend increasing amounts of time communicating and coordinating with other members to complete tasks. This type of coordination can result in decreases in productivity, which is the ratio of work completed per the amount of time worked. On the other hand, increases in task interdependence increase the ability of the team to adapt to new situations. The more members interact and communicate with other members, the more likely it is that the team will be able to devise solutions to novel problems it may face.

Types of Team Processes

Taskwork: behaviors/ activities/ interactions that focus on the accomplishment of team tasks Teamwork: behaviors/ activities/ interactions that facilitate the teams goals

Teamwork Processes and Team Performance/Commitment relationships

Teamwork processes have a moderate positive effect on Team Performance. That aspect of team process has a stronger effect on performance for teams involved in more complex knowledge work rather than less complex work Teamwork processes have a strong positive effect on Team Commitment. That aspect of team process has a stronger effect on commitment for teams involved in more complex knowledge work rather than less complex work

Leader Effectiveness

The degree to which the leader's actions result in the achievement of the units goals, the continued commitment of the units employees, and the development of mutual trust, respect, and obligation in leader member dyads

Teamwork processes

The interpersonal activities that facilitate the accomplishment of the teams work but do not directly involve task accomplishment itself Behaviors that create the setting or context in which taskwork can be carried out

Discussion Board

The most common and effective practice in the workplace would be hybrid outcome interdependence, where members receive rewards for their own work, while at the same time, sharing a team performance reward. An example of this is provided in the team project in class. You will all get the same grade for the write-up, presentation, and milestones. Yet, a portion is separate from this and is dependent on your teammates' evaluation of you. In this class, that is worth 20 points. Although it is not likely to be universally effective, hybrid outcome interdependence solves two problems:It links performance to team goals, allowing people to be compensated for being part of the team. (This was something mentioned by many of you and is very important. It is the whole point of team work.)It allows high-performing individuals to still be compensated for their individual levels of performance. The question now comes to how much should be group and how much should be individual performance then? There is really no good answer to this as many of you have listed the disadvantages of both aspects. Thus, to represent how the real workplace works, I implemented a VERY small portion to individual performance. This avoids the issues of politics and liking raised by many of you. It also incorporates the benefits of working in a team. Yet, there is one point I want to raise that was only mentioned by a handful of you. Outcome interdependence should be matched with task interdependence. Members tend to be more productive in high task interdependence situations when there's also high outcome interdependence (and vice versa). Many tasks are intertwined between group members and cannot be formally judged on who did more or less, regardless of how great the rubric is. Thus, hybrid outcome interdependence, in which individual performance is rewarded as a low proportion, is more appropriate for such a high task interdependent project.

Organizational design

The process of creating, selecting, or changing the structure of an organization Business environment Stable or Dynamic Company strategy Low cost producer or Differentiator Technology Routine or need to change to alter customer needs Size Large or Small 80% of employing organizations have fewer than 19 employees Small organizations usually have simple structures

Team Composition- Personality

The supplementary and complementary idea is the same for personality but it depends on the personality Three traits are especially critical in teams Agreeable people tend to be more cooperative and trusting, tendencies that promote positive attitudes about the team and smooth interpersonal interactions Conscientious people tend to be dependable and work hard to achieve goals Extraverted people tend to perform more effectively in interpersonal contexts and are more positive and optimistic in general

What is boundary spanning

The third type of taskwork process is boundary spanning, which involves three types of activities with individuals and groups other than those who are considered part of the team.36 Ambassador activities refer to communications that are intended to protect the team, persuade others to support the team, or obtain important resources for the team. As you might have guessed from this description, members who engage in ambassador activities typically communicate with people who are higher up in the organization. For example, a member of a marketing team might meet with senior management to request an increase in the budget for an expanded television ad campaign. Task coordinator activities involve communications that are intended to coordinate task-related issues with people or groups in other functional areas. Continuing with the marketing team example, a member of the team might meet with someone from manufacturing to work out how a coupon might be integrated into the product packaging materials. Finally, scout activities refer to things team members do to obtain information about technology, competitors, or the broader marketplace. The marketing team member who meets with an engineer to seek information about new materials is engaging in scout activities. Taken together, research suggests that these three boundary-spanning activities may be as important to determining team success as the processes that occur entirely within the team.37 Many teams in organizations are involved with complex work that requires going outside the team to coordinate, and for support, resources, and information. To the extent that teams do not exist in a vacuum, it can be beneficial to have members with the expertise, experiences, and the type of disposition to engage in the type of boundary spanning activities we discussed here.38

Pooled interdependence

The type of task interdependence with the lowest degree of required coordination With this type of interdependence group members complete their work assignments independently, and then this work is simply piled up to represent the groups output

Pressure

The use of coercive power through threats and demands

Rational Persuasion

The use of logical arguments and hard facts to show the target that the request is a worthwhile one

Punctuated Equilibrium

This is a less linear fashion Forming and Pattern Creation Inertia Process Revision Inertia At the initial meeting members make assumptions and establish a pattern of behavior that lasts for the first half of its life That pattern of behavior becomes a matter of habit for members and creates an inertia that continues until roughly the midway point of the project Then something remarkable happens: Members realize that they have to change their approach to the task to complete it on time Teams that take this opportunity to plan a new approach during this transition do well, and the new framework dominates their behavior until task completion However teams that dont take the opportunity to change their approach tend to persist with their original pattern and may go down with a sinking ship Interestingly the realization that things have to change at the midway point of task completion occurs regardless of the time frame of the project

punctuated equilibrium model

This is a less linear fashion Forming and Pattern Creation Inertia Process Revision Inertia At the initial meeting members make assumptions and establish a pattern of behavior that lasts for the first half of its life That pattern of behavior becomes a matter of habit for members and creates an inertia that continues until roughly the midway point of the project Then something remarkable happens: Members realize that they have to change their approach to the task to complete it on time Teams that take this opportunity to plan a new approach during this transition do well, and the new framework dominates their behavior until task completion However teams that dont take the opportunity to change their approach tend to persist with their original pattern and may go down with a sinking ship Interestingly the realization that things have to change at the midway point of task completion occurs regardless of the time frame of the project

Transformational Leadership and Job Performance / Commitment relationships

Transformational leadership has a moderate positive effect on Performance Transformational leadership has a strong positive effect on Commitment

Pro and Cons of Large/Small Teams

Two adages are relevant to team size: "the more the merrier" and "too many cooks spoil the pot." Which statement do you believe is true in terms of how many members to include on a team? The answer, according to the results of one meta-analysis, is that having a greater number of members is beneficial for management and project teams but not for teams engaged in production tasks.97 Management and project teams engage in work that's complex and knowledge intensive, and these teams therefore benefit from the additional resources and expertise contributed by additional members.98 In contrast, production teams tend to engage in routine tasks that are less complex. Having additional members beyond what's necessary to accomplish the work tends to result in unnecessary coordination and communication problems. Additional members therefore may be less productive because there's more socializing, and they feel less accountable for team outcomes.99 Although making a claim about the absolute best team size is impossible, research with undergraduate students concluded that team members tend to be most satisfied with their team when the number of members is between four and five.100 Of course, there are other rules of thumb you can use to keep team size optimal. Jeff Bezos, the CEO of Amazon.com, uses the two-pizza rule: "If a team can't be fed by two pizzas, it's too large.

Personal Appeals

Use of friendship and loyalty to convince others of a course of action

Ingratiation

Use of praise, flattery, or humor

Exchange Tactic

Used when the requestor offers a reward of resource in exchange for performing a request

Organic

Weak chain of command Low work specialization Wide span of control Decentralized decisions Little formalization

Team Composition- Team Size

What is the perfect team size? The more the merrier Vs. Too many cooks spoil the pot

Authority differentiation

Who has authority to make various decisions when there is disagreement

Organizational chart

a drawing that represents every job in the organization and the formal reporting relationships between those jobs

Goal Interdependence

a high degree of goal interdependence exists when team members have a shared vision of the team's goal and align their individual goals with that vision as a result. - develop a formalized mission statement that members buy into.

Basic underlying assumptions

are taken-for-granted beliefs and philosophies that are so ingrained that employees simply act on them rather than questioning the validity of their behavior in a given situation (core values). • That is just how we do things here...

Culture strength

exists when employees definitively agree about the way things are supposed to happen within the organization (high consensus) and when their subsequent behaviors are consistent with those expectations (high intensity). Strong cultures are not necessarily the same as "good" cultures; they may not lead to the most positive organizational outcomes. Advantages of a strong culture Differentiates the organization from others Allows employees to identify themselves with the organization Facilitates desired behaviors among employees Creates stability within the organization Disadvantages of a strong culture Makes merging with another organization more difficult Attracts and retains similar kinds of employees thereby limiting diversity of thought Can be too much of a good thing if it creates extreme behaviors among employees Makes adapting to the environment more difficult

Transformational Leadership

involves inspiring followers to commit to a shared vision that provides meaning to their work while also serving as a role model who helps followers develop their own potential and view problems from new perspectives Four dimensions of Transformational leadership Idealized influence involves behaving in ways that earn the admiration, trust, and respect of followers, causing followers to want to identify with and emulate the leader Inspirational motivation involves behaving in ways that foster an enthusiasm for and commitment to a shared vision of the future Intellectual stimulation involves behaving in ways that challenge followers to be innovative and creative by questioning assumptions and reframing old situations in new ways Individualized consideration involves behaving in ways that help followers achieve their potential through coaching development and mentoring

Transformational Leadership and its behaviors and its relationship with pert and commitment

ransformational leadership involves inspiring followers to commit to a shared vision that provides meaning to their work while also serving as a role model who helps followers develop their own potential and view problems from new perspectives. •Four dimensions of transformational leadership: •Idealized influence involves behaving in ways that earn the admiration, trust, and respect of followers, causing followers to want to identify with and emulate the leader (charisma). •Inspirational motivation involves behaving in ways that foster an enthusiasm for and commitment to a shared vision of the future. •Intellectual stimulation involves behaving in ways that challenge followers to be innovative and creative by questioning assumptions and reframing old situations in new ways. •Individualized consideration involves behaving in ways that help followers achieve their potential through coaching, development, and mentoring. Transformational leadership has a moderate positive effect on Performance. Transformational leadership has a strong positive effect on commitment.

Comprehensive Interdependence

requires the highest level of interaction and coordination among members as they try to accomplish work. In groups with comprehensive interdependence, members have a great deal of discretion in terms of what they do and with whom they interact in the course of the collaboration involved in accomplishing the team's work.

Person-Organizational Fit

the degree to which an person's personality traits, values, and preferences match the culture of an organization. •Employees judge fit by thinking about the values they prioritize the most, then judging whether the organization shares those values.

Work Specialization

the way in which tasks in an organization are divided into separate jobs

Espoused values

• Espoused values are the beliefs, philosophies, and norms that a company explicitly states. • Published documents, verbal statements made to employees by managers.

Leader-Member Exchange Theory

• Leaders don't treat all subordinates the same • In-group members • High-quality relationships • Great mutual trust & respect • Less reliance on formal power/authority • Higher performance, satisfaction, & lower turnover intentions • Out-group members • Low-quality relationships • Rely more on formal power • Little latitude to negotiate work roles • When a leader manages multiple followers, should the leader develop differential relationships (LMX differentiation) with the followers? What are the pros and cons if the leader have differential relationships with followers? A critical task of an effective leader is to cultivate these high-quality exchange relationships with everyone in his/her group "The relationship with one's supervisor is a lens through which the entire work experience is viewed."

Observable artifacts

• Observable artifacts are the manifestations of an organization's culture that employees can easily see or talk about. • Symbols can be found throughout an organization, from its corporate logo to the images it places on its Web site to the uniforms its employees wear. • Physical structures include the organization's buildings and internal office designs. • Language reflects the jargon, slang, and slogans used within the walls of an organization. • Stories consist of anecdotes, accounts, legends, and myths that are passed down from cohort to cohort within an organization. • Rituals are the daily or weekly planned routines that occur in an organization. • Ceremonies are formal events, generally performed in front of an audience of organizational members.