TEXTBOOK: Ch. 10: Structuring the Three-Dimensional Field: Screen Volume and Effects

*Articulating the z-axis*

*________________________* means to place positive volumes along the z-axis to help the camera distinguish among the depth planes. By placing objects or people at various z-axis locations and by choosing a specific lens (wide-angle, normal, or narrow-angle zoom lens positions), you can make the viewer perceive restricted or open space, with objects being crowded or else comfortably or agonizingly far apart. Take a look at the 3 traffic situations in the figures above. Figure 10.10 shows a long stretch of road with apparently light traffic. In figure 10.11 the traffic seems slightly heavier; in figure 10.12 the traffic appears completely jammed. Actually, all three 3 were taken from the same position within seconds of one another, but each was taken with a different lens, that is, with a different zoom lens position. You probably recognized that the shot in figure 10.10 was taken with a wide- angle lens. The resulting volume duality shows preponderant negative volume. The exaggerated convergence of parallel lines and relative size make the cars appear much farther apart than they actually are. The aesthetic effect is that we perceive traffic to be light. The shot in figure 10.11 was taken with a normal lens. The perspective, relative-size factors, and volume duality in this shot appear approximately as you would normally see them. This means that traffic conditions are reflected accurately in this shot. The shot in figure 10.12 was taken with a narrow- angle (telephoto) lens. Here the volume duality shifts to a predominant positive volume. The linear perspective and the relative-size differences are minimized, and the parallel lines do not converge as rapidly as in the other 2 shots. The cars toward the background are reduced in size much less than in the wide-angle shot. Because they appear similar in size, the z-axis space seems to have shrunk, and the cars appear much more crowded than they actually are; traffic seems heavy.

relative size; miniaturization; spherical image flattening

3D Spatial Paradoxes: To discuss only a few 3D spatial paradoxes seems like a logical paradox itself because all stereo images are based on fooling our perceptual system into believing that we experience actual 3D space. Nevertheless, there are instances in which creating this illusion is marred by the 3D magician getting careless and pulling a rabbit out of his top hat that is either too small or squeezed flat. Specifically, the more common spatial paradoxes are ________________ and ________________________, and _____________________________. Window violations are one of the more explicit paradoxes and are discussed in the next section.

zv-axis negative space; volume

3D Volume Duality: I would argue that the volume duality effect is second only to the ________________ that extends from window to viewer in what makes stereo 3D such a special experience. Being tricked into perceiving stereo space on the two-dimensional surface of the screen, our brain apparently interprets all space between objects as _____________ volume, regardless of whether the space is framed by positive volumes as in figure 10.8. All stereo space tends to become volume. Once we become aware of the 3D volume duality, we usually react to this moment of discovery with an "ohhh" or "wow" reaction, however subconscious it may be. In many of us, this fusion brings about a smile of wonderment, especially if the event plays in front of the screen (parallel lenses with no convergence) and stretches toward us so that we can almost touch it (wide interocular distance). This temporary moment of delight occurs because we are no longer dealing with a mere articulation of the z-axis but a metamorphosis of _________ to ___________. Instead of merely seeing events extending in both directions on the zh- and zv-axes, our perceptual system has switched to experiencing also the space between objects—a volume duality—even if the negative as well as the positive volumes are strictly virtual.

one two *stereo base* longer point of convergence (POC); stereo base; screen size; viewer-to-screen distance behind motion

3D Z-axis Articulation: Even when the z-axis extends in both directions from the screen, the stereoscopic projection does not alter the basic principles of z-axis blocking. You still need an articulated z-axis to emphasize depth, regardless of whether you look at it with one eye or both eyes. There are, however, important differences between articulating the z-axis for 2D and 3D video and film. The most obvious, of course, is that in standard 2D single-lens photography you only have ______ z-axis, extending from camera (or screen) to horizon, whose apparent length can be most readily manipulated by the focal length of the lens. Yet in stereo 3D you have, as pointed out in chapter 9, ______ z-axes: the zh-axis, which extends from the screen to the horizon, and the zv-axis, which extends from the screen to the viewer. In stereo 3D we can easily alter the apparent length of the zv-axis through changing the *_______________*, the interocular distance between the twin lenses. The wider the stereo base, the ___________ the zv-axis extends toward the viewer and the farther the objects appear from each other. Just how we see objects along the stereo z-axes depends on a careful balance among 4 parameters: the _______________________________, the ________________, _______________, and ______________________________. You can also use the 2 stereo z-axes as a single z-axis that starts ____________ the window, penetrates it, and ends in front of it, close to the viewer. Such a use of the stereo z-axes is not recommended when you split an over-the-shoulder shot, with the camera-near person in front of the window (zv-axis) and the camera- far person behind it (zh-axis). The elongated z-axis can be quite effective when blocking z-axis __________, however, such as a runaway truck, somebody fleeing a dangerous villain, or some object hurtling through the window toward the viewer.

*negative volume* space; volume

A *_____________________* is empty space that is somehow delineated by positive volumes. Unlimited negative space, such as the cloudless sky, constitutes negative ________ but not negative ___________. The interior of a room is a negative volume because it is clearly described by the positive volumes of the walls, ceiling, and floor. The hole in a doughnut is also a negative volume, but the space surrounding the doughnut is not (assuming that we ignore the larger negative volume of the room).

*positive volume* substance

A *_______________________* has substance; it can be touched and has a clearly described mass. Positive volumes include such objects as cars, pillars, desks, and chairs as well as people. But a positive volume is also any screen image that has the appearance of __________________.

thicker; thinner thicker fatigue; headaches

Accommodation: As you recall from chapter 9, our eyes have a built-in auto-focus mechanism. When you focus on something close to you, the lenses of your eyes get ______________; when focusing on something farther away, the lenses get ______________. Unfortunately, this auto-focus causes some perception problems when viewing stereo 3D images. Because all 3D magic originates on-screen, the index vectors of viewers' eyes tend to converge and focus on the screen. But what happens when a person walks through the window and toward us into zv space? When we try to look at the image floating in front of us, our automated visual system tries to compensate for the close distance by making the lenses of our eyes slightly _____________, so our eyes go out of focus because the event is actually playing on the screen. While our perceptual system tries to cope with this anomaly, our brain sends help messages in the form of eye ____________ and _________________.

*open set*

Applications of Volume Duality: You can see the most obvious application of volume duality for its own sake in sculptures done primarily to explore the interrelationship of positive and negative volumes. In scene design volume duality is applied in an *_____________*. Open set refers not to a set that is open to the public but rather to scenery that is not continuous; the

*open set* single-camera inductively multicamera

Applications of Volume Duality: You can see the most obvious application of volume duality for its own sake in sculptures done primarily to explore the interrelationship of positive and negative volumes. In scene design volume duality is applied in an open set. *_____________* refers not to a set that is open to the public but rather to scenery that is not continuous; the open set is not closed or boxed in by connected walls but instead consists of only the most important parts of a room, for example, a window, some furniture, and a few separate single flats. The open-set method is particularly effective for a _________________ video production that builds its screen events _______________, bit by bit, close-up by close- up, in a mosaic fashion. So long as your visualization approach is inductive, the open set is even advantageous in _________________ productions; it allows for optimal camera points of view and a more fluid shot sequencing. This is different when shooting "landscape-style" for digital movies or large-screen video. The frequent long shots of large vistas or interiors require a continuous interior and make an open set impractical. The phenomenon of volume duality is the most startling yet least explained effect in 3D viewing.

convenient

But don't we often see the anchor and the field reporter or guest appear in identical side-by-side boxes? Aren't they now both graphicated and operating in second-order space? The answer to both questions is yes. But, then, aren't we making a mistake by graphicating the anchor in this way? From a personification point of view, yes, we are. With both host and guest confined to second-order space, we inevitably perceive them to be picturelike and equally removed from us. For all practical purposes, the personification effect is lost. As you recall, this is also a questionable practice from an aesthetic point of view. Despite the context of a two-way conversation, the continuing z-axis index vectors are not necessarily perceived as converging; they may well be seen as continuing, being directed at us, the viewers. From a production point of view, however, it is a ____________________ way to show two people talking to each other without the need for frequent cutting between the two close-ups. Such a side-by-side arrangement is especially convenient when the anchor is conversing simultaneously with 4 or 5 guests who are in different locations. In any case, a better solution would be to have the host remain in first-order space, looking with the viewers at the guest framed in second-order space. You can then switch to the secondary frame (or frames, if there are several guests) and have the host ask questions from an off-screen position. The z-axis index vectors of the guests are now directed toward the off-screen host and, at the same time, toward us, the viewers. We are then able to identify with the host, who is temporarily operating from an extended first-order space.

against

Depth of Field: In most cases, the standard uses of depth of field in a 2D image do not apply to stereo 3D in the same way. In fact, most of the examples mentioned in chapter 9 to explain aerial perspective would work ________________ a stereo effect. In figure 9.38, the selective focus is on the man in front, with the other 2 people along the z-axis out of focus. But why would they be out of focus if we can now judge by the negative volume that they actually stand quite close to each other? In stereo 3D such a spatial paradox would be even worse if we were to move the selective focus to the woman standing in the middle or at the end of the zh-axis. Why would the woman standing in the middle or the man in back be in focus when the person closest to us is out of focus? This problem is amplified in an over-the-shoulder shot, in which in 2D we normally use a soft focus on the camera-near person to emphasize the face of the camera- far person. In 3D, should we not see the person closest to us at least as sharp and clear as the person behind the window? -Yes, we should. As effective as such depth-of-field maneuvers are in 2D capture, most experienced stereographers recommend staying away from depth-of-field manipulations. Such a restriction in 3D is especially painful because a shallow depth of field not only is a useful tool for emphasis but has become an important stylistic element.

mobility emptiness

Dominant Negative Volume: A large, well-articulated negative volume invites ________________. We feel less restricted and can breathe freely and move about easily. A dominant negative volume isolates us and can make us feel insignificant and humble in the presence of so much emptiness. Much like the huge positive volume of a mountain, a large negative volume, such as an open plaza, an empty stadium, or the interior of a Gothic cathedral, can fill us with awe. Too much negative volume, however, can promote a certain _________________ wherein we feel alone, cold, isolated, and lost. It's no wonder that people who work in the large, unarticulated space of modern offices put up screens and partitions or use space modulators such as file cabinets to create a less public and more personal space for themselves.

outweigh crowded

Dominant Positive Volume: When you stuff many objects into the studio or any other room, the positive volumes ______________ the negative ones, making the room look __________________. Too much positive volume can confine movement and make you feel restricted or boxed in.

looks; structured foreground; middleground; background

Figure/Ground Paradox: Never mind what the newscaster is saying—all we care about right now is what the newscast __________ like or, specifically, how the three-dimensional field is ________________ in this particular shot. When you see a close-up of the anchor in the foreground and the keyed-in graphicated box over his shoulder, you automatically presume that the anchor is in the _________________, the box behind his shoulder is in the _________________, and parts of the newsroom or news set are in the ___________________. At first glance we seem to have a classic structuring of the three-dimensional field, with a prominent foreground (the anchor), a somewhat ambiguous middleground (the secondary frame seems to float somewhere between the anchor and the back wall), and a common background (the back wall of the news set, which can also be a window). Perceptual problems occur when the anchor shifts his position or the box key is slightly off. In either case, the box may temporarily overlap the anchor's shoulder. According to our normal perceptual expectations, we would expect the box (middleground) to be overlapped by the anchor (foreground), but this basic spatial organization is paradoxically upset: the middleground overlaps the foreground. Will we now perceive the box as being the foreground? -Not really. Despite the strong overlapping-planes cue, which clearly puts the box in front of the news anchor, our mental map holds on to the basic organization and tells us that the anchor is still in the foreground. This problem persists even if the overlap is intentional. In the attempt to make the second-order box a foreground piece, some graphic designers attach it to one of the edges of the first-order primary frame. At times the anchor is overlapped by the box and thus relegated to the middleground of the video space. Despite this deliberate figure/ground reversal, it is difficult for us to go against our hardwired organizational figure/ground principles. First, we still expect the larger image of the anchor to be the foreground figure and the smaller, graphicated second-order box to be somewhere behind the anchor. Second, such an arrangement also works against our hierarchical organization principle: because the anchor is definitely the primary information source, we expect her to occupy the foreground and not the middle- or background. A similar problem arises when we reverse the image size between host and guest.

*first-order space*; *second-order space*

First- and Second-order Space: When a secondary frame is placed over the newscaster's shoulder, there are 2 types of screen space: the primary space as defined by the video screen's borders, and the space of the digitally created secondary frame. We call the total screen area *_________________* and the secondary frame *______________________*. The anchor occupies first-order space; the person or event in the box is in second-order space. Because the second-order frame is such a strong graphication device, we tend to perceive its content as picturelike, regardless of whether the pictures are static iconic motifs or lens-generated events that move. In contrast to this abstracted space, first-order space seems to be more "real." A strong possibility exists that, under certain circumstances, we may even extend first-order space into our own living space and share our environment. This extension is quite different from a stereoscopic projection because it is a pure psychological phenomenon. At the very least, events in first-order space seem to attain a certain degree of verisimilitude and believability. An example of an extension of first-order space into our living space is when a newscaster, operating in nongraphicated first-order space, first talks to us—the viewers—introducing the guest who is confined in a second-order box. When the anchor then turns toward the secondary frame for the actual interview, we may perceive, at least temporarily, the newscaster sharing our actual environment, interviewing the guest from our—the viewers'—position.

*foreground* *middleground* *background*

Foreground, Middleground, and Background: The most basic structure of the traditional (single-lens) three-dimensional field consists of a *________________* (the depth plane closest to the camera, marking the beginning of the z-axis), a *_____________________* (the depth plane marking the approximate middle of the z-axis), and a *_____________________* (the depth plane farthest from the camera, marking the end of the z-axis).

*multiple z-axis blocking*

Good blocking for the small screen means staging an event along the z-axis for each camera; this is called *_______________________*. For example, you can have the camera look down a hallway, such as a hospital corridor, and block the action from the back of the hallway toward the camera (z-axis 1). Have most of the people exit by walking past the camera. Now have the camera pan right and follow someone (perhaps the chief surgeon) walking down another articulated z-axis (z-axis 2). You probably recognize this technique as being used in many serial dramas. In a typical situation comedy setup with the inevitable couch, you can easily block the action along 3 articulated z-axes—one for each camera. If done properly, such blocking requires little or no camera movement. Such blocking is desirable regardless of whether the production calls for a single camera or multiple cameras.

*graphication*

Graphication: No sooner have we learned how to create the illusion of depth on the two- dimensional plane of the video screen than we are confronted with digital techniques used to render a three-dimensional scene deliberately 2D and graphiclike again. Such a process, in which the three-dimensional lens-generated screen image is deliberately rendered in a two-dimensional, graphic- or picturelike format, is called *______________________*. Graphication can take on many forms, of which the most common are lines and lettering, secondary frames within the primary frame of the video screen, and a combination of the two.

familiarity; trust *personification* second

Personification: Such close personal contact, however much imagined, fosters ______________ and ________. Subconsciously, we attribute to the people operating in the extended space the flesh-and-blood qualities of real people—a certain degree of *__________________*. This personification effect does not seem to take place in _______________-order space. The abstraction through graphication is so great that viewers inevitably consider the people appearing in second-order space as video images or pictures. Even when the second-order people are occasionally and temporarily "let out of the box" to occupy the full primary screen, we still consider them as occupying second-order space so long as the full-screen display is brief. To make sure that the people appearing in second-order space do not invade first-order space, additional graphication devices in the second-order space, such as name, place, and time superimpositions, are generally used.

blatant

Psychological Closure: As you recall from the discussion of 2D object framing in chapter 8, our perceptual system automatically fills in the missing parts of a cropped 2D image through psychological closure so long as there are sufficient on-screen clues that lead into off-screen space. Such an automatic response does not occur when a cropped image is projected in front of the window in zv space, so it is considered the most _____________ window violation. Let's use the excellent demonstration by Shahrokh Dabiri. In explaining the concept of the stereo window, Dabiri also defines a window violation by having a boy extend a shovel through the window along the zv axis. When the shovel is held too close to the window edge, part of the shovel is cropped. Whereas such a cropping would be perfectly acceptable in 2D framing because we would automatically complete the scene through psychological closure, in 3D our perceptual system no longer applies closure but tells us that we see an incomplete shovel. While the long handle of the shovel extends toward us, the cropped shovel blade seems glued to the edge of the window. In the process, our perceptual system refuses to apply closure but rather delivers an incomplete shovel. This problem is magnified in the ubiquitous over-the-shoulder shot. When a shot is framed for standard 2D presentation, we apply closure quite readily and see nothing wrong with showing only the upper parts of the subjects' bodies. We will apply closure in a similar way so long as we keep such a cropped medium shot behind the window in zh space. But what happens when you move the camera-near person in front of the POC into the zv space closer to the viewer? Will we now apply closure to the camera-near person and perceive a whole person in front of us? -No, we won't. What we will see floating close to us is only his upper back and head, with the lower part of his body missing. The main reason why we fail to apply psychological closure is that the camera-near person has now left the clearly defined picture space of the screen and has entered our—the viewer's—space, however virtual his presence may be. Because he is supposed to have escaped the confines of the screen and is now operating in our actual space, we see no reason why we shouldn't see the whole person in front of us unless he was partially hidden by some object or, in our case, the screen edge. The refusal of our brain to apply closure to incomplete figures in viewer space can lead to all kinds of window violations. For example, if you see a golfer behind the window putt along the zh-axis and the ball rolls toward the camera and through the window along the zv-axis, the ball will seem to roll on a thin sheet of green that mysteriously floats in front of the window like a magic carpet. If your POC puts one of two ballet dancers behind the window and the other in front of it, the common floor will extend underneath the second dancer along the zv-axis into viewer space. Unfortunately, this thin sheet of partial dance floor goes so much against our actual experience that our brain simply refuses to add more solid ground below. Similar closure problems arise when the front part of a mountain landscape is permitted to ooze out of the bottom edge of the window. It becomes a thin sheet that simply makes no sense.

wide-angle lens; narrow-angle lens reduce; behind

Relative size and Miniaturization: As explained in chapter 9, we automatically relate image size to distance. If a ball is rolling toward the camera, the ball will look progressive larger. When it rolls away again, it will perceptually shrink. This size difference can be exaggerated by using a ____________________ or minimized with a _________________________. In stereo 3D this correlation does not necessarily hold up. If, for example, you show one soccer ball behind the window on the zh-axis and another one floating in front of the window on the zv-axis, it may not appear bigger than the one in the back. You are now rattling even your fine brain: shouldn't the ball close to you look larger than the one farther away? Because they don't, your brain solves this dilemma by telling you that the ball closest to you must be a smaller ball than the one behind the window. To avoid such a perceptual miniaturization, you should _____________ the stereo base or keep the whole event _____________ the window.

border

Secondary Frames: One of the more popular ways of graphicating a scene is to put it into a secondary frame, such as windowboxing. The digitally generated box clearly delineates an additional picture area within the borders of the actual primary frame of the video screen. This technique renders the event displayed in the secondary frame as a picture similar to the pictures in newspapers and magazines. In fact, we often make the secondary frame look like a picture by giving it a _______________ and setting it off from the background of the primary screen with drop shadows.

structure lens-generated; computer-generated

So far we have discussed some of the basic principles and factors that help you project the three-dimensional world onto the two- dimensional video, film, and computer screens and create the illusion of depth. We now examine how to _______________ the three-dimensional field. We do this principally by manipulating _________________________ space, building _________________________ space, and a combination of both.

*digital video effects (DVE)* news *metamessages*

Special Effects: The ready availability of *_______________________* software may tempt you to use such effects just to liven things up a bit—to interject some motion and excitement into an otherwise dull and slow-moving show. You can see such digital wizardry every time you turn on the television, regardless of program content. These effects are most prominent in _________ presentations. Brief videos of events from around the world are sometimes frozen into still images, making them look like still shots in a photo album or a picture that hangs over the news anchor's shoulder. Sometimes various background effects reinforce the story content. When the news item is about war, tanks in low-saturated colors roll through the background; if it is about an election issue, the inevitable flag will undulate in slow motion behind the candidate. Of course, we all know that even the most inventive effects will not make a boring story interesting. These effects may also unintentionally or intentionally communicate fairly powerful *_____________________*—messages that carry latent meanings—that often go unnoticed by less attentive viewers. In fact, such seemingly harmless messages are sucked up by your unconscious without your ever knowing and may well prime your reaction in a predictable way. Knowing some of the aesthetic codes and subcodes that underlie such effects can enable you to enhance the intended communication objective and avoid their irresponsible use. This section examines 4 special effects: graphication, first- and second-order space, personification, and topological and structural changes.

stereo base; screen size; proximity viewer-to-screen distance flatten; squeezed elongated

Spherical image flattening: How you perceive the true shape of a positive volume, such as the soccer ball, depends to a great extent on a combination of the ___________________, the ______________, and your ________________ to the screen. In these correlations the most important parameter is _________________________. Assume for a moment that the 3D soccer ball looks as though it is glued to the viewer side of the window (at the start of the zv-axis) and that you are sitting at a normal distance from the screen. If all 3 parameters have been properly observed, the soccer ball should look round. If you now move closer to the screen, the ball starts to ____________ out and look ________________. Will the shape of the ball also change when you sit farther back than the distance parameters allow? -Yes. The farther back you move from the screen, the more the spherical soccer ball looks ___________________ and begins to stick out toward you like a watermelon.

medium

Structuring Stereo 3D Space: Structuring 3D space is considerably more complicated than dealing with 2D space, even if manufacturers of 3D equipment tell you otherwise. Although many of the 2D structuring principles just discussed also apply to 3D, they do not always evoke the same aesthetic response. In fact, some experienced stereographers recommend that you "forget all about standard video practices" and consider stereo 3D "a new medium." This is, of course, an overstatement, but it has a kernel of truth to it. To switch to stereo 3D production, you should indeed consider it a new _____________. The following discussion of structuring stereo 3D space highlights just a few prominent features that are unique to the 3D medium: 3D volume duality, 3D z-axis articulation, 3D spatial paradoxes, and window violations. What is often overlooked by both 3D novices and experts are the perceptual and psychological liabilities of stereo 3D.

depth; volume strong surrealistic; dreamlike

Superimposition: As mentioned in chapter 7, a superimposition leads to an image in which the usual figure/ground relationship and the overlapping planes are largely dissolved into a complex array of intersecting images. When "supering" one image over another, the objects seem to become transparent, eliminating the illusion of _______ and ____________. The collapse of separate viewpoints or events into a single two-dimensional picture plane changes the viewer's normal perceptual expectations and gives not only a more complex view of things but particularly deeper insight into the event's underlying complexity. Because of this new structural bond, a super can suggest a ___________ relationship between seemingly unrelated events. Thus we often use the super to create a _______________ or _________________ feeling.

glasses brightness; color depth of field; accommodation; psychological closure

The Media Aesthetic Predicament of Stereo 3D: Even if all of the stereo parameters are properly set and no window violations are committed, all 3D presentations have several inherent liabilities. The most obvious is that, so far, the viewers must wear some kind of ______________ that separate the left- and right-eye images. All types of glasses reduce the overall __________________, and the anaglyph system also suffers from some ___________ distortion. The more serious problems, however, lie in the perceptual and psychological arenas. They include ________________, ________________________, and ___________________________.

space modulators degree

The control of volume duality—how the positive volumes articulate the negative space—is an essential factor in the manipulation of three-dimensional space and the illusion of screen depth. Designing scenery for video or film and blocking talent and camera action—all are careful and deliberate manipulations of volume duality. For example, the empty studio represents a clearly defined (by the studio walls) yet unarticulated negative volume—the empty studio. As soon as you put things into the studio, such as scenery and set pieces, you begin to modulate the negative volume of the empty studio with positive volumes, giving each scenic element its specific place and dividing the large negative volume into smaller, organically related negative volumes. Thus the positive volumes act as _________________________. Volume duality can vary in ______________. When people or objects move through the negative volume (such as the studio), they continuously redefine the volume duality.

*volume duality*

The interplay between positive and negative volumes is called *___________________*. Moholy-Nagy, who wrote a classic work on design in the mid-1940s, defines negative volume as "outstanding plastic elements," even if they are bodiless.

topology

Topological and Structural Changes: Digital video effects enable you to shrink the full-screen video and change its ____________—its outer shape—at will. For example, you may see an especially tragic event briefly appear on-screen, freeze, peel off a large stack of snapshots, and flip unceremoniously through video space to make room for a new series of disasters. At first glance such effects are relatively harmless attention-getters. On closer examination, however, we discover that such visual acrobatics carry metamessages that, although not consciously perceived by most viewers, can readily change their attitude toward the event itself. The freezing and careless flips of disturbing scenes may convey an I-don't-really-care attitude toward the calamities displayed, making it all too easy for us to remain emotionally uninvolved. What we perceive, however subconsciously, is that we are no longer watching a slice of reality—a documentation of an actual occurrence—but merely some easily disposable pictures. Although we do indeed see only fleeting pictures when watching television, such topological changes to the regular video image become more anomalous the more we believe that the television-mediated event is the real thing. The combination of negative graphication and the often simultaneously displayed irrelevant information, such as sports scores and the weather, provide an easy escape from getting emotionally involved—or even from social responsibility to do something about the displayed human suffering. The large palette of possible DVE also invites you to change the structure of the image. The mosaic effect as well as images with heightened contrast and color distortions are but 2 well-known examples. They may be less weighty than the graphication flips, but they nevertheless transform what we normally perceive as a three-dimensional "real" video scene into picturelike abstractions. Most often they simply provide visual interest but can, if appropriate, also intensify the message. Before using any such effects, however, think carefully about why you would choose a specific effect and what possible metamessages it may carry.

toward; away

When blocking for television, you can have the action weave ___________ and/ or _________ from the camera along the z-axis. Such z-axis blocking for the standard 4 × 3 video screen allows you to show a relatively large number of people interacting with one another from a single camera's point of view. For example, you can use z-axis blocking to simulate a crowd scene with just a few people. The same scene shot from another angle reveals how sparse the "crowd" really is. If in a multicamera production you intend to use a second camera for close- ups in such a "crowd" scene, you would need to have the second camera fairly close to the first so that the z-axes of both cameras are practically identical or at least run pretty much parallel to each other. Otherwise the first camera would see the crowd along the z-axis, and the close-up camera would view them along the x-axis.

danger

When spatially condensed by the narrow-angle lens, a row of separate columns becomes a single, massive support. With the reduction of negative space, the volume duality has given way to a mass of positive volume. Similarly, when squeezed by a narrow-angle lens, a row of houses connotes certain psychological and social conditions, such as closeness or crowdedness with little room for expansion. Depending on the overall context, you might also think of fire danger. Like a military uniform, the narrow-angle lens can rob people of their individuality and suggest sameness of behavior, collective goals, a high degree of persuadability, or simply raw, irrational power. Extreme closeness can suggest _____________, especially when applied to fast-moving vehicles. The precariousness of tailgating is highly intensified by the narrow-angle field of view. Shooting heavy traffic along the z-axis with an extremely long-focal-length lens (zoomed in all the way to its narrowest-angle position) crowds the vehicles even more than they really are. Such a shot readily communicates the frustration of the people stuck in rush-hour traffic. As with every aesthetic effect, the depth distortion through a narrow-angle lens can, of course, also work to your disadvantage. You are no doubt familiar with the deceiving proximity of the pitcher to home plate. Because cameras must remain at a considerable distance from the action, the extreme narrow-angle lens used in the reverse-angle shot from pitcher to batter drastically shrinks the apparent distance between the two. In such a shot, we may wonder how the batter could ever hit the ball when the pitcher fires at him from such a close range.

change volume duality; z-axis articulation; z-axis blocking

When structuring the three-dimensional field, you must—as with most other aesthetic fields—take into account the element of ______________, that is, the movement of the event itself, of the camera, and of the sequence of shots. A camera that dollies past a row of columns, people dancing, cars moving along the z-axis, a zoom, or a cut from one camera to another—all create a changing structural pattern, a changing three-dimensional field. For example, when the camera is zooming in, the foreground may disappear, the middleground takes on the role of the foreground, and the background becomes the new middleground. Or when you cut from one camera angle to another view, viewers essentially see a new z-axis with its own spatial articulation. To structure the lens- or computer-generated 3D field, you need to consider 3 important aspects: __________________, ______________________, and ___________________.

size larger z-axis exaggeration huge stress secondary frame middleground; background HDTV; movie

Wide-angle Lens Distortion: The wide-angle lens also exaggerates ______ relationships. An object close to the camera appears much _________ than a similarly sized object placed just a short z-axis distance away. We automatically interpret this size difference as increased __________ distance. Depending on the context, however, we can also interpret such a size discrepancy as an _______________________ of object size. Through what Sergei Eisenstein called "conflict of volumes and spatial conflict," such distortions carry not only aesthetic but also psychological messages. Ordinary shots can become highly dramatic through a wide-angle lens. For example, the wide-angle-lens distortion of the little gift box underscores the importance of the occasion. On the other hand, the distortion of the cup suggests that it may contain something other than the aromatic coffee that wakes you in the morning. A gesture signaling a stop is made more forceful and authoritative when shot with a wide-angle lens. The power of ______ things, such as trucks, jet planes, or heavy machinery, is also aptly dramatized by the wide-angle shot. You can also use wide-angle-lens distortion to communicate intense emotional _________ in a person. Extreme facial distortions as in figure 10.23 suggest that the woman may be no longer stable or rational. Obviously, such a distortion must operate in concert with other contextual media aesthetic clues. When you shoot through prominent foreground pieces, the foreground acts as a ______________________ (the primary frame being the video screen), which focuses our attention on the ___________________ or _________________ objects. Because of the volume conflict (large foreground objects on screen-left) and the relatively small background objects (people), this shot inevitably directs our attention to the main subject—the 2 boys sitting in chairs. Such implied secondary frames are especially important when composing shots for the wider high-definition television (___________) or ____________ screens.

*window violation*

Window Violations: Window violations can lead to odd pictorial distortions and perceptual paradoxes. What exactly is a window violation? As with all media terminology, stereographers don't always agree. Some have a more technical explanation, others a more perceptual one. The technical definitions are primarily concerned with formulas that describe the optimal stereo window—the allowable parameters of POC, stereo base, screen size, and viewer-to-screen distance. The perceptual ones include problems of distortion and psychological closure. For our purposes the generally accepted definition of a *______________________* is essentially an image that is cropped by the edges of the frame and then projected into zv space as an incomplete image.

rapid standard; stereo 3D

Z-axis Articulation: The z-axis is especially important in structuring video space because the other principal spatial dimensions of the home video screen—height and width—are limited compared with even a relatively small motion picture screen. The camera, very much like the human eye, has no trouble looking along the z-axis all the way to the horizon. It can therefore take in a great number of objects stationed along the z-axis. It can cope successfully with extremely fast movement without panning (horizontal camera movement) or tilting (camera looking up and down) so long as the objects are placed or move along the z-axis. Vertical and horizontal object motion, on the other hand, require a great deal of camera panning and tilting, and this becomes especially difficult for the camera if the object motion is ________. The articulation of the z-axis is therefore one of the principal factors of spatial and motion control in _____________ video as well as ______________.

*Z-axis blocking* lateral; diagonal lateral; wider; deep lateral pan minimizes; emphasizes

Z-axis Blocking: *____________________* refers to placing people and their movements primarily along the z-axis—toward and away from the camera. Such blocking is one of the major devices for effectively articulating the z-axis, creating a dynamic volume duality and intensifying the illusion of a third dimension on the two-dimensional screen. When blocking action for the theater stage, we usually rely heavily on ___________ or _______________ rather than upstage/downstage (z-axis) motion. In fact, ___________ action is generally preferred in theater because the stage is usually __________ than it is _________. The blocking for the wider HDTV screen can be more _________ so long as the video is projected onto a large screen. If a projection is limited to a relatively small HDTV screen, however, you should still block primarily along the z-axis, much as you would for the 4 × 3 video screen. The small screen cannot tolerate much lateral action without having the camera _____ or truck along with it. Aside from the technical problems of keeping a fast-moving object properly framed, too much lateral action can become distracting and disorienting. Proper blocking along the z-axis _______________ camera movement and ________________ object (and people) motion, not camera motion. In fact, high-impact action is often blocked along the z-axis, even in large-screen movies. A person running or an object hurtling along the z-axis toward the camera is usually more dramatic and carries more aesthetic energy than when staged sideways along the x-axis.