Test Ready Chapter 9, 10, 11
63. Which methodology is used to study categorization processes in very young infants? A. Familiarization/novelty preference procedure B. Sentence verification technique C. Lexical decision task D. Semantic priming procedure
A. Familiarization/novelty preference procedure
40. Which of the following is NOT associated with the semantic network model? A. Family resemblance B. Hierarchical organization C. Cognitive economy D. Spreading activation
A. Family resemblance
33. Suppose we ask people to perform the following cognitive tasks. Which is LEAST likely to strongly activate the visual cortex? A. Imagine the meaning of the word "ethics." B. Imagine your car first from far away and then how it looks as you walk closer to it. C. Imagine a typical unsharpened pencil. Approximate its length in inches. D. Imagine a tic-tac-toe game proceeding from start to finish.
A. Imagine the meaning of the word "ethics."
31. Swinney's research measuring response time to different words with either similar or different meanings is an example of which research methodology? A. Lexical priming B. Word superiority C. Syntactic priming D. Brain imaging
A. Lexical priming
28. Which of the following would be in a basic level category? A. Truck B. Vehicle C. Pickup truck D. Transportation
A. Truck
30. Which of the following is NOT influenced by meaning? A. Word frequency effect B. Word superiority effect C. Phonemic restoration effect D. The lexical decision task
A. Word frequency effect
23. Which approach to categorization can more easily take into account atypical cases such as flightless birds? A. Exemplar B. Prototype C. Definitional D. Network
A. Exemplar
17. Luis is taking his girlfriend, Rosa, to a resort town neither one of them has visited. Luis wants to make a good impression on Rosa, so he spends the week before the trip reading about fun places to go while they are there. He also memorizes a map of the small resort town so he can lead her around without bothering to ask for directions. When they arrive, they first visit a botanical garden. When Rosa says, "Where to next?" Luis conjures a mental image of the map and says, "art museum." Let's assume the garden was six inches due south on the map and that it took Luis four seconds to scan the map image between the two. After they visit the museum, Luis takes Rosa to a fancy restaurant. On the map, the restaurant was three inches northwest of the museum, so it is most likely that when Luis scanned the image to find the restaurant, the scan took approximately _____ seconds. A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 6
A. 2
12. Dominic is at a job interview sitting across from the company's CEO, Ms. Bing. While she takes a phone call, Dominic tries to recall her first name. Her business card is on the desk, but its orientation is not facing Dominic straight on. The business card has the initial of Ms. Bing's first name, so Dominic mentally rotates that initial letter into a straight-up orientation. For which angle (compared to the final straight-up orientation) would you predict Dominic would be fastest in identifying the initial? A. 30 degrees B. 60 degrees C. 90 degrees D. 180 degrees
A. 30 degrees
6. ______ is an average representation of a category. A. A prototype B. An exemplar C. A unit D. A component
A. A prototype
37. Which of the following is the best example of a garden path sentence? A. Before the police stopped the Toyota disappeared into the night. B. The man was not surprised when he found several spiders, roaches, and other bugs in the corner of the room. C. The cats won't bake. D. The Eskimos were frightened by the walrus.
A. Before the police stopped the Toyota disappeared into the night.
2. Which of the following statements is NOT cited in your text as a reason why categories are useful? A. Categories provide definitions of groups of related objects. B. Categories help us understand behaviors that we might otherwise find baffling. C. Categories serve as a valuable tool for making inferences about things that belong to other categories. D. Categories have been called "pointers to knowledge" because once you know an object's category, you know a lot of general things about it.
A. Categories provide definitions of groups of related objects.
16. When a participant is asked to list examples of the category vegetables, it is most likely that A. a carrot would be named before eggplant. B. an eggplant would be named before carrot. C. a carrot and eggplant would have an equal likelihood of being named first. D. the order of examples is completely random, varying from participant to participant.
A. a carrot would be named before eggplant.
16. Mental-scanning experiments found A. a positive linear relationship between scanning time and distance on the image. B. a negative linear relationship between scanning time and distance on the image. C. a constant scanning time for all locations on an image. D. that imagery does not represent spatial relations in the same way perceptual information does.
A. a positive linear relationship between scanning time and distance on the image.
57. The activity that represents a particular object is established in a connectionist network through a process of learning that involves A. adjusting the weights of inhibitory and excitatory connections between units. B. a process of trial and error. C. comparing the object to objects in other categories. D. adjusting the length of the links that connect the nodes in the circuit.
A. adjusting the weights of inhibitory and excitatory connections between units.
15. An experiment on the phonemic restoration effect would most likely include A. an extraneous cough. B. two similar-sounding letters (e.g., "T" and "C"). C. a categorical perception task. D. a garden-path sentence.
A. an extraneous cough.
37. How is cognitive economy represented in the following example? The property _____ is stored at the _____ node. A. can fly; bird B. can fly; canary C. has feathers; ostrich D. bird; penguin
A. can fly; bird
49. Imagine you are interpreting a pair of sentences such as "The sidewalk was covered with ice" and "Ramona fell down." The kind of inference we use to link these sentences together would most likely be a(n) _____ inference. A. causal B. coherent C. anaphoric D. instrument
A. causal
52. The given-new contract is a method for creating A. coherence in people's conversations. B. children's mastery of syntax. C. resolution of a lexically ambiguous sentence. D. anaphoric inferences between consecutive sentences.
A. coherence in people's conversations. ALSO! comprehension between a speaker and a listener in a conversation.
65. It may be difficult for young Matthew, who is only 4 years of age, to understand the difference between the iPad that his mother uses, the Kindle that his brother uses, and the Galaxy tablet that his sister uses. After all, all of them are tablets, have touch screens, are electronic technology, and run "apps" that include games and educational programs. These similarities remind us of the concept of ________, which refers to the fact that animals tend to share many different properties. A. crowding B. obstruction C. overlapping D. convergence
A. crowding
21. Sometimes a behavioral event can occur at the same time as a cognitive process, even though the behavior isn't needed for the cognitive process. For example, many people look toward the ceiling when thinking about a complex problem, even though "thinking" would likely continue if they didn't look up. This describes a(n) A. epiphenomenon. B. inner scribe. C. convergent behavior. D. propositional behavior.
A. epiphenomenon.
20. If you say that "a Labrador retriever is my idea of a typical dog," you would be using the _____ approach to categorization. A. exemplar B. definitional C. family resemblance D. prototype
A. exemplar
1. Mental imagery involves A. experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input. B. mental representations of the current sensory inputs. C. sensory representations of a stimulus. D. all of these
A. experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input.
5. The principle illustrated when most people are able to recognize a variety of examples of chairs even though no one category member may have all of the characteristic properties of "chairs" (e.g., most chairs have four legs but not all do) is A. family resemblance. B. prototypicality. C. graded membership. D. instance theory.
A. family resemblance.
5. In New Guinea, tribes that had been isolated for centuries were found that A. had a large number of sophisticated language systems. B. had languages that were more primitive than languages of most non-isolated societies. C. communicated by hand signals but not verbal language as we know it. D. had just a few language systems that were all governed by similar rules.
A. had a large number of sophisticated language systems.
1. Language consists of smaller components, like words, that can be combined to form larger ones, like phrases, to create sentences, which themselves can be components of a larger story. This property is known as A. hierarchical structure. B. relational organization. C. parallel organization. D. propositional representation.
A. hierarchical structure.
7. Noam Chomsky proposed that A. humans are genetically programmed to acquire and use language. B. language is learned through the mechanism of reinforcement. C. as children learn language, they produce only sentences they have heard before. D. the underlying basis of language is different across cultures.
A. humans are genetically programmed to acquire and use language.
45. Most of the coherence in text is created by A. inference. B. syntax. C. parsing. D. phoneme restoration.
A. inference.
11. Ron is an avid reader. He has a large vocabulary because every time he comes across a word he doesn't know, he looks it up in the dictionary. Ron encounters "wanderlust" in a novel, reaches for the dictionary, and finds out this word means "desire to travel." The process of looking up unfamiliar words increases Ron's A. lexicon. B. parser. C. syntactical capacity. D. mental set.
A. lexicon.
19. Kosslyn's island experiment used the _____ procedure. A. mental scanning B. categorization C. priming D. mental walk
A. mental scanning
47. The pegword technique is particularly suitable for use when you need to remember items based on their A. order. B. importance. C. concreteness. D. bizarreness.
A. order.
43. Spreading activation A. primes associated concepts. B. inhibits unrelated concepts. C. creates new links between associated concepts. D. weakens the link between unrelated concepts.
A. primes associated concepts.
8. One of Chomsky's most persuasive arguments for refuting Skinner's theory of language acquisition was his observation that children A. produce sentences they have never heard. B. show similar language development across cultures. C. are rewarded for using correct language. D. learn to follow complex language rules, even though they are not aware of doing so.
A. produce sentences they have never heard.
39. Your text describes the case of M.G.S. who underwent brain surgery as treatment for severe epilepsy. Testing of M.G.S. pre- and post-surgery revealed that the right visual cortex is involved in the A. size of the field of view. B. recognition of objects in the left side of space. C. ability to visually recognize objects. D. ability to draw objects from memory.
A. size of the field of view.
20. The word frequency effect refers to the fact that we respond more A. slowly to low-frequency words than high-frequency words. B. slowly to letters appearing in non-words than letters appearing in words. C. quickly to letters that appear multiple times in a word than just once in a word. D. quickly to phonemes that appear multiple times in a word than just once in a word.
A. slowly to low-frequency words than high-frequency words.
50. The mental simulation approach for solving mechanical problems is analogous to the idea that visual imagery involves ____ representations. A. spatial B. propositional C. symbolic D. verbal
A. spatial
42. Collins and Quillian explained the results of priming experiments by introducing the concept of _____ into their network model. A. spreading activation B. cognitive economy C. typicality D. back propagation
A. spreading activation
29. According to the text, jumping from _______ categories results in the largest gain in information. A. superordinate level to basic level B. basic level to subordinate level C. subordinate level to basic level D. basic level to superordinate level
A. superordinate level to basic level
67. Based on the information your textbook provided about different category types, jumping from _______ categories results in the largest gain in information. A. superordinate level to basic level B. basic level to subordinate level C. subordinate level to basic level D. basic level to superordinate level
A. superordinate level to basic level
55. A psycholinguist conducts an experiment with a group of participants from a small village in Asia and another from a small village in South America. She asked the groups to describe the bands of color they saw in a rainbow and found they reported the same number of bands as their language possessed primary color words. These results A. support the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. B. contradict the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. C. support the word frequency effect. D. contradict the word frequency effect.
A. support the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.
37. Transcranial magnetic stimulation is used to A. temporarily disrupt the functioning of a brain area. B. permanently remove (or lesion) a part of the brain. C. permanently disrupt the function of a part of the brain but leave it intact. D. temporarily awaken areas of the brain that are non-responsive to other input.
A. temporarily disrupt the functioning of a brain area.
22. An advantage of the prototype approach over the exemplar approach is that the prototype approach provides a better explanation of the typicality effect. A. True B. False
B. False
70. The connectionist network has learned the correct pattern for a concept when A. the error signals are reduced to nearly none and the correct properties are assigned. B. the output pattern matches the initial input pattern and this symmetry becomes "locked" into the system. C. the output unit response is greater than zero and the input signal has to compensate. D. the connection weights add up to exactly +1.00.
A. the error signals are reduced to nearly none and the correct properties are assigned.
56. Brain imaging studies reveal that semantics and syntax are associated with which two lobes of the cerebral cortex? A. the frontal and temporal lobes B. the frontal and parietal lobes C. the parietal and occipital lobes D. the temporal and parietal lobes
A. the frontal and temporal lobes
57. Lexical ambiguity studies show that people access ambiguous words based on A. the meaning dominance of each definition of the word. B. a bottom-up progression of meaning comprehension. C. the identification of a single meaning for that word. D. the word that comes immediately before and the word that comes immediately after the ambiguous word in the sentence.
A. the meaning dominance of each definition of the word.
25. Within the realm of conversational speech, context refers to A. the meaning of a conversation. B. the rules for combining spoken words into sentences. C. the tendency to respond in a certain manner based on past experience. D. the mental process of grouping words together that occurs as a person creates speech appropriate for the conversation.
A. the meaning of a conversation.
32. Syntax is A. the rules for combining words into sentences. B. the meanings of words. C. the way people pronounce words in conversational speech. D. the mental grouping of words in a sentence into phrases.
A. the rules for combining words into sentences.
17. For the category "fruit," people give a higher typicality rating to "banana" than to "kiwi." Knowing that, we can also reason that A. the word "fruit" will lead to a larger priming effect for banana than for kiwi. B. when people are asked to list all the fruits they can think of, kiwi will usually appear on their list before banana. C. neither kiwi nor banana are likely to be the fruit "closest" to the prototype of the fruit category. D. people will have a similar number of exemplars for kiwi and banana.
A. the word "fruit" will lead to a larger priming effect for banana than for kiwi.
49. Good psychological theories must have all of the following properties EXCEPT being A. too powerful to be refuted by empirical evidence. B. able to predict the results of a particular experiment. C. able to stimulate a great deal of research to test the theory. D. shown to be wrong if a particular experimental result occurs.
A. too powerful to be refuted by empirical evidence.
58. Learning in the connectionist network is represented by adjustments to network A. weights. B. nodes. C. hidden units. D. output units.
A. weights.
36. Consider the sentence, "Because he always jogs a mile seems like a short distance to him." The principle of late closure states that this sentence would first be parsed into which of the following phrases? A. "Because he always jogs" B. "Because he always jogs a mile" C. "he always jogs" D. "a mile seems"
B. "Because he always jogs a mile"
41. A circular plate rests at the center of a small square table. Around the table are a total of four chairs, one along each side of the square table. A person with unilateral neglect sits down in one of the chairs and eats from the plate. After he is "finished," he moves to the next chair on his right and continues to eat from the plate. Assuming he never moves the plate and he continues with this procedure (moving one chair to the right and eating) how many chairs will he have to sit in to eat all the food on the plate? A. 4 B. 3 C. 2 D. 1
B. 3
64. At what age do infants begin forming basic level categories? A. 2 months B. 3-4 months C. 6-7 months D. 1 year
B. 3-4 months
19. Pollack and Pickett's experiment on understanding speech found that when participants were presented with individual words taken out of conversations (single words presented alone with no context), they could identify A. 100% of the words spoken by their own voices. B. 50% of the words spoken by their own voices. C. 50% of the words spoken by others with an accent similar to theirs. D. none of the words spoken by others.
B. 50% of the words spoken by their own voices.
41. According to Collins and Quillian's semantic network model, it should take longest to verify which statement below? A. Pigs are pigs. B. A pig is an animal. C. A pig is a pig. D. A pig is a mammal.
B. A pig is an animal.
9. Peggy is participating in a paired-associate learning experiment. During the study period, she is presented with pairs of words such as boat-hat and car-house. While taking the test, she would be presented with A. b___ - h___. B. car. C. house. D. a blank piece of paper for free recall.
B. Car ALSO boat _______ - car ________
36. Which term below is most closely associated with semantic networks? A. Distributed processing B. Cognitive economy C. Prototype formation D. Family resemblance
B. Cognitive economy
2. Which property below is NOT one of the characteristics that makes human language unique? A. Hierarchical structure B. Communication C. Governed by rules D. all of these make human language unique
B. Communication
4. Evidence that language is a social process that must be learned comes from the fact that when deaf children find themselves in an environment where there are no people who speak or use sign language, they are unable to develop any formal language skills. A. True B. False
B. False
47. Collins and Loftus modified the original semantic network theory of Collins and Quillian to satisfy some of the criticisms of the original model. People consider this to be a strong theory because it is powerful enough to explain just about any result. A. True B. False
B. False
51. Connectionist theory states that a particular object (like a canary) is identified by activity in the specific "canary" output unit of the network. A. True B. False
B. False
30. Which of the following represents a basic level item? A. Musical instrument B. Guitar C. Rock guitar D. Paul McCartney's bass guitar
B. Guitar
13. Which of the following is an example of the sentence verification technique? A. Indicate whether the following statement was previously presented: An apple is a fruit. YES NO B. Indicate whether the following statement is true: An apple is a fruit. YES NO C. Fill in the blank in the following sentence: An apple is a(n) ______. D. Fill in the blank in the following sentence: A(n) ______ is a fruit.
B. Indicate whether the following statement is true: An apple is a fruit. YES NO
54. The ____ states that the nature of a culture's language can affect the way people think. A. interactionist approach B. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis C. given-new contract D. cooperative principle
B. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
17. You are conducting a study on how fluency influences the phonemic restoration effect. You study two groups of non-native English speakers, one with a year of English classes and the other with 10 years. All of your stimuli are in English. Who would you expect to show the greatest phonemic restoration effect? A. The group with one year of English instruction B. The group with 10 years of English instruction C. The two groups would show equal phonemic restoration effects D. Neither group would show an effect because they are non-native English speakers
B. The group with 10 years of English instruction
7. Which statement below is most closely associated with the early history of the study of imagery? A. Imagery is based on spatial mechanisms like those involved in perception. B. Thought is always accompanied by imagery. C. People can rotate images of objects in their heads. D. Imagery is closely related to language.
B. Thought is always accompanied by imagery.
Which of the following is not one of the types of units found within a parallel distributed processing model? A. Hidden units B. Working units C. Input units D. Output units
B. Working units
44. In a lexical decision task, participants have to decide whether A. a statement is true. B. a letter string is a word. C. a stimulus is presented. D. two stimuli are associated.
B. a letter string is a word.
10. A task for determining how prototypical an object is would be A. a fill-in-the-blank task where participants generate paired members within a category. B. a task where participants rate the extent to which each member represents the category title. C. a task where participants rate the extent to which category members resemble one another. D. a fill-in-the-blank task where participants generate the category classification for a list of members.
B. a task where participants rate the extent to which each member represents the category title.
32. Your text describes cross-cultural studies of categorization with U.S. and Itza participants. Given the results of these studies, we know that if asked to name basic level objects for a category, U.S. participants would answer ____ and Itza participants would answer ____. A. bird; bird B. bird; sparrow C. sparrow; bird D. sparrow; sparrow
B. bird; sparrow
26. Swinney did an experiment in which he presented participants with the sentence, "The man was not surprised to find several spiders, roaches, and other bugs in the corner of the room." He found that immediately after hearing the word "bug," the participants accessed A. only the "insect" meaning of the word. B. both the "insect" and the "hidden listening device" meanings of the word. C. only the "hidden listening device" meaning of the word. D. neither the "insect" nor the "hidden listening device" meanings of the word.
B. both the "insect" and the "hidden listening device" meanings of the word.
1. A(n) ____ is a mental representation used for a variety of cognitive functions, including memory, reasoning, and using and understanding language. A. exemplar B. concept C. unit D. prototype
B. concept
66.Two different definitions of ________ offered by your book include (a) "the mental representation of a class or individual," and (b) "the meaning of objects, events, and abstract ideas." A. exemplars B. concepts C. units D. prototypes
B. concepts
56. The process of back propagation is most closely associated with A. semantic networks. B. connectionist networks. C. reasoning about categories. D. spreading activation.
B. connectionist networks.
36. Amedi and coworkers used fMRI to investigate the differences between brain activation for perception and imagery. Their findings showed that when participants were ____, some areas associated with non-visual sensation (such as hearing and touch) were ____. A. creating images; activated B. creating images; deactivated C. perceiving stimuli; activated D. perceiving stimuli; deactivated
B. creating images; deactivated
61. If a system has the property of graceful degradation, this means that A. it loses information at a very slow rate. B. damage to the system doesn't completely disrupt its operation. C. it is either functioning at 100 percent, or it is not functioning at all. D. it can be set to operate at "low efficiency" or "high efficiency" depending on the demand of the current task.
B. damage to the system doesn't completely disrupt its operation.
33. Brain imaging studies reveal that semantics and syntax are associated with ____ brain mechanisms. A. the same B. different
B. different
4. Examples like Paul McCartney's composition of the song "Yesterday" and Jack Nicklaus's improvement of his golf swing demonstrate a connection between imagery and A. dual coding. B. dreams. C. inner audition. D. the visual buffer.
B. dreams.
31. Perky's experiment, in which participants were asked to "project" visual images of common objects onto a screen, showed that A. imagery and perception are two different phenomena. B. imagery and perception can interact with one another. C. there are large individual differences in people's ability to create visual images. D. creating a visual image can interfere with a perceptual judgment task.
B. imagery and perception can interact with one another.
24. Imagine that a young child is just learning about the category "dog." Thus far, she has experienced only two dogs, one a small poodle and the other a large German shepherd. On her third encounter with a dog, she will be LEAST likely to correctly categorize the animal as a dog if that animal A. matches the size of the poodle but is of a different breed. B. is a dog that does not bark. C. matches an exemplar of one of the dogs she has experienced. D. is similar to an "average" for the dogs she has encountered.
B. is a dog that does not bark.
48. Collins and Loftus modified the original semantic network theory of Collins and Quillian to satisfy some of the criticisms of the original model. However, their revised model was not immune to criticism. One criticism of Collins and Loftus' semantic network theory is that it A. cannot explain exceptions to category properties (e.g., account for the fact that an ostrich can't fly while most birds can). B. is of little explanatory value because it can explain just about any result. C. is so inflexible that it has been easy to falsify. D. explains the length of links as resulting from a person's past experiences.
B. is of little explanatory value because it can explain just about any result.
44. In drawing conclusions about the relationship between imagery and perception, a notable difference between them is that A. perception and imagery processes do not share the same brain mechanisms. B. it is harder to manipulate mental images than perceptual images. C. imagery is more stable than perception. D. imagery occurs more automatically than perception.
B. it is harder to manipulate mental images than perceptual images.
10. Lilo can't wait for school to start. This year is the first time she gets to take a foreign language class, and she is taking Japanese. Dr. Nabuto is a professor interested in studying how people learn additional languages later in life, and he is including Lilo's class in his research. Dr. Nabuto is most likely studying A. language comprehension. B. language acquisition. C. speech production. D. speech parsing.
B. language acquisition.
11. Shepard and Metzler measured the time it took for participants to decide whether two objects were the same (two different views of the same object) or different (two different objects). These researchers inferred cognitive processes by using A. image scanning. B. mental chronometry. C. epiphenomena. D. propositional representations.
B. mental chronometry.
15. The scanning task used by Kosslyn involves A. visual icons. B. mental images. C. perceptual images. D. none of these
B. mental images.
14. Ben has had problems with the pipes in his apartment. First, he had a clog in his bathroom sink, and then two months later, his garbage disposal in the kitchen sink clogged. Ben's superintendant told him he was not adequately flushing the debris from his pipes. She suggested that he run the water a little longer and visualize the debris (be it carrot peelings or toothpaste) traveling through the pipes all the way out to the sewer connection in the street. Using this technique, Ben has had no more clogs. The superintendant's suggestion involved A. image synthesis. B. mental scanning. C. method of loci. D. propositional representations.
B. mental scanning.
28. Kosslyn concluded that the image field is limited in size. This conclusion was drawn from the _____ experiment. A. image scanning B. mental walk C. mental synthesis D. mental set
B. mental walk
46. The technique in which things to be remembered are placed at different locations in a mental image of a spatial layout is known as A. the pegword technique. B. method of loci. C. paired-associate learning. D. a propositional representation.
B. method of loci.
9. Olin and Bob are neighbors. Olin loves birds and his father works for the zoo. He has been to a dozen bird sanctuaries, and he and his dad go on bird watching hikes once a month. In contrast, Bob doesn't think much about birds. His only contact with them is in his backyard. It would be correct to say that Olin's standard probably involves A. more prototypes than Bob's. B. more exemplars than Bob's. C. more prototypes and more exemplars than Bob's. D. the same prototypes and exemplars as Bob's.
B. more exemplars than Bob's.
27. Lexical ambiguity studies show that people initially access A. only the meaning of an ambiguous word that is consistent with the context. B. multiple meanings of an ambiguous word. C. the appropriate meaning of an ambiguous word based on syntax. D. the appropriate meaning of an ambiguous word based on the principle of late closure.
B. multiple meanings of an ambiguous word.
50. According to the situation model of text processing, A. people create a mental representation of what the text is about in terms of information about phrases, sentences, and paragraphs. B. people create a mental representation of what the text is about in terms of people, objects, locations, and events. C. it will take longer to understand a story that involves a complex series of situations. D. people draw inferences about what is happening in a story by considering both local and global connections.
B. people create a mental representation of what the text is about in terms of people, objects, locations, and events.
30. Perky's imagery study from the early 1900s had participants describe images of objects that were dimly projected onto a screen. The significance of Perky's results was that A. screen images interfered with people's ability to form mental images. B. people were unconsciously influenced by the projected images when forming their mental images. C. the screen images had no effect on people's mental images. D. people "used" the screen images to create their mental images but only when the objects were unfamiliar.
B. people were unconsciously influenced by the projected images when forming their mental images.
52. The rule-based approach to mechanical problem-solving is analogous to the idea that visual imagery involves ____ representations. A. spatial B. propositional C. tacit D. neuron
B. propositional
48. As described in your text, the pegword technique relies on all of the following EXCEPT A. associations. B. propositions. C. rhymes. D. visualizations.
B. propositions.
19. Rosch found that participants respond more rapidly in a same-different task when presented with "good" examples of colors such as "red" and "green" than when they are presented with "poor" examples such as "pink" or "light green." The result of this experiment was interpreted as supporting the _____ approach to categorization. A. exemplar B. prototype C. network D. parallel processing
B. prototype
39. The interactionist approach to parsing states that A. semantics is activated only at the end of a sentence. B. semantics is activated as a sentence is being read. C. the grammatical structure of a sentence determines the initial parsing. D. semantics is only activated to clear up ambiguity.
B. semantics is activated as a sentence is being read.
51. According to the idea of _____, when we read a sentence like, "Carmelo grabbed his coat from his bedroom and his backpack from the living room, walked downstairs, and called his friend Gerry," we create a map of Carmelo's apartment and keep track of his location as he moves throughout the apartment. A. global connections B. situation models C. causal inference D. speech continuity
B. situation models
38. The semantic network model predicts that the time it takes for a person to retrieve information about a concept should be determined by A. the amount of information contained in each concept. B. the distance that must be traveled through the network. C. the typicality of the information contained in each concept. D. the representativeness of the information contained in each concept.
B. the distance that must be traveled through the network.
42. Tanenhaus and coworkers' eye movement study presented participants with different pictures for interpreting the sentence, "Put the apple on the towel in the box." Their results support A. the syntax-first approach to parsing. B. the interactionist approach to parsing. C. the garden-path model to parsing. D. both syntax-first and interactionist approaches to parsing.
B. the interactionist approach to parsing.
31. Rosch and coworkers conducted an experiment in which participants were shown a category label, like car or vehicle, and then, after a brief delay, saw a picture. The participants' task was to indicate as rapidly as possible whether the picture was a member of the category. Their results showed A. the priming effect was most robust for superordinate level categories. B. the priming effect was most robust for basic level categories. C. no measurable priming effect. D. the priming effect was the same for superordinate and basic level categories.
B. the priming effect was most robust for basic level categories.
14. "Kitchen tables" consists of ____ morphemes. A. two B. three C. four D. five
B. three
23. A researcher had participants read each of the sentences below and measured the time it took to read each sentence. Trial 1: The lamb ran past the cottage into the pasture. Trial 2: The dog ran past the house into the yard. The participants' response times were longer for _____ because of the _____ effect. A. trial 2; word frequency B. trial 1; word frequency C. trial 2; word superiority D. trial 1; word superiority
B. trial 1; word frequency
13. The word "bad" has ____ phoneme(s). A. one B. two C. three D. four
C. three
14. Which of the following reaction time data sets illustrate the typicality effect for the bird category, given the following three trials? (NOTE: Read data sets as RTs for Trial 1: Trial 2: Trial 3) Trial 1: An owl is a bird. Trial 2: A penguin is a bird. Trial 3: A sparrow is a bird. A. 583: 518: 653 msec B. 518: 583: 653 msec C. 583: 653: 518 msec D. 653: 583: 518 msec
C. 583: 653: 518 msec
39. In evaluating retrieval rates for category information for a concept, Collins and Quillian's semantic network approach would predict the slowest reaction times for which of the following statements using a sentence verification technique? A. A field sparrow is a bird. B. A field sparrow is a sparrow. C. A field sparrow is an animal. D. A field sparrow is a field sparrow.
C. A field sparrow is an animal.
54. Which of the following is NOT a property of the connectionist approach? A. It proposes a slow learning process that eventually creates a network capable of handling a wide range of inputs. B. Connectionist networks respond to being damaged in ways similar to the response that occurs in actual cases of brain damage in humans. C. Before any learning has occurred in the network, the weights in the network all equal zero. D. The connectionist system learns to generalize by recognizing that properties of one concept provide information about other, related concepts.
C. Before any learning has occurred in the network, the weights in the network all equal zero.
50. Which of the following is most closely modeled on the way the nervous system operates? A. Semantic network theory B. The prototype approach C. Parallel distributed processing theory D. Enhancement due to priming
C. Parallel distributed processing theory
28. In a study, participants listened to the following tape recording: Rumor had it that, for years, the government building had been plagued with problems. The man was not surprised when he found several spiders, roaches, and other bugs in the corner of the room. As participants heard the word "bugs," they completed a lexical decision task to a test stimulus flashed on a screen. Results showed that the participants responded most slowly to the test stimulus A. ANT. B. SPY. C. SKY. D. All of these would have similar response times.
C. SKY.
34. Suppose you were conducting a brain imaging experiment to investigate the overlap between brain areas activated by perceiving an object and those activated by imagining it. Which of the following best describes your investigation's baseline condition? A. A baseline condition is only needed to determine which areas were activated by imagery. B. A baseline condition is only needed to determine which areas were activated by perception. C. The baseline condition is needed for determining imagery activation and for determining perception activation. D. Since you are comparing perception activation to imagery activation, no baseline condition is needed.
C. The baseline condition is needed for determining imagery activation and for determining perception activation.
25. Which of the following has been used as an argument AGAINST the idea that imagery is spatial in nature? A. The results of scanning experiments B. Depictive representations C. The tacit-knowledge explanation D. none of these (they all support the idea that imagery is spatial)
C. The tacit-knowledge explanation
10. The conceptual peg hypothesis would predict enhanced memory for which word pair? A. True lies B. Amazing grace C. Valley girl D. Mission impossible
C. Valley girl
21. Which set of stimuli would be the best selection for having people perform a lexical decision task? A. Common words "cat, boat" and uncommon words "peon, furtive" B. Concrete words "window, monkey" and abstract words "doubt, energy" C. Words "pizza, history" and non-words "pibble, girk" D. Correctly spelled words "speech, potato" and misspelled words "speach, potatoe"
C. Words "pizza, history" and non-words "pibble, girk"
29. Suppose that, as a participant in an imagery study, you are asked to memorize the four outside walls of a three-story rectangular house. Later, you are asked to report how many windows are on the front of the house. You will probably be fastest to answer this question if you create an image as though you were standing A. right at the front door. B. two feet from the front door. C. at the far side of the front yard, away from the house. D. one mile away from the house.
C. at the far side of the front yard, away from the house.
26. According to Rosch, the ____ level of categories is the psychologically "privileged" level of category that reflects people's everyday experience. A. superordinate B. prototypical C. basic D. subordinate
C. basic
43. In explaining the paradox that imagery and perception exhibit a double dissociation, Behrmann and coworkers suggested that perception necessarily involves _____ processing and imagery starts as a _____ process. A. bottom-up; bottom-up B. top-down; top-down C. bottom-up; top-down D. top-down; bottom-up
C. bottom-up; top-down
52. Connectionist networks are modeled after neural networks in the nervous system and incorporate all of the following features of the nervous system EXCEPT A. excitatory and inhibitory connections. B. strength of firing patterns determined by the number and type (excitatory/inhibitory) of inputs. C. concepts represented by activity in individual nodes. D. distributed coding.
C. concepts represented by activity in individual nodes.
60. One beneficial property of connectionist networks is graceful degradation, which refers to the property that A. these networks learn by a process that is analogous to the way a child learns about the world by making mistakes and being corrected. B. learning a new concept does not interfere with remembering a previously learned concept. C. damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation. D. learning can be generalized between similar concepts to facilitate future learning.
C. damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation.
3. Not all of the members of everyday categories have the same features. Most fish have gills, fins, and scales. Sharks lack the feature of scales, yet they are still categorized as fish. This poses a problem for the _______ approach to categorization. A. prototype B. exemplar C. definitional D. family resemblance
C. definitional
4. The definitional approach to categorization A. is not well suited for geometrical objects but works for familiar everyday objects. B. sets definite criteria called family resemblances that all category members must have. C. doesn't work well for most natural objects like birds, trees, and plants. D. was proposed to replace the prototype approach.
C. doesn't work well for most natural objects like birds, trees, and plants.
41. Tanenhaus and coworkers' eye movement study presented participants with different pictures for interpreting the sentence, "Put the apple on the towel in the box." Their results showed the importance of _____ in how we understand sentences in real-life situations. A. the cooperative principle B. local connections C. environmental context D. instrumental inferences
C. environmental context
29. Swinney's lexical priming studies using ambiguous words as stimuli show that context A. immediately affects the activation of word meanings so that only the meaning fitting the sentence is ever activated. B. causes the meaning fitting the sentence to be activated first, followed by later activation of the other meaning. C. exerts its influence after all meanings of the word have been briefly accessed. D. has no effect on the activation of the word meanings.
C. exerts its influence after all meanings of the word have been briefly accessed.
18. Priming occurs when presentation of one stimulus A. disrupts the processing of another stimulus. B. acts as a cue that tells the participant when his or her response was correct. C. facilitates the response to another stimulus. D. relates to a prototype.
C. facilitates the response to another stimulus.
8. Paivio proposed the conceptual peg hypothesis. His work suggests which of the following would be most difficult to remember? A. Baseball B. America C. Apple pie D. Freedom
D. Freedom
24. In an eye movement study, Rayner and coworkers had participants read sentences that contained either a high- or low- frequency target word. For example, the sentence "Sam wore the horrid coat though his ____ girlfriend complained," contained either the target word "pretty" or "demure." Results showed the participants' _____ was shorter for the target word _____. A. eye movement; pretty B. eye movement; demure C. fixation; pretty D. fixation; demure
C. fixation; pretty
38. The principle of late closure can be described as a(n) _____ since it provides a best guess about the unfolding meaning of a sentence. A. analogy B. algorithm C. heuristic D. insight
C. heuristic
6. "Early" researchers of imagery (beginning with Aristotle until just prior to the dominance of behaviorism) proposed all of the following ideas EXCEPT A. thought is impossible without an image. B. images are one of the three basic elements of consciousness. C. imagery requires a special mechanism. D. imagery is not required for thinking.
C. imagery requires a special mechanism.
48. Chaz is listening to his grandma reminisce about the first time she danced with his grandpa 60 years ago. When his grandma says, "It seemed like the song would play forever," Chaz understands that it is more likely his grandma was listening to a radio playing and not a CD. This understanding requires Chaz use a(n) A. garden path model. B. given-new contract. C. instrument inference. D. age-appropriate principle.
C. instrument inference.
15. According to the typicality effect, A. objects in a category have a family resemblance to one another. B. objects that are not typical stand out and so are more easily remembered. C. items that are high in prototypicality are judged more rapidly as being in a group. D. we remember typical objects better than non-typical objects.
C. items that are high in prototypicality are judged more rapidly as being in a group.
34. In the semantic network model, a specific category is represented at a A. link. B. input unit. C. node. D. output unit.
C. node.
22. OVER (MOON, MIAMI) is a _____ representation. A. depictive B. spatial C. propositional D. descriptive
C. propositional
According to the S-F hypothesis, our ability to differentiate living things and artifacts depends on a semantic memory system that distinguishes ________ and one that distinguishes ________. A. serial nodes; familiar concepts B. sequential networks; familial resemblance C. sensory attributes; function D. sensations; facts
C. sensory attributes; function
20. Kosslyn interpreted the results of his research on imagery (such as the island experiment) as supporting the idea that the mechanism responsible for imagery involves ____ representations. A. epiphenomenal B. propositional C. spatial D. unilateral
C. spatial
23. The propositional approach uses all of the following to describe the mechanism responsible for mental imagery EXCEPT A. nodes. B. language. C. spatial layouts. D. symbols.
C. spatial layouts.
34. When the front part of a sentence can be interpreted more than one way, but the end of the sentence clarifies which meaning is correct, we say that the sentence is an example of A. parsing. B. temporary ambiguity. C. speech segmentation. D. lexical priming.
C. speech segmentation.
33. If we were conducting an experiment on the effect knowledge has on categorization, we might compare the results of expert and non-expert groups. Suppose we compare horticulturalists to people with little knowledge about plants. If we asked the groups to name, as specifically as possible, five different plants seen around campus, we would predict that the expert group would primarily label plants on the _____ level, while the non-expert group would primarily label plants on the _____ level. A. superordinate; subordinate B. superordinate; basic C. subordinate; basic D. basic; subordinate
C. subordinate; basic
35. The idea that the grammatical structure of a sentence is the primary determinant of the way a sentence is parsed is part of the _____ approach to parsing. A. semantic B. temporary ambiguity C. syntax-first D. interactionist
C. syntax-first
51. The water-pouring problem, in particular, shows that its solution using imagery cannot depend on A. a rule-based approach. B. mental simulation. C. tacit-knowledge. D. working memory.
C. tacit-knowledge.
59. The connectionist network has learned the correct pattern for a concept when A. the connection weights add up to exactly +1.00. B. the output pattern matches the initial input pattern. C. the back propagated error signal is zero. D. the output unit response is greater than zero.
C. the back propagated error signal is zero.
45. Collins and Quillian's semantic network model predicts that the reaction time to verify "a canary is a bird" is _____ the reaction time to verify "an ostrich is a bird." A. slower than B. faster than C. the same as
C. the same as
46. Collins and Loftus modified the original semantic network theory of Collins and Quillian to satisfy some of the criticisms of the original model. In their modification, Collins and Loftus account for the typicality effect by A. creating a "typical" node linked to special concepts in a category. B. representing more typical concepts as higher in the categorical hierarchy. C. using shorter links to connect more closely related concepts. D. none of these
C. using shorter links to connect more closely related concepts.
2. One of Sarah's friends asks her to describe her new house by asking her how many windows are on the front of it. After a minute, Sarah answers 12. She has most likely used _____ in answering the question. A. visual search B. her visual icon C. visual imagery D. mental chronometry
C. visual imagery
5. Behaviorists branded the study of imagery as being unproductive because A. some people have great difficulty forming visual images. B. visual images vary in detail. C. visual images are invisible to everyone except the person experiencing them. D. the imageless thought debate was unresolved.
C. visual images are invisible to everyone except the person experiencing them.
32. Imagery neurons respond to A. all visual images. B. only visual images in a specific category. C. visual images as well as objects in a specific category. D. all objects.
C. visual images as well as objects in a specific category.
40. The crucial question in comparing syntax-first and interactionist approaches to parsing is ____ is involved. A. whether semantics B. whether syntax C. when semantics D. when syntax
C. when semantics
27. Suppose we asked people to form simultaneous images of two or more animals such as a rabbit alongside an elephant. Then, we ask them basic questions about the animals. For example, we might ask if the rabbit has whiskers. Given our knowledge of imagery research, we would expect the fastest response to this question when the rabbit is imagined alongside A. a coyote. B. another rabbit. C. an elephant. D. a fly.
D. A fly ALSO a bumblebee
21. _______ are actual members of a category that a person has encountered in the past. A. Icons B. Prototypes C. Units D. Exemplars
D. Exemplars
8. Which approach to categorization involves forming a representation based on an average of category members that a person has encountered in the past? A. Exemplar B. Network C. Typicality D. Prototype
D. Prototype
3. Yoda, a central character of the Star Wars movies created by George Lucas, has a distinctive way of speaking. His statement, "Afraid you will be," violates which English language property? A. Lexicon B. Coding C. Discriminability D. Rules
D. Rules
11. Which of the following members would most likely be ranked highest in prototypicality in the "birds" category? A. Raven B. Duck C. Hummingbird D. Sparrow
D. Sparrow
27. People playing the parlor game "20 Questions" often use hierarchical organization strategies. One player asks up to 20 yes/no questions to determine the identity of an object another player has selected. The player's questions usually start as general and get more specific as the player approaches a likely guess. Initial questions asked by a player are often one of three questions: "Is it an animal?" "Is it a vegetable?" and "Is it a mineral?" Each of these three questions describes which level of categorization? A. Typical B. Basic C. Subordinate D. Superordinate
D. Superordinate
24. Carly is an interior design student. As part of her internship, she is redesigning a small kitchen for a client. She would like to expand the kitchen and add a dining area. Before creating sketches for the client, she imagines the new layout in her mind, most likely using A. tacit knowledge. B. a proposition. C. the method of loci. D. a depictive representation.
D. a depictive representation.
16. In the phonemic restoration effect, participants "fill in" the missing phoneme based on all of the following EXCEPT A. the context produced by the sentence. B. the portion of the word that was presented. C. the meaning of the words that follow the missing phoneme. D. a mental "skimming" of the lexicon to find likely words.
D. a mental "skimming" of the lexicon to find likely words.
47. Boxing champion George Foreman recently described his family vacations with the statement, "At our ranch in Marshall, Texas, there are lots of ponds and I take the kids out and we fish. And then of course, we grill them." That a reader understands "them" appropriately (George grills fish, not his kids!) is the result of a(n) _____ inference. A. narrative B. instrument C. analogic D. anaphoric
D. anaphoric
46. Consider the following sentences: "Captain Ahab wanted to kill the whale. He cursed at it." These two sentences taken together provide an example of a(n) A. instrument inference. B. garden path sequence. C. global connection. D. anaphoric inference.
D. anaphoric inference.
55. Learning takes place in a connectionist network through a process of _____ in which an error signal is transmitted from output units towards the input units. A. graceful degradation B. error verification C. spreading activation D. back propagation
D. back propagation
7. The prototype approach to categorization states that a standard representation of a category is based on A. the definition of the category. B. a universal set of category members. C. a defined set of category members. D. category members that have been encountered in the past.
D. category members that have been encountered in the past.
53. One of the key properties of the _____ approach is that a specific concept is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network. A. semantic network B. hierarchical C. spreading activation D. connectionist
D. connectionist
22. In the lexical decision task, participants are asked to A. separate a sentence into individual words. B. decide which meaning of an ambiguous sentence is correct in a specific situation. C. identify words that are contained in sentences. D. decide whether a string of letters is a word or a non-word.
D. decide whether a string of letters is a word or a non-word.
62. Research on the physiology of semantic memory has shown that the representation of different categories in the brain (like living and non-living things) is best described as being A. specific. B. subordinate. C. graded. D. distributed.
D. distributed.
25. Research suggests that the _____ approach to categorization works best for small categories (e.g., U.S. presidents). A. semantic network B. definitional C. prototype D. exemplar
D. exemplar
42. To explain the fact that some neuropsychological studies show close parallels between perceptual deficits and deficits in imagery, while other studies do not find this parallel, it has been proposed that the mechanism for imagery is located at _____ visual centers and the mechanism for perception is located at _____ visual centers. A. lower; higher B. higher; lower C. both lower and higher; higher D. higher; both lower and higher
D. higher; both lower and higher
13. Shepard and Metzler's "image rotation" experiment was so influential and important to the study of cognition because it demonstrated A. how easy mental rotation is for humans. B. that humans cannot successfully rotate mental images beyond 90 degrees. C. that humans can only perform mental rotation on "real-world" objects. D. imagery and perception may share the same mechanisms.
D. imagery and perception may share the same mechanisms.
3. Ira and his sister are playing "Name that Tune," the object of which is to name the title of the song when given the song's first line. Ira suggests the line "Sleigh bells ring, are you listening?" His sister can't come up with the answer at first, but realizing that the title is often embedded in the lyrics, she tries to sing them silently to herself. She then bursts out "Ah! It's 'Winter Wonderland'!" It is most likely that Ira's sister used _____ in playing the game. A. mental chronometry B. mental synthesis C. visual imagery D. inner audition
D. inner audition
18. The "imagery debate" is concerned with whether imagery A. actually exists. B. can be used to solve spatial problems. C. is similar for all people. D. is based on mechanisms related to language.
D. is based on mechanisms related to language.
18. When we look at a record of the physical energy produced by conversational speech, we see that the speech signal A. has breaks between phonemes. B. has breaks between morphemes. C. has breaks between words. D. is continuous.
D. is continuous.
45. Wilma is a famous chef. Since she does not like to share her secret family recipes, she does not write down her special creations, which makes it difficult to remember their ingredients. To aid her memory, she has created a unique "mental walk" that she takes to recall each recipe. For each one, she has a familiar "route" she can imagine walking through (e.g., from the end of her driveway to her living room) where she places each item in the recipe somewhere along the way (e.g., Tabasco sauce splattered on the front door). By doing so, Wilma is using _____ to organize her memories. A. mental synthesis B. paired-associate learning C. the pegword technique D. method of loci
D. method of loci
40. Your text describes imagery performance of a patient with unilateral neglect. This patient was asked to imagine himself walking in a familiar plaza and to report the objects he saw. His behavior shows A. neglect manifests itself in perception only, not in imagery. B. neglect occurred in imagery such that some objects in the plaza were never reported. C. neglect occurred in imagery so that the patient, imagining the walk from one direction and neglecting the left side of the plaza, was then unable to imagine walking the plaza from the other direction. D. neglect always occurred on the left side of the image, with "left side" being determined by the direction in which the patient imagined he was walking.
D. neglect always occurred on the left side of the image, with "left side" being determined by the direction in which the patient imagined he was walking.
43. Your research advisor asks you to create stimuli for a discourse processing experiment to be run in the lab. Most likely, you would create stimuli where each trial you present a(n) A. word. B. word or non-word letter string. C. ambiguous sentence. D. paragraph of text.
D. paragraph of text.
35. Ganis and coworkers used fMRI to measure brain activation for perception and imagery of objects. Their results showed that A. there is no difference between the activation caused by perception and by imagery. B. perception and imagery activate the same areas near the back of the brain, but imagery activates more of the frontal lobe than does perception. C. perception and imagery activate the same areas of the frontal lobe, but imagery activates more of the back of the brain than perception does. D. perception and imagery activate the same areas of the frontal lobe, but perception activates more of the back of the brain than imagery does.
D. perception and imagery activate the same areas of the frontal lobe, but perception activates more of the back of the brain than imagery does.
38. Kosslyn's transcranial magnetic stimulation experiment on brain activation that occurs in response to imagery found that the brain activity in the visual cortex A. is an epiphenomenon. B. can be inferred using mental chronometry. C. supports the idea that the mechanism responsible for imagery involves propositional representations. D. plays a causal role in both perception and imagery.
D. plays a causal role in both perception and imagery.
9. Ty has finished work on his doctoral dissertation. He studied how most adults understand words, specifically the priming effects of categorically related words and submitted a proposal to be included in a psychological conference to present his work to his peers. Presentation at the conference is segregated based on the particular topic in psychology under consideration. It is most likely that Ty's work will be presented in a conference session on A. sensation. B. psychoacoustics. C. neuropsychology. D. psycholinguistics.
D. psycholinguistics.
6. B.F. Skinner, the modern champion of behaviorism, proposed that language is learned through A. parsing. B. genetic coding. C. syntactic framing. D. reinforcement.
D. reinforcement.
44. Coherence refers to the A. mental process by which readers create information during reading that is not explicitly stated in the text. B. principle that we process information in isolation before we link it to its context. C. mental process whereby ambiguity is resolved online during sentence reading. D. representation of the text in a reader's mind, so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text.
D. representation of the text in a reader's mind, so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text.
35. The _____ model includes associations between concepts and the property of spreading activation. A. parallel distributed processing B. connectionist network C. neural network D. semantic network
D. semantic network
12. Items high on prototypicality have ____ family resemblances. A. no B. weak C. moderate D. strong
D. strong
53. When two people engage in a conversation, if one person produces a specific grammatical construction in her speech and then the other person does the same, this phenomenon is referred to as A. anaphoric inferencing. B. phonemic restoration. C. garden-pathing. D. syntactic priming.
D. syntactic priming.
26. In their imagery study, Finke and Pinker presented a four-dot display briefly to participants. After a two-second delay, participants then saw an arrow, and their task was to indicate whether the arrow would have pointed to any of the dots in the previous display. The significance of their results was they called into question the ____ explanation of imagery. A. epiphenomenon B. depictive representation C. spatial representation D. tacit-knowledge
D. tacit-knowledge
12. A phoneme refers to A. the property of combining words into unique sentences. B. the first word produced by infants, usually during their second year. C. a mental grouping of words being heard during "inner audition." D. the shortest segment of speech that, if changed, changes the meaning of a word.
D. the shortest segment of speech that, if changed, changes the meaning of a word.
49. The lesson to be learned from the imagery techniques for memory enhancement (for example, the pegword technique) is that these techniques work because A. distinctive images tend to provide easy "magical" improvements in memory. B. they tap into reliable ways to develop "photographic" memory. C. their flexible, undefined structures allow rememberers to spontaneously organize information in any way they want. D. they showcase the fact that memory improvement requires a great deal of practice and perseverance.
D. they showcase the fact that memory improvement requires a great deal of practice and perseverance.
