that's a whap exam review

Empiricism

belief that knowledge comes from sensed experience, from what you observe through your experience, including through experiments. (1750-1900)

Developed ways to collect, transport, and store water efficiently. Bc of climate, trees were small and scarce so ppl had little wood to build homes. Two cultures became well-known for their innovations: Chaco built large housing structures w stone and clay while people of Mesa Verde built multi-story homes into sides of cliffs using bricks made of sandstone. Both groups decline in late 13th century as climate became drier

After the rise of Mississippian Civilization, various cultures emerged in the now southwestern US. How did people adapt to the dry region? (1200-1450)

mercantilism

An economic policy under which nations sought to increase their wealth and power by obtaining large amounts of gold and silver and by selling more goods than they bought

capitalism

An economic system based on private ownership of capital

Both the Haitian and French revolutions grew out of the Enlightenment's insistence that men had natural rights as citizens, and that legal restraints were limiting the freedom of people by forcing them into various estates (social classes). However, in the case of the Haitians, the restraints were more severe—the rebellion was led by people who had no rights at all.

Compare Haitian and French Revolutions.

Maroon Wars

Conflicts between the Jamaica Maroon settlements and the British after the British gained control of the island from the Spanish. (1450-1750)

New Zealand Wars

Confrontations between the Maori and British troops over disputed land. Maori developed sense of nationalism but by 1872, the British had won

Neo-Confucianism

Evolved in China between 770 and 840, syncretic system: combining rational thought w more abstract ideas of Daoism and Buddhism. This new incarnation of ___________ emphasized ethics rather than mysteries of God and nature and was immensely popular w countries in China's orbit (1200-1450)

Chinese invented paper as early as 2nd century C.E then developed a system of printing in 7th century. (change & continuity) (First culture to use woodblock printing. In Song era, booklets were printed on how to farm efficiently and distributed throughout rice-growing regions), China's privileged classes had increased access to literature due to development of paper and printing expanding book availability (most peasants illiterate.)

Give Postclassical China's intellectual and cultural developments (1200-1450)

From 12th through 16th centuries, Ethiopia was an island of Christianity on the continent of Africa. Ethiopian Christianity developed independently from both Roman Catholic Church of western Europe and the Orthodox Church of eastern Europe. People combined traditional faith religions ex. beliefs in spirits w Christianity to create a distinct form of the faith (change for Christianity)

Give a continuity of Ethiopia (1200-1450)

In math, Inca developed quipu (system of knotted strings to record numerical info for trade and engineering and for recorded messages to be carried throughout the empire), in agriculture, Inca developed sophisticated terrace systems for cultivation of crops like potatoes (unlike Aztecs whose lack of innovations were a part of their downfall). Terraces utilized technique called waru waru which raised beds w channels that captured and redirected rain to avoid erosion during floods and stored water for dry periods. Inca were good at building bridges and roads and w captive labor, they constructed massive roadway system called Carpa Nan, w some 25,000 miles of roads used mainly by government and military and in mountainous regions, bridges were especially important

Give achievements of the Inca (1200-1450)

In 1438, a tribal leader who called himself Pachacuti began conquering tribes living near now day Cuzco, Peru. His military victories plus his sons combined small tribes into a full-fledged state called the Incan Empire which extended from present-day Ecuador to Chile. By 1493, his grandson Huayna Capac ruled empire and focused on consolidating and managing the lands conquered by his predecessors

Give context behind the Incan Empire (1200-1450)

Invasion of Central Asia and the Middle East by Tamerlane (Timer the Lame, a Mongol-Turkic ruler of late 14th century) st stage for rise of Turkic empires by leading an army partly composed of nomadic invaders from broad steppes of Eurasia. Tamerlane moved out from Samarkand to make ruthless conquests in Persia and India. Eurasian steppes also birthplace of ghazi ideal (a model for warrior life that blended cooperative values of nomadic culture w willingness to serve as a holy fighter for Islam). Ghazi ideal served as the model for warriors who participated in the rise of the Gunpowder Empires and fit Tamerlane as well. it is believed that Tamerlane's violent takeover of areas of Central Asia included massacre of some 100,000 Hindus before gates of Delhi in India. Pattern of conquest marked by violence that resulted in new dynasties: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. However, Tamerlane's rule in Samarkand encouraged learning and arts-- a trend also typical of these later empires. While the empire he created largely fell apart (except for the area that his descendant Babur would take over to create India's Mughal Dynasty), Tamerlane's invasions were a testament to the significance of gunpowder as he used it to build a government depended upon military and use of heavy artillery. However, he failed to leave an effective political structure in many of the areas he conquered. W/o an effective government, expenses of war ravaged the empire's economy.

Give context for the rise of the Turkic empires. (1450-1750)

Arabs purchased enslaved people, Mamluks, who were often ethnic Turks from Central Asia in order to serve as soldiers and later bureaucrats (bc of roles, Mamluks had more opportunities for advancement than most other enslaved people). In Egypt, Mamluks seized control of the government and established the Mamluk Sultanate which prospered by facilitating trade in cotton and sugar between the Islamic world and Europe (when Portuguese and other Europeans developed new sea routes for trade, Mamluks declined in power)

Give context to Mamluk Sultanate (1250-1517)

Normans were descendants of Vikings who settled in northwestern France. In 1066, a Norman king, William the Conqueror successfully invaded England which gave him kingdoms on both sides of the English channel. He presided over a tightly organized feudal system w royal sheriffs as his administrative officials. Fusion of Normans and Anglo-Saxons created the modern English people. Many English nobles objected to the power of William and succeeding Norman monarchs and forced limits on that power. In 1215, they forced King John to sign Magna Carta which required the king to respect certain rights like right to a jury trial before a noble could be sentenced. The first English Parliament was formed in 1265 and these developments increased the rights of English nobility but not the general population. In first full parliamentary meeting in 1265, the House of Lords represented the nobles and Church hierarchy, while the House of Commons was made up of elective representatives of wealthy townspeople. Eventually power of two legislative bodies in England became stronger than that of similar bodies on the European continent

Give context to Norman England and the first English Parliament (1200-1450)

During late Middle Ages in Eastern Europe, extensive trade in furs, fish, and grain connected people from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean to Central Asia. City-state at center of trade was Kievan Rus and bc it adopted Orthodox Christianity, it maintained closer cultural relationships w Byzantium than Roman Catholiic Europe. In 13th century, Mongols overtook the region so it developed even more separately from rest of Europe. Mongols required local nobles to collect taxes and as these nobles grew wealthy, they resisted Mongol rule. In late 15th century, under leadership of Ivan the Great, the region became independent of the Mongols which marked the beginning of the modern state of Russia

Give context to the beginnings of Russia (1200-1450)

Very similar to European feudalism both w very little social mobility and systems built upon hereditary hierarchies. Peasants in Japan known as serfs which were born into lives of economic dependency while samurai were born into lives as protectors and daimyo into privilege while in Europe, groups were serfs, knights, and nobles. Differences were daimyo enjoyed more powerful than nobility in Europe. Daimyo ruled over vast stretches of land and were more powerful than emperor or shogun and had codes known as bushido which stressed frugality, loyalty, martial arts, and honor unto death while Europe's hierarchy placed monarch above the nobility and ideal knight held to code of chivalry with duty to God, countrymen, and women.

Give similarities between Japanese and European feudalism then give differences. (1200-1450)

Led to decline in shipbuilding, mining industry, and textile production bc of Britain's mismanagement, fear, and taxes

How did British rule in India affect India? (1750-1900)

By including a variety of branches, schools, and practices

How did Buddhism and its core beliefs shape societies in Asia? (1200-1450)

Included respect for both genders but expected women to defer to men. Patriarchal pattern strengthened during Tang and Song dynasties, w one distinctive constraint on women's activities being foot binding which became common among aristocratic families during Song Dynasty (from a very young age, girls had feet wrapped so tightly that bones didn't grow naturally and this signified social status, a thing that suitors desired, restricted women's ability to move and participate in public sphere. Banned in 1912)

How did Confucian traditions view women and how did this translate in the Song and Tang Dynasty? (1200-1450)

Europeans generally measured wealth of a country in how much gold and silver it accumulated. For this reason, countries set policies designed to maximize amount of goods they could sell and increase gold and silver coming into the country and buying as little as possible from other countries in order to minimize the flow of precious metals out of the country. This theory was known as mercantilism which required heavy government involvement. (keep buying from us so we get more mulah but we will decrease our spending in order to save our mulah)

How did Europeans measure wealth in the 17th century? What was this theory called? (1450-1750)

In 1258, Hulegu led Mongols into Abbasid territories where they destroyed the city of Baghdad and killed the caliph along w 200,000 residents of the city. Hulegu's Mongolian armies continued to push west, threatening more of the Middle East. In 1260, they were defeated as a result of a temporary alliance btwn Muslim Mamluks under military leader Baibars and Christian Crusaders in Palestine (both groups viewed Mongols as a serious threat). At the time of defeat, Hulegu's kingdom, Il-khanate, in Central Asia stretched from Byzantium to Oxus River. Mongols ruled the kingdom but Persians served as ministers and provincial and local officials (Mongols found this arrangement resulted in max tax colelction). Eventually Hulegu and most other Mongols living in Il-khanate converted to Islam but before this conversion, Mongols tolerated all religions in Persia. After, Mongols supported massacres of Jews and Christians.

How did Hulegu (grandson of Genghis Khan) come to rule the Islamic Heartlands, what was Hulegu's rule of the Islamic Heartlands like, and what was the impact? (1200-1450)

Defeated Byzantine armies across North Africa and invaded Spain from South then designed Córdoba as capital for Spain

How did Islam Umayyads come to rule Spain? (1200-1450)

relating its beliefs to Daoist principles (ex. Buddhism dharma idea became translated as dao "the way". Eventually Buddhist doctrines combined w elements of Daoist traditions to create syncretic/fused faith Chan Buddhism aka Zen Buddhism(emphasized direct experience and meditation like Daoism and bc of fusion w Chinese beliefs, Buddhism became very popular in China))

How did Monks introduce Buddhism to the Chinese? (1200-1450)

He treated wives with love and devotion, insisted that dowries be paid to future wife than to her father, forbade female infanticide, and his first wife was educated and owned her own business which set pattern for recognition of women's abilities

How did Muhammad raise the status of women? (1200-1450)

Military expansion and Islam subsequently expanded through activities of merchants, missionaries, and Sufis

How did Muslim rule continue to expand to many parts of Afro-Eurasia? (1200-1450)

Kashgar declined after a series of conquests by nomadic invaders and in 1389-90 was ravaged by Tamerlane. Constantinople also suffered a series of traumatic setbacks: Crusader armies weakened Constantinople after an attack in the Fourth Crusade in 1204, in 1346 and 1349, the bubonic plague killed ab half of the people in Constantinople. After a 53-day siege, the city finally fell to the Ottomans in 1453 (some scholars believe it marks the end of the High Middle Ages) FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO DECLINE: Politically instability and invasions, disease, and decline of agricultural productivity

How did cities like Kashgar and Constantinople decline?

Orally w griots being conduits of history for a community. Griots possessed encyclopedic knowledge of family lineages and lives and deeds of great leaders + were adept at music. Griots both venerated and feared as they held power of language and story. Griots preserved history and passed it on and kings often sought their counsel for political matters. Women served as griottes who sung at special occasions like before a wedding. Griottes provided empowerment in a patriarchal society

How did literature exist in Sub-Saharan Africa? (1200-1450)

Islamic caliphs discriminated against non-Arabs but rarely persecuted openly and discrimination gradually faded in the 9th century. Caliph's soldiers forbidden to own conquered territory which allowed life for most inhabitants to remain unchanged but people paid tribute to Islamic caliphs rather than Byzantine rulers

How did non-Arab areas under Islamic expansion fare? (1200-1450)

More upheaval. After fall of Gupta Empire, Rajput (Hindu) kingdoms formed in northern India and present-day Pakistan and were led by leaders of warring clans which meant there was no centralized government and left kingdoms vulnerable to Muslim attacks. (Islamic presence grew and by early 13th century, Islamic forces conquered city of Delhi and much of northern portion of South Asia and brought Islam to India. Delhi Sultanate reigned for 300 years: 13th-16th century)

How did political structures in postclassical northern India differ from southern India? (1200-1450)

Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201-1274) contributed to many fields like astronomy and law and an observatory built under his direction was the most advanced in the world and produced the most accurate astronomical charts. He also studied relationship between lengths of sides of triangles and angles which laid groundwork for making trigonometry a seperate subject. Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) was well known for historical accounts and regarded as founder of fields histography and sociology 'A'ishah al-Ba'uniyyah (1460-1470) was most prolific female Muslim writer before 20th century with works reflecting her broad learning and a contrast between Muslims and Sufis

How did scholars during the golden age in Baghdad make their own achievements besides buidling on intellectual achievements of other cultures? (1200-1450)

Córdoba had largest libary in the world at the time, famous scholars like Ibn Rushd, Muslims, Christians, and Jews tolerated and influenced each other ex. Ibn Rushd's commentaries on Aristotile influenced Jewish professor Maimonides (c. 1135-c.1204) to develop a synthesis of Aristotle's reasoning and biblical interpretation which then influenced Christian philosophers like St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), (causation: Islamic scholarship and scientific innovations along w knowledge from India and China laid groundwork for Renaissance and Scientific Revolution in Europe. Ex. making paper developed in China and taught to Europeans by Muslims was vital in spreading ideas in Europe)

How did the Islamic state in Spain aka al-Andalus become a center of learning? (1200-1450)

Through trade, Indian religions of Hinduism and Buddhism made their way to Southeast Asia as well. Sea-based Srivijaya Empire on Sumatra was a Hindu kingdom while later Majapahit Kingdom on Java was Buddhist. South Asian land-based Sinhala dynasties in Sri Lanka became centers of Buddhist study w many monasteries. Buddhism's influence was so strong under Sinhala dynasties that Buddhist priests often adviced monarchs on government matters. Khmer Empire in present-day Cambodia aka Angkor Kingdom was most successful kingdom in Southeast Asia and royal monuments at Angkor Thom are evidence of both Hindu and Buddhist cultural influences (artwork and sculptures) on Southeast Asia.

How did the spread of Hinduism and Buddhism affect Southeast Asia? (1200-1450)

Paper manufacturing which was invented in China in the 2nd century B.C.E made its way across Eurasia and reached Europe (through Middle East) around the 13th century. Resulting printed material led to increased literacy rights across Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. Focus on intellectual thoughts then led to advances in math and medicine, especially in Islamic centers of learning like House of Wisdom in Bagdad.

How did the spread of innovations affect states? (1200-1450).

archaeological evidence, oral traditions, and writings by Europeans who came to the Americas after 1492

How is current knowledge about these civilizations in the Americas known? (1200-1450)

Landed aristocracy more powerful in Korea than China which meant Korean elite could prevent Chinese reforms from being implemented like the Korean civil service examination not open to peasants unlike China so there wasn't a merit-based system for entering bureaucracy

How was Korea different from China? (1200-1450)

Because of tributary relationship, Korea and China were in close contact which meant Korea emulated many aspects of China's politics and culture. It centralized its government like the Chinese and adopted Confucian and Buddhist beliefs. Educated elite studied Confucian classics while Buddhist doctrine attracted peasants. Koreans also developed Chinese writing system until 15th century where Korea developed its own writing system

How was Korea similar to China? (1200-1450)

Practices like covering heads and faces were common cultural customs in Central Asia and Byzantine Empire before Muhammad. Practice solidified under Islam with most women observing hijab (term which relates to either dressing modestly or specific type of covering)

How was face covering a continuity for free women in Islamic states? (1200-1450)

Armies of these land-based empires were well trained, well organized, well equipped, and well led. Rulers of land-based empires developed elite group of soldiers to solidify their control. Ex. Both Ottoman sultan (Janissaries) and Safavid (Ghulams) shah used enslaved soldiers to offset power of troops who had more loyalty to their tribe/local governor. Aztecs also required enslaved people as part of tribute offered by conquered states.

How was military might organized in land-based empires (1450-1750)

interchangeable parts

In 1798, inventor Eli Whitney created this system for manufacturing firearms for the U.S. military. In Whitney's system, if a particular component of a machine were to break, the broken component could easily be replaced with a new, identical part. Entrepreneurs adapted this method of making firearms to the manufacture of other products. Led directly to division of labor as factory owners didn't have to rely on skilled laborers to craft every component of a product. W specialization of labor, each worker only had to focus on one type of task. For example, one worker might cast a part, and then another worker would install the part on the finished product. In the early 20th century, Henry Ford expanded the concept of the division of labor, developing the moving assembly line to manufacture his Model T automobiles.

Filial Piety

In Confucian thought, one of the virtues to be cultivated, a love and respect for one's parents and ancestors. (1200-1450)

Reconquista

In addition to conquering England, Normans also conquered Sicily which took control of that Mediterranean island from the Muslims. The Muslims conquered Spain in 8th century and from then, the Christians wanted to reconquer it. What is the name for the effort by Christian leaders to drive the Muslims out of Spain, lasting from the 1100s until 1492. (1200-1450)

Through correspondence of leading scholars w one another and by establishment of a Royal Academy of Science in France and England. Sir Isaac Newton combined Galileo's laws of terrestial motion and Johannes Kepler's law of planetary motion to publish Principia (1687). Principia influenced science and math and helped lead to a new vision of the world. Intellectuals thought science showed that the world was ordered and rational and that natural laws applied to the rational and orderly progress of governments and society which was key to the Enlightenment.

In early 1600s, scientific thinking gained popularity in northern Europe as trends in Renaissance ideas, curiousity, investigation, and discovery spread. In a period of religious schisms, scientific thought represented a very different kind of thinking: one based on reason rather than faith which set in motion a monumental historical change. How was scientific thinking advanced? (1450-1750)

The way it was governed. (China was ruled by an emperor who oversaw a large civilian bureaucracy with a central government strong enough to promote land and peace. In contrast, when Heinan court declined, a powerful land-owning family, Minamoto clan, took charge and installed a shogun/military ruler to reign. Though Japan still had an emperor, he had little power which meant that Japan suffered from regional rivalries among aristocrats for the following four centuries. Not until 17th century would shoguns create a strong central government which could unify the country)

In what way did postclassical Japan differ from China? (1200-1450)

Southeast Asia since Indian merchants had contact w Southeast Asian lands as early as 500 BCE (merchants sold gold, silver, metal goods, and textiles in region and brought back fine spices). Trade voyages helped introduce Indian religions of Hinduism and Buddhism to Southeast Asia which left the region today to become mostly Buddhist.

Like China, South Asia was influenced by its neighbors. Which ones were they and how did they impact each other?

Enslaved Africans in the French sugar and coffee colony of Haiti began the rebellion by killing their masters and burning their homes. They were joined by Maroons, individuals who had already escaped slavery in Haiti. Toussaint L'Ouverture led revolts in 1791 then led a general rebellion against slavery. His army established an independent government and pit French, Spanish, and British against each other. After taking control of the territory, L'Ouverture produced a constitution that granted equality and citizenship to all residents and declared himself governor for life. He died in France in 1803 but his successor Jean-Jacques Dessalines orchestrated a Haitian declaration of permanent independence.

List events in the Haitian Revolution

Goods they exchanged, nature of routes and transportation, technologies inspired, and religions spread (see chap 2.7 notes)

List the differences among networks of exchange. (1200-1450)

cottage industry

Manufacturing based in homes rather than in a factory, commonly found before the Industrial Revolution. Britain used imported raw cotton produced by slave labor in the Americas in order to compete w Indian cotton. Although it was difficult, this gave women weavers some independence

Bc of political stability from Mongol dominance, trade across Eurasia expanded greatly and cross-cultural interactions and transfers intensified causing the first direct contacts of states like Europe and China since the classical period.

Nomadic peoples played a key role in process of state building between 1200-1450. Mongols, a pastoral people from steppes of Central Asia ruled over significant areas of Asia and Eastern Europe during the 13th century. What did this lead to? Tidbit: Comparison- Like Mongols, Turkish ppl from Central Asian steppes also increased dominance over large land-based empires in eastern Mediterranean, Persia, and South Asia which lasted past 1450 but unlike the Mongols who built their empire into a coordinated campaign by unified Mongol clans, different Turkish groups built separate empires. Seljuk and Ottoman Turks became dominant forces in the Mediterranean while other Turkish groups established empires located in Persia and surrounding territories. Creation of these empires would be the last major impacts of interaction btwn settled and nomadic peoples. Nomads roles in commerce and cross-cultural exchange diminished as they were replaced by organized groups of merchants and trading companies.

Otto von Bismarck

Prussian leader who used nationalist feelings to engineer 3 wars to bring about German unification

Most Hinduism but smaller number Buddhism

Religion had a dominant place in South Asian history. What did South Asians practice before the arrival of Islam? (1200-1450)

They were willing to approach rule w practicality and convert in order to solidify power and ensure peace ex. King Henry IV converting to Catholicism

Religion was a key factor in the expansion of empires but it was also a divisive force. What did rulers do because of this? (1450-1750)

utilitarianism (viewed themselves as moderate, rational advocates of gradual reform and didn't want to replace capitalism like utopian socialists)

Some economists, clergy, and intellectuals criticized laissez-faire capitalism as inhumane to workers. One of these was a British philosopher, John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). He championed legal reforms to allow labor unions, limit child labor, and ensure safe working conditions in factories. While his ideas were controversial in his time, many of them eventually become widely adopted in industrial societies. What was his philosophy called?

Northern and southern India developed separate political structures. (Hinduism provided some cultural unity throughout the region though, w many combining local faith traditions w adherence to same scriptures and core beliefs respected throughout the region)

South Asia was only occasionally united as a single state in its history. (Gupta Dynasty collapsed in 550 which led to disunity in region for next 1,000 years). What happened because of the separation? (1200-1450)

She was a recognized poet known for her eloquent critiques of Spain's exploitive rule over Puerto Rico and her home became a meeting place for political thinkers and revolutionaries.

Spain's grip on parts of its empire lasted throughout the 19th century. In the Caribbean, Puerto Rico and Cuba were among its final colonial holdings. Both islands saw uprisings against Spanish rule beginning in the year 1868. While many individuals and organizations contributed to the spirit of revolution in Puerto Rico, the role of Lola Rodríguez de Tió was unique. Why?

Metacom's War

The final major effort of the indigenous people to drive the British from New England. The war spread throughout New England and resulted in the destruction of 12 towns. Some Native American groups, including the Mohegan and Pequot, sided with the English. Although Native American peoples continued to live in the region, the war ended with the subjugation of the Wampanoag people to the English colonists. (1450-1750)

Batu and the Golden Horde, Hulegu and the Islamic Heartlands, and Kublai Khan and the Yuan Dynasty

Three of Genghis Khan's grandsons set up their own khanates, expanding further into Asia and Europe. W each conquest, the empire expanded and new people absorbed into its economy and networks of exchange. What were the ruler's and empires called? (1200-1450)

They promoted trade by allowing Chinese and Southeast Asian products to enter Spain and thus rest of the world. Many goods in trade traveled aboard ships called dhows first designed in India and China

Umayyad rulers in Córdoba created a climate of toleration (Muslims, Christians, and Jews coexisting peacefully) like the Abbasids in Baghdad. What else did they do? (1200-1450)

No bc sultans had difficulty imposing policies in a land as vast and diverse as India. Despite strong Islamic presence in region, local kingdoms continued to play a major role in India's political landscape

Was the Delhi Sultanate able to organize an efficient bureaucracy like the Chinese? (1200-1450)

Castes/jatis were strict social groupings designated at birth. Divided Hindus into 4 categories: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. Outside system were achhoots/Dalits, the untouchables. Indian caste system was basis of educational and vocational opps for Indian society

What are castes/jatis? (1450-1750)

Expanded on idea of social contract from Hobbes and Locke. Early works was Emile(1762) where he laid out his ideas on child-rearing and education. The Social Contract (1762) presented the concept of the General Will of a population and obligation of a sovereign to carry out the General Will. He inspired many revolutionaries of the late 18thcentury

What did Jean-Jacques Rousseau believe in and do? (1750-1900)

Corresponding increase in supply of those goods through expanded production. Craftworkers expanded production of goods like silk for export. Increased demand also led to expansion of iron and steel manufactured in China which motivated its proto-industrialization

What did increase in demand for luxury goods from Afro-Eurasia, China, Persia, and India lead to? (1200-1450)

Extend rule southward but had to focus on defending themselves from the Mongol Army. While able to prevent Mongols from conquering South Asia, in 1526, they lost power to Mughal Empire whose leaders traced ancestry to Mongols

What did sultans of the Delhi Sultanate want to do and what prevented this from happening? (1200-1450)

Conquered remaining Abbasid Empire in 1258 and ended Seljuk rule. Continued to push westward but stopped by Mamluks

What did the Mongols (came from Central Asia like many Mamluks and Seljuk Turks) do to the Abbasid Empire? (1200-1450)

Brought great devastation but unity of tons of territory under rule of one group allowed trade to flourish across Eurasia, which set the stage for intensifying global interactions that defined the period after 1450

What happened because of the Mongol conquest? (1200-1450)

Roots in European Enlightenment philosophy, economic ideas of physiocrats bc of a defense of free market ideas opposed to English mercantilism, and American colonists had become increasingly independent politically as colonial legislatures were making decisions usually made by Parliament. Thomas Jefferson picked up phrase "unalienable rights" (life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness) from John Locke in the Declaration of Independence: July 4, 1776

What led to the American Revolution?

Church's power decreased as rulers gained more influence (especially in France since French rulers even got the ability to choose popes) and new centralizing rulers who wanted Church lands and authorities established their own churches

What struggles did the Roman Catholic Church face when European states shifted from feudalism to centralized government? (1450-1750)

social hierarchy

What type of hierarchy did states in South and East Asia and European states have? (1450-1750)

it directly linked farmers, miners, manufacturers, customers, and investors globally for the first time in history.

What was one effect of products of industrialization like railroad, steamship, and the telegraph?

Stability of the Mongol Empire and protection it offered merchants and travelers. Mongol empire reached past former boundaries and incorporated new people, goods, and ideas within its authority. Tech developments diffused (ex. gunpowder from China) and literary and artistic interactions and cultural exchanges were documented by travelers like Marco Polo. The known world became a larger place

What was one of the reasons for free exchange and what did free exchange cause? (1200-1450)

Slavery had a long history in Africa (continuity). Prisoners of war, debtors, and criminals were enslaved. Most men did agricultural work while most women served in households. In kin-based societies ppl could not own private land but could own people which led to an increase in social status for owning a large number of enslaved people. Strong demand in Middle East for enslaved workers led to Indian Ocean slave trade btwn East Africa and Middle East (started centuries before Atlantic Ocean slave trade btwn West Africa and the Americas). Enslaved East Africans provided labor on sugar plantations in Mesopotamia but btwn 869 and 883, they and many Arab workers mounted a series of revolts known as Zanj Rebellion (one of most successful slave revolts in history bc of large size and length of time before it was defeated) and ab 15,000 enslaved ppl sucessfully captured city of Basra and held it for 10 years before defeat

What was slavery like in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southwest Asia? (1200-1450)

Islamic military lost Battle of Tours against Frankish forces in 732 which marked limit of rapid Islamic expansion into Western Europe. Most of the continent remained Christian but Muslims ruled Spain

What was the Battle of Tours and what did it mark? (1200-1450)

Incan Empire split into 4 provinces each w own governor and bureaucracy in order to rule extensive territory efficiently. Conquered leaders who demonstrated loyalty to the empire were rewarded and unlike AZTECS, conquered people under Inca didn't have to pay tribute. Instead, they were subject to mit'a system which was mandatory public service for men btwn age 15-50 to provide agriculture and other forms of labor like constructing roads

What was the government, economy, and society of the Incan Empire like? (1200-1450)

Patterns of trade were maintained through monopolies chartered by European rulers. Monopolies granted exclusive right to trade ex. Spanish government established monopoly over all domestic tobacco grown and tobacco grown in its American colonies. Profits made up of about 1/3 of total revenues of Spain. Traditional regional markets continued to flourish in Afro-Eurasia but improved shipping offered merchants the opportunity to increase volume of products.

What were changes and continuities in trade networks? (1450-1750)

Integration of the Western Hemisphere w/in the global trading network which led to maritime trading empires like the Portuguese w trading ports and cities along coasts of Africa and Indian Ocean, European domination of global trade, colonies in the Americas, and mercantilist economic policies which would eventually give way to capitalism like joint-stock companies

What were economic changes due to European transoceanic voyages? (1450-1750)

technological and commercial innovations, imperial expansion, and demand for luxury goods. (growing trade networks accelerated cultural, biological, and technological diffusion across Afro-Eurasia) rise of powerful states and empires played a critical role in increasing volume and geographical reach of existing trade networks. Mongol Empire promoted trade along Silk Roads which created a vast commercial network across Eurasia. Trade routes across Sahara and in Indian Ocean both added West Africa and East Africa to this network. Improvements to previously existing commercial practices ex. forms of credit facilitated larger networks of exchange and drive this growth was demand for luxury goods like silk from China and gold from Africa.

What were key factors in the ongoing expansion of trade? (1200-1450)

Southern India was more stable than northern India w the first kingdom, Chola Dynasty, reigning over southern India for more than 400 years (850-1267, During 11th century, dynasty extended rule to present day Sri Lanka). Second kingdom, Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646 begun w arrival of 2 brothers (Harihara and Bukka) from Delhi Sultanate in north-central India which wished to extend rule in the area. Brothers born Hindus but converted to Islam for upward mobility but eventually established own Hindu kingdom after leaving region and embracing Hinduism again. Existed until mid-1300s until mid-1500s when a group of Muslim kingdoms overthrew it

What were political structures like in Southern India in postclassical period? (1200-1450)

Resistance especially among samurai who could no longer carry swords and receive autonomy from centralized government. Some reforms in Japan worked better than others. The new schools quickly improved literacy rates, the economy rapidly industrialized, and the country began to develop traits of democracy such as a free press, strong labor unions, and respect for individual liberties. However, by the 1920s, army officers again began to dominate the government.

What were reactions to reforms in Japan?

Patriarchal but cultures varied. While religion often reinforced power of men, record was mixed ex. convent life for Christians in Europe and in Jainist and Buddhist religious communities in South Asia provided women w opportunities for learning and leadership while in contrast in China, women lost independence as customs like foot binding became more common.

What were social organization in most cultures like? (1200-1450)

Centralization of power by collecting taxes, the army, and some aspects of religion led to powerful monarch in England and absolute monarchy in France. Building temples (ex. Inca), paying military elite a salary (ex. samurai in Japan), forcibly establishing captive governmental bureaucracy (ex. Ottoman devshirme system). Other methods were using bureaucratic elites to oversee sections of the empire and developing a professional military

What were some methods that land-based empires used to solidify authority? (1450-1750)

encomienda

A grant of authority over a population of Amerindians in the Spanish colonies. It provided the grant holder with a supply of cheap labor and periodic payments of goods by the Amerindians. It obliged the grant holder to Christianize the Amerindians.

Industrial Revolution

A series of improvements in industrial technology that transformed the process of manufacturing goods. New technology that led to a dramatic change in society and economies

triangular trade

A three way system of trade during 1600-1800s Africa sent slaves to America, America sent Raw Materials to Europe, and Europe sent Guns and Rum to Africa

free trade

international trade free of government interference

Series of oases that developed along routes, including thriving cities, and commercial innovations that greatly helped manage increasing trade. Stretches of overland Silk Roads passed through inhospitable terrain-- hot arid lands where water was scarce. CITIES along routes that were watered by rivers became thriving centers of trade ex. Kashgar and Samarkand. Travelers depended on Kashgar (western edge of China where northern and southern routes of Silk Roads crossed) for abundance of water and food. Bc it was a crossroad for both ideas and goods, the once primarily Buddhist city also became a center of Islamic scholarship. Samarkand (present-day Uzbekistan; stopping point btwn China and the Mediterranean) was a center of cultural exchange and trading goods. Archeological remains show presence of diverse religions like Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism. Like Kashgar, Samarkand was also known for artisans and its centers of Islamic learning and magnificently decorated mosques. Inns known as CARANVERSAI also sprang up about 100 miles apart once the Silk Roads became stabilized. This distance was how far camels could travel before needing water. At the caravanserai, travelers could rest both themselves and their animals and also trade animals for fresh ones. To manage increasing trade, China developed NEW FINANCIAL SYSTEMS. China had long been a money economy (using money rather than bartering w cowrie shells or salt) but copper coins became too unwieldy to transport for everyday transactions so government developed credit system known as flying cash which allowed a merchant to deposit paper money under his name in one location and withdraw the same amount at another location. This became the model for banks of the modern era including banking houses (person could present a bill of exchange at a banking house which was a document stating the holder was legally promised payment of a set amount of a set date and receive that amount of money in exchange) in European cities in the 1300s. These innovations encouraged and supported trade by providing convenience and stability of institutions

What were the effects of growth of the Silk Road? (1200-1450)

Priests (could be either male/female: signaling Mayans had more gender balance and women had a greater role in society) conducted ceremonies honoring many deities; most important being sun, rain, and corn. Mayans made offerings so prayers could be answered; war captives sometimes killed as offerings

What were the tasks of priests in Mayan civilization? (1200-1450)

Srivijaya Empire (670-1025) was a Hindu kingdom based on Sumatra. Built navy and prospered by charging fees for ships traveling btwn India and China Majapahit Kingdom (1293-1520) based on Java had 98 tributaries at height. Like Srivijaya, Majapahit sustained power by controlling sea routes but was Buddhist unlike Srivijaya

What were two of the long-lasting sea-based kingdoms that emerged in Southeast Asia? (1200-1450)

In 960 and ruled for more than 3 centuries

When did the Song Dynasty replace the Tang and how long did they rule? (1200-1450)

House of Wisdom (allowed Islamic community to transfer knowledge throughout Afro-Eurasia)

Where did scholars travel to study under the Abbasid Empire? (1200-1450)

on an island in the middle of a swampy lake in order to protect it from attacks. (It grew to almost 200,000 ppl which made it one of the largest cities in the world) In order to provide water for the city, they built a network of aqueducts. At center of city, Aztecs built pyramid which rose 150 feet into the air. (All pyramids, temples, and palaces made of stone). On Lake Texoco, Aztecs built floating gardens called chinampas to increase amount of space for food production. They also dug ditches to use lake water to irrigate fields and drain parts of lake for more land

Where did the Aztecs locate their capital Tenochtitlán and why and how did they maintain it? (1200-1450)

southern part of Mexico, much of now Belize, Honduras, and Guatemala; At peak as many as 2 million Mayans populated the region

Where was the Mayan civilizations and how many Mayans populated the region at its peak?

(West Africa =) Ghana, Mali, (East Africa =) Zimbabwe, and Ethiopia. Exchange of goods brought wealth, political power, and cultural diversity. Spread of Islam also added religious diversity to the continent where animism and Christianity were already practiced

Which kingdoms in Africa benefitted from increased trade and how?

Used religion, art, and monumental architecture

While diversity of populations of land-based empires was beneficial to economic and political strength of the empires, ruling over populations that included many ethnicities, religions, and tribal ties was challenging which led rulers to other than political means to unite their subjects in loyalty to the state. What did land-based empires do to legitimize their rule? (1450-1750)

Mixture of agricultural, grazing, trade, and gold. Like Ghana and Mali, Zimbabwe also had rich gold fields and taxes on transport of gold made the kingdom wealthy. In contrast, while Ghana and Mali relied on land-base trade across the Sahara, Zimbabwe traded w coastal city-states like Mombasa, Kilwa, and Mogadishu. Through these ports, Zimbabwe was tied to Indian Ocean trade which connected East Africa, the Middle East, South Asia, and East Asia. In East Africa, traders blended Bantu and Arabic to develop a new language called Swahili which is still spoken to this day.

Zimbabwe was one of the most powerful of all the East African kingdoms between the 12th and 15th centuries that it even had architecture named after it. How did Zimbabwe build its prosperity? (1200-1450)

classical liberalism

a belief in natural rights, constitutional government, laissez-faire economics, and reduced spending on armies and established churches (1750-1900)

Hacienda system

similar to the feudal system, Natives got money and had to buy their products from their owners

filial piety

the duty of family members to subordinate their needs and desires to those of the male head of the family and to the ruler. Song Dynasty benefited as emphasis on respect for one's elders helped Song maintain their rule (1200-1450)

Ana Nzinga

17th century Angolan queen who fought off the Portuguese colonizers by pretending to accept Christianity, but actually was partnered with their enemies, the Dutch, and also developed a powerful trade nation instead of waging internal war. (1450-1750)

Enlightenment

A movement in the 18th century that advocated the use of reason in the reappraisal of accepted ideas and social institutions. (1750-1900) FREEDOM, SELF-DETERMINATION, INDIVIDUALISM, PROGRESS, REASON, AND NATURAL LAW

Ottomanism

A movement that aimed to create a more modern, unified state. Officials sought to do this by minimizing the ethnic, linguistic, and religious differences across the empire. However, this attempt intensified people's feelings of difference and promoted independence

middle passage

A voyage that brought enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to North America and the West Indies. Very grueling and slave traders crammed captives into dank cargo section of a ship and provided little water, food, and room for movement. During the journey which took ab 6 weeks, up to half of a ship's captives died. (1450-1750)

France had sparsely populated urban centers which limited labor available for factories and French Revolution and subsequent wars consumed the attention and capital of France's elites. Germany was politically fragmented but once it unified in 1871, it became a leading producer of steel and coal. US began industrial revolution in 19th century and by 1900, it was a leading industrial force. Human capital (workforce) was a key factor as political upheaval and poverty brought large amounts of immigrants to the US. Immigrants provided labor force to work in the factories. Russia industrialized by focusing on railroads like the Trans-Siberian Railroad which stretched from Moscow to Pacific Ocean and allowed Russia to easily trade w countries in East Asia and exports like coal, iron, and steel. However, Russia's economy remained overwhelming agricultural until after the Communists seized power in 1917. Japan was first country in Asia to industrialize. In mid-19th century, Japan went through defensive modernization which meant consciously adapting technology and institutions developed in Europe and US in order to protect its traditional culture. In last 4 decades of 19th century, Japan emerged as a leading world power.

After Britain industrialized, Belgium, then France and Germany followed. US, Japan, and Russia also transformed as industrialization spread. Give some reasons to why Industrial Revolution delayed and the key factors of it.

indentured servitude: arrangements where servants contracted to work for a specific period of years in exchange for passage; chattel slavery: a system in which individuals were considered as property to be bought and sold

American plantations relied on existing labor systems to make crops more profitable and also introduced new labor systems. Give examples of some of these labor systems. (1450-1750)

Adam Smith

Among the first philosophers of his time to declare that wealth is created through productive labor, and that self-interest motivates people to put their resources to the best use. He argued that profits flowed from capital investments, and that capital gets directed to where the most profit can be made

social contract

An agreement between the people and their government signifying their consent to be governed (1750-1900)

Learning and trade began to revive in Europe and was called High Middle Ages. (Scholars in this history studied classical thinkers and sometimes criticized the Church but remained faithful throughout his life)

As Roman Empire declined in power in 5th and 6th centuries, Western Europe entered Middle Age (medieval period). Throughout Europe, trade declined, intellectual life receded, and united Roman state was replaced by smaller kingdoms that frequently fought each other for territory. European, kings, lords, and peasants worked out agreements to provide for common defense. Only Roman Catholic Church remained powerful in most of Europe from Roman times to 16th century (continuity). What happened from 1000 to 1450?

Marco Polo was an Italian native from Venice that visited the court of Kublai Khan. Chinese innovations and customs intrigued Europeans and they soon followed route. Polo's view as a merchant kept him focused on trade-related matters. Ibn Battuta was a 21 year old Muslim scholar from Morocco. Over 30 years, he traveled through Central Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, China, Spain, North Africa, and Mali, mainly to Muslim lands. Unlike Polo, Battuta had the point of view of a Muslim devoted to his faith. His journey was so he could learn about Islam, its people, and accomplishments

As exchange networks intensified and literacy spread as a result of paper and printing tech, an increasing number of travelers w/in Afro-Eurasia wrote ab their journeys for eager readers. Give 2 prominent examples.

true

As production increased, new and greater amounts of natural resources were required by industrial economies. In addition, such common industrial resources as coal and iron, tin, bauxite, rubber, and copper were also imported from sources in Africa, Southeast Asia, and Latin America. A key effect of industrial capitalism, therefore, was the expansion of imperialism in the 19th Causation in the imperial age 441 century. Industrialized countries, especially those in Western Europe, the U.S., and Japan, saw the benefits of controlling trade and resources of other areas of the world. This trend was a continuation from the previous era during which European countries created colonies in the Western Hemisphere and in the Indian Ocean.

- Song Dynasty in China continued long period of technological and cultural progress (CONTINUITY) -Abbasid Caliphate in the Middle East was fragmented by invaders and shifts in trade which led to new Muslim states rising in Africa, the Middle Eat, and Spain (CHANGE) -In South and Southeast Asia, the Chola Kingdom and Vijayanagar Empire used trade to build strong states while Delhi Sultanate in northern India was more land-based (CONTRAST) -In Africa, rulers of Mali created an empire bigger and more centrally administered than the Empire of Ghana which had preceded it (CHANGE) -In the Americas, Aztecs formed tributary empire in Mesoamerica which relied on strong military and Inca Empire in the Andean region used elaborate mit'a system to support state-building. However most of the Americas lacked centralized states (CONTRAST) -In Europe, feudal ties declined as centralized state developed. Clearer in Western European kingdoms of England and France rather than Eastern Europe (CHANGE & CONTRAST) -Japan became even more decentralized and feudal unlike most states (CONTINUITY & CONTRAST)

As stronger and more centralized states arose, influence of nomadic societies waned by the 15th century. During this period, new empires emerged and states around the world expanded. Give continuities, changes, and contrasts in state-building in the periods 1200-1450.

Larger and more urban citizenry which supported development of China's manufacturing capability (largest in the world at the time) which led to increase of porcelain, silk, steel, and iron production increasing. These changes then built Song into the strongest state in China since Han.

Bc of increased trade, cross-cultural exchanges of technology and innovation increased. Innovations in crop production like Champa rice which spread from Vietnam to China allowed Song Dynasty to feed and sustain a growing population. What was the resulting effect and what did it support? (1200-1450).

trans-Saharan trade

Became famous by the end of the 8th century C.E. throughout Europe and Asia. Gold was most precious commodity traded (West African merchants acquired metal from waters of Senegal River). Foreign traders also sought ivory and enslaved people and in exchange for salt, textiles, and horses. For more than 700 years this trade brought considerable wealth to societies of West Africa, especially kingdoms of Ghana and Mali. They also brought Islam which spread into Sub-Saharan Africa as a result (1200-1450)

The Bhakti Movement

Beginning in 12th century, Hindus drew upon traditional teachings ab importance of emotion in spiritual life. They focused on developing a strong attachment to a particular deity. This movement started in southern India. Appealing to many believers bc it didn't discriminate against women/people of low social status. (1200-1450)

Government of Mali profited from the gold trade but also taxed all other trade entering West Africa which made it even more prosperous than Ghana had been. Great cities of Timbuktu and Gao accumulated the most wealth and developed into centers of Muslim life in the region. Growth in trade and wealth gave rise to the need to administer and maintain it. Ex. rulers needed to establish a currency whose value was understood ex. cowrie shells in Mali. Rulers also needed to protect trade routes and resource production areas. Mali's founding ruler Sundiata ("the Lion Prince") was the subject of a legend. When his father died, rival groups invaded and killed most of the royal family and captured the throne. They didn't kill Sundiata bc he was crippled. Despite his injury, he learned to fight and his time in exile strengthened him and his allies. In 1235, he returned to his kingdom, defeated the enemies, and reclaimed the throne. His story made him very beloved but he was also an astute and capable ruler. Sundiata cultivated a thriving gold trade in Mali and under his leadership, Mali's wealth grew tremendously. In 14th century, Mansa Musa brought more fame to the region but he was better known for his religious leadership. He began a pilgrimage in 1324 to Mecca, Islam's holiest city. His prosperity allowed him to take an extravagant caravan to Arabia w 100 camels, thousands of enslaved ppl and soldiers, and gold to distribute to those who hosted him. Mansa Musa's visit to Mecca deepened his devotion and his reign deepened support for Islam in Mali. However, 100 years after Mansa Musa's death, the Mali kingdom was declining and by late 1400s, the Songhai Kingdom had taken Mali's place as the powerhouse in West Africa. By following processes that Mali had gone through, Songhai became larger and richer than Mali. Despite Mali's fall, Mansa Musa's efforts to strengthen Islam in West Africa succeeded and religion has a prominent place in the region today.

By 12th century, wars w neighboring societies permanently weakened Ghanian state. In its place rose several new trading societies, the most powerful being Mali. North African traders introduced Islam to Mali in the 9th century. Give a crash course for Mali. (1200-1450)

Historians believe that he was a Muslim who used connections w others of his faith in order to establish trade relationships w North African and Arab merchants. He cultivated a thriving gold trade in Mali and w his leadership, Mali's wealth grew tremendously. (His nephew Mansa Musa made a pilgrimage to Mecca where his lavish displays of gold left a lasting impression)

By 12th century, wars w neighboring societies permanently weakened the Ghanaian state which allowed new trading societies to rise in its place. The most powerful is Mali. Who was Sundiata, Mali's founding ruler? (Mali was more successful than Ghana cuz they centralized their power) (1200-1450)

Mehmed II established the empire's capital after forces besieged Constantinople in 1453. Ottomans used cannons to crumble the city's triple fortifications. Constantinople was renamed Istanbul and it prospered bc of its location, which allowed it to become a nexus for trade (only waterway linking Aegean Sea w the Black Sea). Armies of Mehmed II then seized lands around western edge of the Black Sea. Mehmed was also able to force Venice to pay him a yearly tax w Ottoman's strong navy. In early 16th century, Ottomans added to empire lands. After the decline of Mamluk Dynasty, Istanbul became a center of Islam. Suleiman I (1520-1566): Ottoman Empire reached is peak under his reign. His armies overran Hungary in 1526 and attempted to take over Vienna but although it failed, the ability of the Ottomans to send troops that far into Christian Europe caused fear there. In 1522, Suleiman's navy captured the island of Rhodes and in 1550s, Tripoli in North Africa. Ottoman Empire experienced transformation as the state adapted to new internal and external pressures. Period of reform followed by the 18th century. Challenges in defending Ottoman territory against foreign invasion and occupation led to Ottoman defeat and dissolution by 1922.

By 15th century, the Ottoman Empire was already becoming a major power. It extended into modern-day Turkey as well as Balkan areas in Europe and parts of North Africa and Southeast Asia. It was the largest and most enduring of the Islamic empires of this period. It was founded by Osman Dynasty in 1300s and lasted until defeat in 1918 by Allies in WWI. Give 2 notable rulers of the Ottoman Empire and their accomplishments (1450-1750)

Didn't centralize power under one leader/central government. Communities instead formed kin-based networks where families governed themselves. The male head, a chief, mediated conflicts and dealt w neighboring groups. Groups of villages became districts and a group of chiefs decided how to solve the district's problems. However, as populations grew, kin-based networks became more difficult to govern and competition among neighbors increased which increased fighting among villages and districts. Small kin-based communities also became more challenging but many communities continued to exist until 19th century. Larger kingdoms grew in prominence particularly after 1000

By year 1000, most of the region in Inland Africa adopted agriculture. Bc of the sedentary nature of agriculture, ppl needed more complex political relationships to govern themselves. How did governments in Sub-Saharan Africa differ from those in most Asian/European societies (1200-1450)

Second Industrial Revolution

Came in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and involved chemicals, steel, precision machinery, and electronics. Electrification lit the streets, and the telephone and radio made world-wide, instantaneous communication a reality.

Some local rulers traded enslaved people to Europeans in exchange for gunpowder and cannons which gave them a military advantage when battling neighboring villages. Some African city-states grew wealthy by selling enslaved Africans to Europeans, especially the Kingdom of Dahomey which grew stronger bc it raided other villages to enslave people and sold them to European merchants. Artwork from West African societies bear signs of both European and African cultural influences. Expansion of maritime empires supported growth of some African states like Asante Empire and Kingdom of Kongo as their participation in trade led to increase in influence. In 1498, Portuguese explorer Vasco de Gama invaded Swahili city-states of East Africa, most of which were thriving commercial centers in the Indian Ocean trade. Portuguese took over trade in Kilwa, Mombasa, and other city-states by sending heavily armed ships and building fortresses which threw the region into a devastating decline.

Certain regions of East and West Africa were targets of European conquest during late 15th century w Portuguese ruler Henry the Navigator extremely interested in navigational tech and financing expeditions along Africa's Atlantic Coast and around the Cape of Good Hope. He explored these communities before other European powers. W cooperation of local rulers, Portuguese then other Europe traders set up trading posts along Africa's coast. What effect did this have on Africa? (1450-1750)

Spanish came into contact with the two major empires in the region: Aztecs in Mesoamerica and Incas in South America which had gold and silver that made exploration profitable. Plus, Europeans realized that by using enslaved Native Americans and later Africans, they could grow wealthy by raising sugar, tobacco, and other valuable crops. China was a particularly enthusiastic consumer of silver from the Western Hemisphere. Silver made its way from now day Mexico to East Asia in heavily armed Spanish ships called galleons that made stops in the Philippines. At trading post in Manila, Europeans exchanged silver for luxury goods like silk and spices and the Chinese government began using silver as its main form of currency. By early 17th century, silver had become a dominant force in the global economic system

Columbus and other European explorers sought a new route to Asia and hoped to find gold, silver, and other valuable resources but found little of value in their first two decades of contact that they considered stopping further exploration. English after sponsoring voyages in 1490s made little attempt to explore/settle for almost a century. What changed? (1450-1750)

feudal

Continuity: for hundreds of years, Japan had been a _______ society without a centralized government with landowning aristocrats (daimyo) battling for control of land while majority of people worked as rice farmers. (1200-1450)

In Ming and Manchu dynasties of China, civil service exam was used to assess abilities of members of the scholar-gentry who wished to enter government service, in Ottoman Empire, devshirme system provided sultan w ready-made pool of civil servants loyal to him, Safavid Empire's shah enlisted a class of bureaucrats from Persian population of the empire known as "men of the pen." In Songhai empire, the mansa employed bureaucrats from the scholarly class educated in the schools/madrasas of Timbuktu. Incas didn't use a dedicated scholarly class to rule their empire as the Ming and Manchus did but they did organize their empire into a federal system of provinces headed by nobles loyal to the emperor. Aztec Empire was less centralized and bureaucratic than other land empires and created a tributary empire that it had little/no direct control over and kept control over this region through force, fear, and intimidation rather than a centralized bureaucracy

Controlling a large area w diverse populations required land-based empires to establish an organized and centralized bureaucracy. Recruiting took several forms give examples. (1450-1750)

Winning minimum wage, limits on number of hours worked, overtime pay, establishment of a five-day work week, unions sparked larger movement for empowerment among working class as British parliament passed reform bills to expand voting rights, and by 1843, children under 10 were banned from working in coal mines.

Dangerous and unsanitary working conditions, low wages, and long hours were common in factory work in the 19th century. Workers responded by forming labor unions—organizations of workers that advocated for the right to bargain with employers and put the resulting agreements in a contract. What were labor unions able to accomplish?

decentralized political landscape; Buddhism particularly in Sinhala dynasties

Despite strong Islamic presence in the region, local Hindu kingdoms continued to play a major role in India's ______________. What is another religion which had a strong presence in this area? (1200-1450)

Indigenous political structures in Latin America were replaced by Spanish and Portuguese colonial administrations. Spanish royalty appointed viceroys to act as administrators and representatives of the Spanish crown then established audiencias (royal courts to which Spanish settlers could appeal viceroys' decisions) to keep viceroys from operating independently of the crown. Distance meant that the Spanish throne didn't focus on colonial affairs in the Western Hemisphere. Indigenous peoples of Americas lost great deal of culture and history bc of conquistadors like Cortés burning books that were thought to be unholy. Spanish and Portuguese conquerors transported their own languages and religion into the Americas ex. Spanish predominates Latin America to this day. Creoles, those born in America of Spanish origin, enjoyed political dominance and soon wanted independence from the Spanish throne.

Earlier land-based empires like the Muslims and Mongols allowed traditions to exist or attempted to graft their ways onto those of their subjects. European empires contrasted w Spanish and Portuguese empires erasing basic social structures and cultural traditions of indigenous Americans w/in a century of when the first European explorers arrived. Give examples of political and cultural changes for indigenous peoples (1450-1750)

Deism

Enlightenment's emphasis on reason led thinkers to reexamine relationship of humans to God. Some adopted ______ the belief that a divinity simply set natural laws in motion. An advocator of Deism was Thomas Paine (1750-1900)

Muslims conquered Spain by force in 8th century and Christian crusaders attempted to seize lands which they considered holy in the Middle East beginning around 1100. While Mongols fostered transfer of knowledge, they also carried out brutal conquests. Contacts w Asia contributed to state-building in Europe. Btwn 1200-1450, process small and slow bc of hold back by manorial system and serfdom but after 1450, state-building increased in speed and significance in Europe

Europe benefitted from exchanges w Middle East and through it the rest of Asia but not all contact were peaceful. Give examples. (1200-1450)

British trading posts in India were typical of those established by Europeans in India and elsewhere and focused on profit through trade w small forts and controlled limited power. However, the East India Company expanded by taking advantage of tensions btwn Muslims and Hindus in India and began to increase political power through treaties w local rulers. W help of European-trained Indian private forces called sepoys, EIC moved inland and spread its influence to such an extent that it controlled most of the subcontinent. British also set up trading posts in West Africa which paved the way for globalization along with those in India. Each post became a node.

European rivalries fueled by political, economic, and religious motives shaped expansion of empires w several powers establishing trading posts in India. During mid-18th century, France and Great Britain competed for power on five continents in the Seven Years' War. British victory drove French out of India but Portuguese remained until mid-20th century. How did the British come to control India? (1450-1750)

Conquests that brought new wealth to states through tax collection, new trading opportunities, and brought material wealth (especially silver to European states). Rivalries among European states also stoked efforts to expand before another power could claim a territory. Religion was another motivating force as Europeans believed that it was their Christian duty to seek out people in other lands to convert them

European states wished to expand their authority and control resources. What did this lead to? (1450-1750)

Arab merchants during the Postclassical Era also often bought enslaved ppl during their travels to the Swahili Coast of Africa. Also King Afonso of Kongo understood slave raids weren't easily controllable and he didn't want Kongo to be depopulated. However, his authority was undermined as his subjects traded enslaved ppl for European goods w/o his involvement. Before Europeans came, he could control all trade in his domain.

Europeans sought sources of inexpensive labor and during the latter part of 1400s, Portuguese trading fleets arrived in Kingdom of Kongo seeking enslaved ppl and initially took enslaved Africans back to Europe to work as domestic servants. Slavery existed in Africa well before Europeans sought labor for investments in the Americas. In many societies, entire community shared land. In order to establish positions of wealth and power, individuals showcased both property and enslaved people they owned. How does African slavery demonstrate a continuity? (1450-1750)

Spain's Ferdinand Magellan. Spain annexed Philippines in 1521 when his fleet arrived their and returned in 1565 to conquer Filipinos who put up a strong resistance. Manila became a Spanish commercial center which attracted Chinese merchants and others and many Filipinos eventually became Christians

First to circumnavigate the world and what happened because of this? (1450-1750)

Working hard and reinvesting profits and viewed work ethic as righteous living that elevated them to positions of secular leadership. Various reform efforts known as the Protestant Reformation (WORK HARD)

French theologian John Calvin broke w Catholic Church around 1530. In 1536,he authored The Institutes of the Christian Religion and helped reform religious community in Geneva, Switzerland. The elect, those predestined to go to heaven ran the community based on plain living and governance by church elders. His followers in France were called Huguenots. What did Calvinists encourage? (1450-1750)

Multiethnic states in Southwest, Central, and South Asia that relied on firearms to conquer and control territories. In addition to Russia, the Gunpowder Empires included three in which Islam was strong: Ottoman (Suleiman the Magnificent ruled at its height and declared religious worship the happiest of all practices), the Safavid, and the Mughal Empires. Gunpowder Empire societies tended to be militaristic but all three left splendid artistic and architectural legacies created to reflect the legitimacy of their rulers. BG: Qing Empire of China also expanded and prospered during long periods of stability although it experienced several invasions. Europe's expansion involved an even wider exchange network. Armed trade common in expanding empires in this period. Different empires traded w each other but kept troops and armaments at ready in case another empire questioned their right to trade (differed from free markets of later eras)

From its origins in China, gunpowder spread via trade routes and became a powerful source of change between 1450 and 1750. What does the term Gunpowder Empires refer to? (1450-1750)

Karl Marx

German scholar and writer who argued for socialism. Unlike utopian socialists, whom he scorned because he thought they wanted to escape problems rather than confront them, he wanted to look at how the world actually operated. He called his approach to economics "scientific socialism." Published Communist Manifesto which critiqued Capitalism. According to ______, market competition drove bourgeoisie (middle class and investors who owned machinery and factories where workers produced goods) to exploit proletariat (working class) for higher profits

In 1520s, Babur, a descendant of Tamerlane founded a 300-year dynasty when India was in disarray. By completing conquests in northern India, he formed a central government similar to that of Suleiman in Turkey. Akbar, Babur's grandson, achieved grand religious and political goals. Mughal Empire under Akbar was one of the richest and best-governed states in the world. Overseas trade flourished w Arab traders conducting most of the commerce. Traded goods like spices were exchanged for gold and silver. Trade w/in borders of empire carried on by merchant castes. Members of the merchant castes were allowed to participate in banking and production of handicrafts. Mughal India flourished from Babur's time to early 18th century. Magnificent architectural accomplishments are remaining testaments to wealth and sophistication of Mughal empire.

Give a brief context and summary to Mughal India. (1450-1750)

Silk Roads through Gobi Desert and mountain passes in China & Central Asia to Southwest Asia and Europe, where merchants tended to specialize in luxury goods. Monsoon-dependent trade routes in the Indian Ocean linked East Asia w Southeast Asia, South Asia, and Southwest Asia where merchants exchanged goods too heavy to transport by land. The trans-Saharan trade routes from North Africa and the Mediterranean Basin across the desert to West and East Africa, on which merchants traded salt from North Africa w gold from the kingdoms south of the desert.

Give a brief description for all of the networks of exchange. (1200-1450)

Only the first of the major Crusades resulted in a victory for Christians w the European army conquering Jerusalem in July 1099. Muslim forces under Saladin regained control of Jerusalem in 1187. The Crusades did promote cultural exchange btwn Europe and the Middle East (The Middle East had a higher standard of living and European Crusaders increased the demand for Middle Eastern goods). The fourth and last crusade never made it to the Holy Land which allowed for an Islamic force victory since the Crusaders didn't pay Venice enough for transport

Give brief explanations about the Crusades (1200-1450)

Philippines, a Spanish colony throughout 19th century, had limited educational opportunities which were controlled by religious authorities. As a result, many young men from wealthy families traveled to Europe, especially Madrid and Barcelona, to attend universities. Filipino students embraced atmosphere of nationalist fervor and republicanism, inspired by Enlightenment thinking. Students, José Rizal being the most prominent, contributed to magazines, pamphlets, and other publications advocating for greater autonomy for the Philippines called Propaganda movement. Spanish authorities viewed it suspicious then arrested and executed Rizal in 1896 which shocked Filipinos and spurred first nationalist movement w/in the organization and strength to challenge Spanish rule. Philippine Revolution then began in 1896

Give causes to Philippine Revolution.

During Middle Ages, the Jewish population in Christian Europe grew w many living in Muslim areas in the Iberian Peninsula and around the Mediterranean Sea whose areas had been overtaken by European Christians. Jews who could afford to moved northward in Europe and some political leaders (especially Amsterdam and other commercial cities) welcomed them bc they brought valuable experience in business and trade. Roman Catholic Church had policy that Christians couldn't charge loans on other Christians but Jews weren't bound by this restriction which meant many northern European Jews became moneylenders. This resulted in an increased flow of money which contributed to economic growth of Europe. Antisemitism (anti-Jewish sentiment) was widespread among Christians as they thought of Jews as outsiders and untrustworthy. Jews were expelled from Western and Central Europe ex. England in 1290 which led them to move to Eastern Europe and even tho Jews lived in this region since 1st century, their numbers increased bc of expulsions

Give context for Jews in this era: (1200-1450)

Like Jews, Muslims also faced discrimination in Europe w the Spanish king expelling remaining Muslims who wouldn't convert to Christianity in 1492. This led Muslims to move to SE Europe. In 13th century, the Muslim Ottoman Empire expanded reach from Turkey into Balkan countries of present-day Albania, Kosovo, and Bosnia and Herzegovina which developed large Muslim populations. While Europe was predominantly Christian, both Jews and Muslims helped shape society despite persecution. The Jews lived in urban areas unlike most in the Middle Ages and served as a bridge btwn Christians and the Muslims whose goods they desired in trade. Contacts w traders in Muslim caliphates opened up a world of trade and ideas for Europeans who had been self-sufficient and isolated under feudalism

Give context for Muslims in this era: (1200-1450)

Although East African Coast had been fairly well populated for many centuries before Islam's arrival, few societies inhabited Sahara Desert bc arid climate made it near impossible to farm. Though nomadic communities did conduct trade across the Sahara, volume of trade increased w the arrival of Muslim merchants in 7th and 8th centuries. When empires like Mali took over the area in early 1200s, commerce expanded dramatically.

Give context for Trans-Saharan slave trade (1200-1450)

Abbasids allowed Christians to travel easily to and from holy sites in/around Jerusalem but Seljuk Turks limited travel which lead to European Christians organizing groups of soldiers called Crusaders to reopen access

Give context for the crusaders (1200-1450)

Voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492 connected Eastern and Western hemispheres which led to first global trade networks. Btwn 1450 and 1750, European states, starting w Portuguese and Spanish, sought a transoceanic route to Asia but this brought them into contact w the Americas. Trans-Atlantic trade linked Americas, Europe, and Africa for the first time. European colonists who wanted sugar and other crops to sell in the global market developed plantations in the Americas and desire for laborers fueled trade in enslaved Africans. Over time Columbian Exchange altered life in Europe by introducing potatoes, corns, and tomatoes to Europe which led to population growth but introducing deadly pathogens like measles which devastated the population of the Americas. Within the context of increasing European influence, regional commerce and established states in Afro-Eurasia continued to flourish. The Mughal, Ottoman, and Qing Empires expanded, creating ethnically diverse states. Across the globe, peasant and artisan labor intensified as the demand for goods and food increased. These developments set the stage for the revolutions that defined the period after 1750.

Give context for the transoceanic interactions from c. 1450-c. 1750.

Between 1750 and 1900, people became more integrated into a global trade network. New tech like telegraphs fostered closer integration. Increase use of machinery in producing goods was known as Industrial Revolution and caused manufacturing output to skyrocket. As global trade increased, industrializing countries were able to protect access of businesses to resources for manufacturing and to markets for selling goods by establishing control over overseas lands but lands rebelled against foreign domination ex. US and Haiti in 18th century. Industrialization led to reorganizing w increasing ppl living in nation-states (shared same culture) by 1800s. Industrialization also led to massive human migrations

Give context to revolutions from c.1750-c.1900

Expansion of trade, growth of agricultural surplus, and rise of middle class able to patronize artists sparked creativity in Europe. The Renaissance was a period characterized by revival of interest in classical Greek and Roman literature, art, culture, and civic virtue. Developed in 1439, Johannes Gutenberg's moveable-type printing press initiated revolution in print technology and allowed manuscripts to be mass-produced at relatively affordable costs which fostered growth in literacy and rapid spread of ideas. One characteristic of the Renaissance was interest in humanism: the focus on individuals rather than God. Secular literature was written and cultural changes happened like the increased use of vernacular language, propelled rising of powerful monarchies, centralization of governments, and birth of nationalism.

Give context to the Renaissance (1200-1450)

Mongols of Central Asia marched across much of Eurasia throughout 13th century and left destruction and chaos. Reputation of their slaughter spread farther than actual conquest. Many writers at the time focused on Mongol atrocities but in their quest for blood and treasure, Mongols sparked a period of interregional connection and exchange at a level that the world had not experienced in a thousand years

Give context to the increase in interregional connection. (1200-1450)

Great land-based empires existed before 1450 and after 1750 but btwn these years, several of history's greatest land-based empires reached their peak in wealth and influence. Ex. Manchus in eastern Asia and Mughals in northern India. They were multiethnic states that had direct political control over large regions and overland trade routes. These empires measured power in land and frequently warred against neighbors over territory. Ex. Qing Dynasty in China tripled amount of land controlled by 1911. Land-based empires in this period also prospered by consolidating power in a central government. They employed bureaucratic elites to enforce laws and military professionals to provide defense and to fund, they collected tributes and taxes. In order to demonstrate their wealth and power, they constructed great palaces, religious buildings, and shrines. Land-based empires were often closely tied w particular religious faiths which led to political and religious conflicts being intertwined. Ex. In Europe, Roman Catholics and Protestants fought tons of wars where millions died. After 1750, many land-based empires began declining in power in the 18th century bc of increasing importance of ethnic identities for individuals, ocean routes for trade, and economic relationships among businesses undermined unity and influence land-based empires initially developed.

Give context to the land-based empires of 1450-1750.

Even before missionaries and imperial armies spread Islam around the world, Muslim merchants traveled to non-Muslim lands in search of trading partners were paving the way. Arab merchants had been traveling to South Asia for centuries before Islam expanded. Muslim merchants' connection to Dar al-Islam interacted w developments in sailing tech and environmental knowledge to transform the Indian Ocean into an economic hot spot during the Postclassical Era

Give context to the transformation of the Indian Ocean trade network. (1200-1450)

Mayans incorporated concept of zero into number system, developed a complex writing system, and learned to make rubber from liquid of rubber plants. Mayan science and religion linked through astronomy so priests decided when to celebrate religious ceremonies or going to war by calendar which meant accurate calendars were very important. Mayans had no telescopes but made precise observatories atop pyramids like Chichen Itza which allowed a calendar more accurate those those used in Europe at the time

Give examples of Mayan innovation in science and technology (1200-1450)

Feminism ex. Mary Wollstonecraft advocated that females should receive same education as males and Seneca Falls Convention where activists gathered to promote women's rights and suffrage, abolitionism: movement to end Atlantic slave trade and free all enslaved ppl, end of serfdom: had been declining since economy changed from agarian to industrial; peasant revolts pushed leaders to reform ex. Queen Elizabeth I in 1574, Zionism: the desire of Jews to reestablish an independent homeland where their ancestors had lived in the Middle East. After centuries of battling anti-Semitism, hostility toward Jews, and pogroms—violent attacks against Jewish communities—many European Jews had concluded that living in peace and security was not a realistic hope. To be safe, Jews needed to control their own land. Leading the movement was an Austro-Hungarian Jew, Theodor Herzl.

Give some examples of movements that the Renaissance inspired.

Hangzhou in China, Novgorod in Russia, Timbuktu in Africa, and Calicut in India. These city grew and prospered as its merchants exchanged goods which brought diversity to these cities including a thriving community of Arabs and Hangzhou. Other cities on trade routes that grew and thrived included Samarkand and Kasghar. Both were centers of Islamic scholarship, bustling markets, and sources for fresh water and plentiful food for merchants traveling the Silk Roads. Factors that contributed to the growth of cities were political stability and decline of invasions, safe and reliable transportation, rise of commerce, plentiful labor supply, and increased agricultural output.

Give some examples where trade supported urbanization in cites. (1200-1450)

Gunpowder (although gunpowder was invented in China in previous dynasties, innovators in Song Dynasty made first guns, tech of gunpowder and guns spread from China to all parts of Eurasia through traders on Silk Roads), agricultural productivity (Champa rice invented some time before 11th century. Was fast-ripening and drought-resistant strain of rice from the Champa Kingdom in present-day Vietnam and greatly expanded agricultural production in China. This and other strains developed through experimentation allowed farming to spread to lands where rice couldn't grow before ex. lowlands, riverbanks, and hills. Allowed farmers to grow two crops of rice per year in some areas: summer and winter. Innovative methods of production like putting manure on fields to enrich soil and building irrigation systems using ditches also contributed to agricultural success. Combo of changes provided abundance of food which allowed China's population to increase from 25% of world population to nearly 40%), manufacturing and trade (industrial production soared. China's discovery of coal in 4th century B.C.E. enabled it to produce greater amounts of cast iron goods. China had greatest manufacturing capability in the world ex. learning how to make carbon out of cast iron and manufacturing steel which they used to make/reinforce things like bridges, proto-industrialization, artisans manufacturing porcelain and silk that reached consumers through trade networks, especially by sea. China became world's most commercialized society w economy changing from local consumption to market production, w porcelains, textiles, and tea the chief exports. Grand Canal supported vibrant internal trade while advances in naval tech allowed China to control trade in South China Sea. Military power of Tang and Song allowed protection from bandits), taxes (Song promoted growth of commercial economy by changing how they built public projects ex. roads. Government paid people to work on them instead of requiring labor which increased amount of money in circulation and promoted growth), tributes (another source of income for government came from tributary system where other states had to pay money or provide goods to honor the Chinese empire. Cemented China's economic and political power over several foreign countries but created stability and stimulated trade for all parties involved. Origins of system existed in Han Dynasty. By end of Song Dynasty, Japan, Korea, and kingdoms through southeast Asia were tributary states. China sent tremendous fleets led by Zheng He to demonstrate power of emperor and receeive tribute)

Give the economic developments in Postclassical China (1200-1450)

Before, Japan tolerated the first Portuguese and Dutch traders and missionaries in mid-16th century and thousands converted to Christianity. Some Christians, intolerant of other faiths destroyed Buddhist shrines. In response, Japanese government banned Christian worship services in 1587 and over the next 40 years, Japan took additional steps to persecute Christians and limit foreign influences. By 1630s, the government expelled nearly all foreigners, banned most foreign books, and prohibited Japanese people from traveling abroad. Japan was partially isolated from the rest of the world for more than two centuries but continued some trade w Chinese. However, Europeans and Americans returned in mid-19th century. After voyages of Zheng He in 15th century, Ming Dynasty attempted to limit outside influence on China by restricting trade. Ming prohibited private foreign trade, destroyed some dockyards, limited size of ships that could be built, and began reconstructing the Great Wall. Changes were a pattern of conservatism under Ming to undo influence of Mongol Yuan Dynasty that had ruled before. Ming also reemphasized importance of Confucianism. Many limits on trade were eventually reversed and China resumed its important role in global trade.

How did Asian countries deal w European maritime empire expansion? (1450-1750)

In 1236, Batu led a Mongolian army of 100,000 soldiers into Russia, which at the time was a loose network of city-states and principalities. Batu's army (Golden Horde) marched westward and conquered small Russian kingdoms and forced them to pay tributes. In 1240, capital Kiev was looted and destroyed. Golden Horde continued westward. The sympathy that Western Europe had bc of religious toleration and promotion of trade evaporated when Western Europe saw the Golden Horde conquer a Christian region, Russia. Batu led Golden Horde into successful military encounter w Polish, German, and French knights. Soon after, Batu defeated a force of Hungarian knights and then set his sight on Italy and Austria. But Ogodei Khan in Karakorum (Great Khan's successor) died which led to Batu calling off attacks to attend the funeral and see to issues of succession. By the time Batu returned to Europe, he lost interest in conquering Western Europe. Mongols ruled northern Russia by working through existing Russian rulers who sent regular tributes. Mongol chose indirect rule bc they didn't want to live in the forests. Rulers of city-state Moscow began to collect additional tributes which they set aside to develop an army to resist the Mongols and began building an anti-Mongol coalition along Russian city-states. Under Moscow's leadership, this coalition rose up against the Golden Hoarde and defeated it in 1380 at the Battle of Kulikovo. After this battle, Mongol influence declined and by mid 16th-century, Russia defeated all of the descendant khans of Mongols except the Crimean Tatars who weren't defeated until late 18th century. Mongols had lasting impact on Russia. The invasion of Mongols prompted Russian princes to improve military organization and accept the value of more centralized leadership of the region. 3 centuries of Mongol rule severed Russia's ties w Western Europe which led Russia to develop a more distinctive culture than before and resistance to the Mongols created foundation for the modern Russian state.

How did Batu (son of Genghis Khan's oldest son) come to rule the Golden Hoard, what was Batu's rule of the Golden Horde like, and what was the impact? (1200-1450)

Buddhism came to China from birthplace in India via the Silk Roads and 7th-century Buddhist monk Xuanzang made it popular. Monks related Buddhism to familiar Daoist principles which led Buddhist doctrines to become fused w elements of Daoist traditions to create syncretic faith Chan (Zen) Buddhism. Chan Buddhism remained popular although some leaders didn't want China's native religions diminished and during the Song Dynasty, many Confucians along the scholar gentry began to adopt its ideals. Buddhists writers influenced Chinese literature by writing in the vernacular (a practice that became widespread). Japan and China (countries in China's orbit) also adopted Buddhism along w Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism was another syncretic faith which originated in China which fused rational thought w the abstract ideas of Daoism and Buddhism and became widespread in Japan and Vietnam (also became Korea's official state ideology)

How did Buddhism influence East Asian culture? (1200-1450)

China's Yuan Dynasty founded by Mongol invader Kublai Khan in 1271 was overthrown by the Ming Dynasty in 1368 after less than a century in power. Ming rulers stabilized East Asian region for nearly 300 years and during the Ming era, Portuguese and other Europeans arrived and aimed to encroach the Asian trade network. In 1644, powerful Manchu from neighboring Manchuria seized power and established Qing Dynasty which ruled until 1911. Ming Dynasty expanded size of China and conquered lands in Mongolia and Central Asia but didn't hold them for long. In 1440s, Mongol armies defeated Ming forces and took Ming emperor prisoner which led the Chinese leaders to look to the Great Wall of China for protection. Under Ming Dynasty wall was restored and expanded to keep out invaders from the north. Emperor Kangxi (1661-1722), one of China's longest-reigning emperors, presided over a period of stability and expansion during Qing Dynasty in China and incorporated Taiwan, Mongolia, and Central Asia into empire. Also imposed a protectorate over Tibet. Another important Qing ruler was Emperor Qianlong who initiated military campaigns to lands west of China and annexed Xinjiang. To this day, parts of Xinjiang remain troubled as the local Muslim population called Uighurs never fully became incorporated into the rest of Chinese culture. Qianlong installed the Dalai Lama in Tibet and had a successful campaign against the Nepalese but campaigns against Burma and Vietnam were unsuccessful and costly which emptied the empire's treasury. Bc of need for funds, the Qing Dynasty sold limited trading privileges to European powers but confined them to Guangzhou. British not satisfied w limited privileges and asked for more trading rights in 1793 but Qianlong stated that the Chinese had no need for British manufactured goods. During the later part of Qianlong's rule, the Chinese bureaucracy became corrupt which led to high taxes on the people. In response to high taxes and a desire to restore the Ming Dynasty, a group of peasants organized the White Lotus Rebellion (1796-1804). Qing suppressed rising brutally, killing around 100,000 peasants

How did East Asia develop and expand in this period (1450-1750)

1450 signified ending of the medieval period which saw the end of plagues, conclusion of the Hundred Years' War between France and England, and the invention of the Gutenberg printing press which was followed by an increase in literacy. After slow political and economic development of the Middle Ages, several countries in Europe became powerful, wealthy nations and new monarchies launched overseas explorations to establish colonies around the war. Nature of new monarchies in 1500s was result of desire of leaders to centralize power by controlling taxes, the army, and many aspects of religion. Bureaucracies increased and power of middle class grew at expense of lords and churches.

How did Europe develop and expand in this period (1450-1750)

Upon arrival of Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro in 1532, Incan Empire was in midst of a civil war of succession after death of emperor Huayna Capac. Scholars believe that civil war weakened Incan army and made it easier for Pizarro's forces to prevail while others believed that diseases introduced by Europeans led to decline. In 1533, Spanish conquered core of empire

How did Incans decline? (1200-1450)

Through military actions and the activities of merchants and missionaries which allowed Islam's reach to extend from India to Spain (Islamic leaders showed tolerance to others who believed in a single god and did good works ex. Christianity)

How did Islam spread so extensively? (1200-1450)

First Southeast Asian Muslims were local merchants who converted in 700s to have better trading relations w Islamic merchants on shore. Islam most popular in urban areas at the time. Today, Indonesia includes more Muslims than any other country. Sufis also did missionary work in Southeast Asia and bc of their tolerance for local faiths, people felt comfortable converting to Islam. They could be Muslims and still honor local deities

How did Islam's movement into Indian Ocean parallel expansion elsewhere? (1200-1450)

Translated Greek literary classics into Arabic which saved works of Aristotle and other Greek thinkers from oblivion, studied mathematics texts from India and transferred knowledge to Europeans, and adopted techniques for paper-making from China which led to Europeans learning to make paper

How did Islamic scholars follow advice of Muhammad "Go in quest of knowledge even unto China" and carried earlier thinkers' works? (1200-1450)

Islamic women were allowed to inherit property and retain ownership after marriage, remarry if widowed, could receive cash settlement if divorced, could initiate divorce, and could practice birth control. Islamic women who testified in court could be protected from retaliation but testimony only worth half of a man. However, rise of towns and cities in Islamic-ruled areas resulted in new limitations on women's rights like in other cultures

How did Islamic women enjoy a higher status than Christian or Jewish women? (1200-1450)

In the eastern part of the Mongolian Empire, Kublai Khan set his sights on China which was then ruled by the Song Dynasty. China was a more formidable opponent which led to Kublai's army spending the years from 1235-1271 in an attempt to conquer China. In 1260, Kublai assumed Great Khan title and finally defeated the Chinese 11 years later. Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty by adhering closer to Chinese tradition. He then rebuilt capital at Zhongdu which had been destroyed by the Mongols in 1215 and called it Dadu. Kublai Khan was skilled at governing a large, diverse territory and like his grandfather, Genghis, he instituted a policy of religious tolerance which inspired loyalty in former oppressed groups like Buddhists and Daoists who were out of favor in China at the time. Bc of these and other reforms and the protection of the Mongolian armies, most Chinese initially enjoyed the rule of the Great Khan; he brought prosperity to China bc of cultural exchanges and improved trade w other countries, including European ones. Mongol women also led more independent lives (had more rights for example initiating divorces and wore the same leather trousers as men) than women in other societies of the time

How did Kublai Khan (grandson of Genghis Khan) come to rule the Yuan Dynasty, what was Kublai Khan's rule of the Yuan Dynasty like, and what was the impact? (1200-1450)

Russia in pivotal position for trade and was able to exchange goods and services w other cultures farther east and west. Russia remained close with Europe as its capital was located in Europe. Ivan IV aka Ivan the Terrible was crowned tsar in 1547 and set to expand the Russian border eastward by taking control of khanates held by descendants of the Golden Horde. Expansions began to rely more on the use of gunpowder. Bc Ivan IV wanted to expand east to control the fur trade, he allowed Stroganovs, major Russian landowners to hire bands of fierce peasant warriors known as Cossacks to fight local tribes and the Siberian khan. Stroganovs' forces were successful and gained control of the Volga River which allowed Moscow to trade directly w Persia and the Ottoman Empire w/o having to deal w the strong forces of the Crimean Tartars. Russia continued moving east into Siberia after Ivan IV's reign. Missionaries also followed and converted many to Eastern Orthodox faith. By 1639, Russians advanced east as far as the Pacific Ocean.

How did Russia develop and expand in this period (1450-1750)

Since coal was more mobile than streams which had powered the first factories with their water power, inventors like James Watt created the steam engine in 1765 to provide an inexpensive way to harness coal power to create steam which in turn generated energy for machinery in textile factories. Use of coal made energy production mobile and dependable which allowed coal-powered steam engines to be built anywhere and even on ships (steamships) and trains (steam powered trains). Steamships were no longer dependent on winds and they could quickly travel upstream instead of having to sail up or be towed by people and animals along the shore. Coal also made the mass production of iron possible.

How did coal revolution shape economic production?

West Africans combined European colonizers' languages w parts of their West African languages and grammatical patterns to create new languages known as creole, Africans brought their music w them and their syncopated rhythms influenced future styles like country; this was retained bc enslaved Africans in America used them as a means of survival from a long workday or even as a way to communicate, in addition to rice and okra, Africans also brought their knowledge of how to prepare these food. African culture had a lasting impact on life in the Americas

How did enslaved Africans retain their culture through the African diaspora (1450-1750)?

Vietnamese women enjoyed greater independence in married lives than Chinese women in Confucian tradition, Chinese lived in extended families while Vietnamese preferred nuclear families (just wife, husband, and children), Vietnamese villages operated independent of a national government which meant political centralization was nonexistent. Although Vietnam adopted a merit-based bureaucracy of educated men, Vietnamese system didn't function like Chinese scholar-bureaucracy and instead of loyalty to emperor like in China, scholar-officials in Vietnam owed more allegiance to village peasants. Vietnamese scholar-officials often led revolts against governments if they deemed it too oppressive. Vietnamese women resented inferior status under Chinese and rejected customs of foot binding and polygyny. However, sinification (assimilation) did occur despite Vietnamese efforts to maintain their culture

How did postclassical Vietnamese culture differ from Chinese culture (this explains strong resistance to Chinese power) (1200-1450)

Ottomans and Mughals continued to tolerate religions and Ottoman had warrior aristocracy and there was a little social mobility ex. Roxelana who went from slave to queen, in Qing Dynasty, Manchu ppl had higher status which is a change from og dynasties like Song Dynasty, rulers gained more power in Europe and uprisings caused movement of aristocrats ex. Louis XIV moved nobles to Versailles while Ivan IV moved boyars to Moscow, Russia continued the Kievan Rus social hierachy, and social classes in Americas changed to become race-based bc of importation of African slave labor, arrival of Europeans, and death of natives.

How did social classes in this time period demonstrate change and continuity? (1450-1750)

Built churches with labyrinths, reservoirs, and tunnels. Other parts of the continent (especially in the south) had little contact w Islam until later in the history

How did some parts of Africa resist Islam? (1200-1450)

In Ottoman Empire, rapid corruption led to rapid decline, ethnic nationalism among the empire's diverse population led to widespread unrest, and even tho bordering Europe, it didn't adopt Western technology or Enlightenment ideas. Failure to modernize and overexpansion led to the Ottoman Empire undergoing palace coups, declining trade, and weakening leadership in 1800s. One part of the Ottoman Empire where the sultan ruled in name but had little power was Egypt. This allowed Muhammad Ali to become the new governor of Egypt and reform the country's military based on a European model, reform the Egyptian economy at such a high rate where they were forced to give up their land to the state which allowed the government to control the valuable cotton production and make money off export, and push Egypt to industrialize w textile factories built to complete w those of French and British. China suffered two great humiliations at the hands of Europeans in the 19th century: the Opium War and the split into "spheres of influence." In the 20th century, China shook off foreign domination and briefly became a republic. However, its traumatic 19th century left a central government too weak to promote industrialization effectively for decades. In contrast to Ottoman Empire and China, Japan successfully modernized in less than half a century. Btwn 1600-1854, Japan had little contact but European powers all wanted to sell goods in Japan. In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry from U.S. arrived in Yedo and Tokyo Bay and asked for trade privileges then returned the next year w even more ships. Faced w power of US warships, Japanese gave into US demands and soon yielded to similar demands by other foreign states. Arrival of Perry led to the overthrowing of the shogun and restoration power to the emperor in 1868 in an event known as Meiji Restoration. Japan systematically visited Europe and US and adopted reforms based on what it admired like building railroads and roads and establishing equality before the law. Government financed reforms w high agricultural tax (like all other countries) which were a good investment as they stimulated rapid economic growth. However, in replicating the methods of Western countries, the Japanese also replicated some of industrial society's problems like exploiting female mill workers. Private investments also occurred in Japan w new industries sometimes sold to zaibatsu, powerful Japanese family business organizations like conglomerates in US.

How did the Ottoman Empire, China, and Japan respond to industrialization.

Arrival of Islam did very little to alter basic structure of society in South Asia which led India's caste system to be its strongest historical continuity, it did however lend stability to politically decentralized land. Although not Hindu, Muslim merchants and migrants found places on caste hierarchy based on occupation (subcastes based on occupation operated like workers' guilds and became absorbed into social fabric of Indian society). Most who tried to escape caste system (low-case Hindus converting to Islam) weren't able to improve social status. Converts in South and Southeast Asia found ways to accommodate Islam but didn't reject their own traditions in the process (ex. women in South Asia confined to a separate social sphere which led Islam women to receive similar treatment. In Southeast Asia, women had more independence before Islam's arrival, which continued as people became Muslims). People in South Asia and Middle East shared intellectual and cultural achievements (ex. Arab astronomers and mathematicians added to knowledge begun by Indians while Indian developments in algebra and geometry were translated into Arabic and spread throughout Dar al-Islam. Another result of this movement of ideas was numerical system "Arabic numerals" referred to by West which actually originated in India). In India, sultans erected buildings melding Hindu art with geometric patterns preferred by Islamic architecture (Qutub Minar). New language also developed among Muslims of South Asia: Urdu which melded grammatical patterns of Hindi and vocab of Arabic and some elements of Farsi. (Today, Urdu is official language of Pakistan)

How did the relationship between Hindus and Muslims shape history of South Asia in 7th century and continue to shape regional culture and politics today? (1200-1450)

More prestigious since Muhammad was a merchant. Merchants could grow rich bc of revival of Silk Roads trade and were esteemed as long as they maintained fair dealings and gave to charity in accord w pillars of Islamic faith. Merchants were also sent out as missionaries

How did the way Islamic society viewed merchants compare to other societies in Europe and Asia at the time? (1200-1450)

Many argued that they were based on Olmec civilization bc later cultures adopted features like feathered snake-god which was fundamental in both Mayan and Aztec religion

How do historians believe Mesoamerican cultures were related? (1200-1450)

Hindus prayed to many gods while Islam was monotheistic Hindu temples and artworks contain pictures of deities while Muslims disapproved of visual representation of Allah Hinduism associated w hierarchical caste system while Islam called for equality for all believers Hindus recognized several sacred texts while Muslims looked only to the Quran for spiritual guidance

How was Buddhism different from Islam? (1200-1450)

Akbar (ruled from 1556-1605) proved to be most capable of the Mughal rulers. For first 40 years in his rule, he defeated Hindu armies and extended his empire southward and westward. From his capital in Delhi, he established an efficient government and a system of fairly administered laws (ex. all his ppl had right to appeal to him for final judgement in any lawsuit). As his fame spread, capable men from many parts of Central Asia came to serve him which allowed Akbar to create a strong, centralized government and effective civil service. Paid government officials: zamindars were in charge of specific duties like taxation, construction, and water supply. Later, they were given grants of land rather than salaries and were permitted to keep 1/3 of taxes paid by local peasants. System worked well under Akbar but under other rulers, zamindars began to keep more taxes and build personal armies of soldiers and civilians loyal to them.

How was Mughal power consolidated in South Asia? (1450-1750)

Like Japan and Korea, Vietnam also learned from and traded with China (ex. adopting Chinese writing system and architectural styles). However, Japan had a more adversarial relationship with China which led to Vietnam launching violent rebellions against Chinese influence at times

How was Vietnam similar and different from other countries in postclassical China's scope (Korea and Japan) (1200-1450)

Divine right of kings in England (king was a political and religious authority), Tudors (ruled 1485-1603) in England relied on justices of peace: official selected by the landed gentry to maintain peace in the countries of England even by settling legal matters and carrying out the monarch's laws. Eventually they became among the most powerful groups in the kingdom. Under Tudor rule, power of feudal lords weakened and seats in House of Commons in Parliament were occupied mostly by justices of the peace. Parliament also checked monarch's powers. In 1689, England's rulers William and Mary signed English Bill of Rights which assured individual civil liberties ex. legal process required before arrest. In contrast to developments in England, French government became more absolute--directed by king with complete authority--in the 17th and 18th centuries. Henry IV (1589-1610) of House of Valois listened to advisor Jean Bodin who advocated divine right of monarchy and Louis XII(1610-1643) and minister Cardinal Richelieu moved to even greater centralization of the government and development of systems of intendants who were royal officials (bureaucratic elites) sent out to provinces to execute orders of the central government. Intendants were also called tax farmers. Sun King, Louis XIV(1643-1715) espoused theory of divine right (similar to England) and was a virtual dictator w aims to hold absolute power and expand French borders. He declared that he was the state and combined lawmaking and justice system in his own person. He also kept nobles close at his palace in Versailles which made it difficult for them to plot against him. Eventually Louis and his successors' refusal to share power weakened the French government. KEEP YOUR ENEMIES CLOSE - Louis (also seen in Russian Empire w Ivan IV)

How was control centralized in Europe? (1450-1750)

Following collapse of Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty, Ming ruled in China from 1368-1644. Ming Dynasty in China wanted to erase influence of Mongol rulers of Yuan Dynasty and to do this, Ming brought back traditional civil service exam, improved education by establishing national school system, and re-established the bureaucracy. However, during the Qing Dynasty, later part of Qianlong's reign, bureaucracy became corrupt and levied high taxes on people. Qing government used harsh military control to put down rebellions and maintain its authority. Military leaders called shoguns ruled Japan in emperor's name from 12th-15th century. Conflict btwn landholding aristocrats called daimyo (lords who had armies of samurai who had economic power) left Japan in disarray. Eventually gunpowder weapons helped series of three powerful daimyo to gradually unify Japan like the rise of empires in Turkey, Persia, and India. One of these powerful daimyo was Oda Nobunaga who took over Kyoto in 1568 w his samurai and muskets purchased from Portuguese traders. He extended his power and forced daimyo in lands around Kyoto to submit. He unified ab 1/3 of modern day Japan when he was assassinated in 1582. His successor Toyotomi Hideyoshi continued expanding territory until much of now day Japan was under his control. After his death, center of power shifted to Edo (Tokyo) which was controlled by daimyo Tokugawa Iesayu (1600-1616). His successors continued to rule Japan into mid-19th century in an era known as Period of Great Peace. Tokugawa shogunate set about reorganizing governance of Japan to centralize control over a feudal system. Japan was divided into 250 hans (territories) that were each controlled by a daimyo who had his own army and was fairly independent. However, Tokugawa government required daimyo to maintain residences in both home territory and capital: if daimyo was visiting his home territory, family had to stay in Tokyo as hostages which kept daimyo under control of shogunate, reducing them to landlords who managed hans rather than independent leaders

How was control centralized in the East Asia? (1450-1750)

To ensure control over large areas, Ottoman sultans used selection system called devshirme to staff military and government. System began in late 14th century and expanded in 15th and 16th centuries. In this system, Christian boys (8-20) who were subjects of the empire were recruited to serve in the Ottoman government. System of devshirme developed from earlier system of slavery in Ottoman Empire. In both systems, enslaved ppl considered tribute owed to the empire after conquest. Since Islamic law prohibited enslavement of "people of the book", Christian boys were forcibly removed from families. These boys were taught various skills in politics, arts, military, and received high level of education. Most famous group was called Janissaries and formed elite forces in the Ottoman army. Other boys groomed to become administrators of newly conquered territories, scribes, tax collectors, and even diplomats. All indoctrinated to be fiercely loyal to the sultan. In some ways, becoming a Janissary provided path of upward mobility in the Ottoman Empire and some parents even wanted their sons to be recruited into the service.

How was control centralized in the Ottoman Empire? (1450-1750)

Boyar class experienced tensions w rulers similar to tensions between nobles and rulers in Western Europe. Boyars of Novgorod opposed expansionist policies of Ivan IV which led Ivan IV to confiscate lands of boyar opponents and force them to move to Moscow so he could keep an eye on nobility like Louis XIV. In order to further control boyars, Ivan established oprichnina: a paramilitary force loyal to him. Their methods reflected later in development of Russian secret police. Romanov Dynasty took control of Russia in 1613 after turmoil following Ivan's death in 1584. Under autocratic control of the Romanovs, 3 main groups in Russia had conflicting desires: the Church was bent on conserving traditional beliefs, boyars desired to gain and hold power, and members of tsar's royal family. Peter I's rise to power illustrated conflicting ambitions as he had to defeat his half-sister Sophia and consolidated power by forcing her into a convent. Peter the Great participated closely in church affairs and was known as the Defender of Orthodoxy. Peter eventually lost support of Russian clergy over his reforms. Later in his reign, he organized the Russian government by creating provinces and replaced old system of local officials "feeding off the land" as provincial officials received a salary. Another reform was creation of a senate to advise government officials when Peter was away.

How was control reigned in the Russian Empire (1450-1750)?

European governments sought to legitimize authority of monarch through idea of divine right of monarchy. They also built impressive structures like Palace of Versailles in France to demonstrate power and glory. Governments in other parts of the world followed similar patterns to consolidate authority. Ex. Peter the Great's conquest of Baltic Sea from Sweden gave Russia St. Petersburg a port on the Baltic. He moved Russian capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg so he could keep watch on boyars there. New city was built by peasants and Swedish prisoners of war. In mid 18th century, Winter Palace was built and designed to show Peter's admiration of Europe and its rulers (Europe fan club president = Peter); Askia the Great promoted Islam and made an elaborate pilgrimage to Mecca like Mansa Musa of Mali. Under his leadership, Songhai became largest kingdom in its day in West Africa. Askia made Islam Songhai's official religion to unite his empire and also supported an efficient bureaucracy to bring empire together; Mughal rulers beautified Delhi and craftspeople and builders combined arts of Islam w local arts to create magnificent, airy structures w decorate geometric designs ex. Taj Mahal built by Shah Jahan as a tomb for his wife. Accomplishments showed power of the rulers; Although changes occured in government and religion in the Ottoman Empire, arts, culture, and economy showed continuities and legitimized rule of Ottomans. Constantinople, renamed Istanbul, continued to be full of foreign imports and grew even more beautiful and expanded across both sides of Strait of Bosporus. One famous landmark is royal residence of sultans, Topkapi Palace. Mehmed II (lived 1431-1481) began construction on landmark, Suleiman I (lived 1494-1566) ordered mosques, forts, and other buildings constructed under his control. Ex. construction in Istanbul of magnificent Suleymaniye Mosque. Istanbul remained center of arts and learning. Cultural contributions of Ottomans included restoration of glorious buildings like Saint Sophia; Spacious and elegant palace at Versailles became a political instrument w Louis XIV entertaining nobles there and keeping them from conducting business elsewhere like forming rebellions in their home provinces. His grand buildings at Versailles helped legitimize his power.

How was power legitimized through religion and art? (1450-1750)

Mughals appointed zamindars to collect taxes from peasant class, Ottoman sultans appointed tax farmers to pay an annual fixed sum of money for an area to the central government and recoup outlay by collecting money/salable goods from residents of the area, Aztecs formed tributary empire and had lists which included what was valued, and Ming Empire issued paper currency to facilitate trade and tax collection but this led to rampant counterfeiting and hyperinflation which led Ming to order that taxes should be paid in forms of rice and later silver coins known as "hard currency"

How was tax collected in various land-based empires? (1450-1750)

Construction of railroads like Transcontinental Railroad which connected Atlantic and Pacific oceans, completed in 1869, facilitated US growth as vast natural resources of US like oil and ability to transport them efficiently contributed to the development of the US as an industrial nation

How was the US able to develop as an industrial nation

Both mystical movements that emphasized inner reflection in order to achieve a direct personal relationship w deity. By placing less emphasis on strict adherence to traditional rituals and beliefs, they both appealed to people outside traditions and just as Sufis helped spread Islam, Bhaktis helped spread Hinduism

How were bhaktis similar to Sufi Muslims? (1200-1450)

Strong central governments ruling over large territories were uncommon. Instead, Sub-Saharan Africa's small communities were organized around kinship, age, and gender. Kinship connections allowed people to identify first as members of a clan/family. Communities divided work according to age by creating age grades/sets. Gender also had an influential role in social organization (ex. men dominated most activities which required a specialized skill ex. blacksmiths while women were engaged in agriculture and food gathering and also took primary responsibilities for carrying out domestic chores and raising children)

How were governments in Sub-Saharan Africa different from those in the Americas? Also give the social structures of Sub-Saharan Africa. (1200-1450)

In all of the world's empires, raising money to fund goals of imperial expansion and extend state power was a key endeavor. In Russia, Peter established new industries owned by the state ex. shipyards in St. Petersburg and also encouraged private industries like woodwork. He brought in Western European naval engineers to build ships according to Western models. When industrialization failed to bring in the revenue Peter needed for military ventures, he raised taxes and began to compel workers to work in the ship yards (sort of urban extension of serfdom). In 1718, tax on land in Russia was replaced by tax on individuals and peasants became even more oppressed. Ottomans levied taxes on peasants and used tax farming to collect it. Tax farmers grew wealthy and corrupt from skimming money from taxes like zamindars in Mughal Empire. Burden of taxes and the military would eventually contribute to economic decline of the empire. In Ming China as well as Ottoman Empire, tax collection was responsibility of private citizens, in this case wealthy families, each seeing to collection of land taxes in their area of countryside. Taxes collected in form of grains and later silver. Vaults stored surplus of grains but after 1580, wars, extravagant imperial spending, and repression of rebellions left dynasty bankrupt. Empires including China also collected tribute from other states as a way to demand recognition of their power and authority. Tributes were given as a sign of respect, submission, or allegiance ex. Korea was tributary state for China (WE LOVE U ICON TAKE OUR MONEY). Mexica had extensive tributary arrangements from ppl they conquered although most Aztec citizens, merchants, and artisans paid taxes. Aztec official stationed in each capital to collect taxes from local officials. Songhai Empire also had tributary states w Askia the Great assigning governors and officials to preside over tributary states in the Niger Valley. As long as local officials obeyed Songhai policies, they could rule their districts.

How were land-based empires financed? (1450-1750)

Both developed strong states, large urban centers, and complex belief systems

How were large-scale civilizations in North America similar to those in Afro-Eurasia? (1200-1450)

Manchu were ethnically and culturally distinct from ppl they ruled but less tolerant as they wanted to make their culture dominant, placed own people in top positions of the government, and maintained continuity w some traditional Chinese practices like bureaucracy.

How were the Manchus' Qing Dynasty and the Mongols' Yuan Dynasty alike? (1450-1750)

Through architecture like many other countries. For example, they ordered the creation of 11 massive churches made entirely out of rock and carved rock structures have been a feature of Ethiopian religious architecture since 2nd millennium B.C.E (continuity)

In now day Ethiopia, the kingdom of Axum developed. It prospered like other African states by trading goods obtained from India , Arabia, the Roman Empire, and the interior of Africa. The spread of Islam made the region more diverse religiously. In the 12th century, a new Christian-led kingdom in Ethiopia emerged (one of the first Christian countries). How did its rulers express their power? (1200-1450)

Feeling of intense loyalty to those who shared languages and cultures.

In the Enlightenment, many writers believed that applying reason to natural laws would result in progress. Beliefs led to conclusion that natural laws governed social and political spheres and traditional religion became less pervasive. This led to new ideas like socialism and liberalism and conservation which were against socialism and liberalism. Clash btwn new ideas and old political structures led to revolutions. Breakup of empires and emergence of new forms of government followed which developed nationalism. What is nationalism? (1750-1900)

Some manufacturers formed giant corporations in order to minimize risk. Stockholders received money when there was profit but only lost their share corporation went bankrupt. Some corporations became so powerful that they formed a monopoly ex. John D. Rockefeller in US creating a monopoly in oil industry. De Beers Diamonds from Cecil Rhodes (supporter of railroad that connected Britain to its colonies) was one of many transnational companies--operated across national boundaries--in 19th century. With the growth of corporations, it had giant economic and political power ex. corporation's decision of location for new factory could create thousands of new jobs for a community. Banks and finance rose as merchants and entrepreneurs looked for a reliable place to deposit money and to borrow it when needed to build a factory or hire workers for a new enterprise.

In this period, mercantilism was replaced by a laissez-faire policy which promoted minimal governmental involvement in commerce and encouraged countries to reduce tariffs on trade. Economic ideas were reflected in emerging transnational institutions. What were the new ways of organizing business during the Industrial Revolution?

New ways of life developed out of the interaction of three broad traditions of culture: indigenous American, European, and African. Eastern and Western Hemispheres became linked by sharing diseases, food, and animals and this became known as the Columbian Exchange

Initial contact and subsequent conquest and colonization of the Americas was disastrous for native people. They were overpowered by superior weapons and decimated by disease and native populations declined, dissipated, or were forced to submit to new rulers and a new religion. Although European conquest seriously damaged native societies and ways of life, what happened? (1450-1750)

Until 1453, much of the area of the Ottoman Empire had been controlled by the Byzantine Empire and followed Eastern Orthodox. After siege of Constantinople, area became Ottoman and dominant religion was Islam. Sultan replaced emperor and Byzantine Empire's Justinian Law was replaced by shariah: a strict Islamic legal system which deals w all aspects of life like marital laws Safavids' Shah Ismail built a power base which supported his rule w Shi'a Islam and denied legitimacy to any Sunni. Strict adherence to Shi'a Islam caused frequent hostilities w Ottoman Empire (Safavids: WE ONLY SUPPORT SHI'A. CONVERT OR LEAVE) Akbar from Mughal Empire tolerated all religions and provided money and land grants to all religions, especially new religion of Sikhism which developed from Hinduism and may have been influenced by Islamic mysticism known as Sufism. Sikhism was a monotheistic faith that recognized rights of other faiths to exist and became 5th most popular religion in the world by 21st century. Akbar attempted to ease tensions btwn Hindus and Muslims by giving Hindus positions in his government (zamindars could be Hindu) and married Hindu wives. He also exempted Hindus from poll taxes paid by non-Muslims in the empire. He also promoted a religion called Din-i Ilahi to reconcile Hinduism and Islam but this was unsuccessful by his death in 1605

Like in Holy Roman Empire, religion and states were closely tied in Islamic empires. Give details in each of the Islamic Empires in the area of religion (1450-1750)

All began before the common era as agrarian cultures consolidated into stable settlements and flourished btwn 1200 and 1450. As kingdoms and empires expanded, so did the trade routes they controlled and traveled. Postclassical networks all also needed stability of established states to grow and expand, all shared the same purpose: to exchange what people were able to grow/produce for what they wanted, needed, or could use to trade for other items (purpose was primarily economic) but people and culture traveled throughout all the trade routes. All also had similar effects like giving rise to trading cities such as Samarkand on the Silk Road, Calicut on the Indian Ocean, and Cairo on the Trans-Saharan routes. Growth of trading cities also gave rise to centralization (ex. Malacca grew wealthy from fees levied on ships and cargoes passing through the strait of Malacca. To prevent piracy, Malacca had to use their wealth to develop a strong navy which required centralized planning).

List the similarities among networks of exchange. (1200-1450)

In late 13th century, Marco Polo, an Italian native visited Kubali Khan in Dadu. His descriptions of customs intrigued Europeans (ex. he described how Mongols had multiple marriages and bathed frequently). Curiosity in Asia skyrocketed which stimulated interest in cartography. Growth in long-distance commerce changed the social pyramid of Western Europe as economic success rivaled religious vocation/military service in winning status. This middle class began to grow and was known as bourgeoisie/burghers and included shopkeepers, merchants, craftspeople, and small landholders

Local economic self-sufficiency in Europe led to interests in goods from other European areas and far away ports (1200-1450). Who increased curiosity in Asia and what happened because of the growth in long-distance commerce?

Martin Luther

Monk in Wittenberg, a German city in Holy Roman Empire who concluded several traditional Church practices violated biblical teachings ex. sale of indulgences which granted ppl absolution from punishments of sin. He challenged Church by nailing charges: 95 Theses to a church door. Church reacted harshly since they needed the money the practices generated. German political leaders saw opportunity to free themselves from power of pope so they sided w him and this turned into a major split in the Roman Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire. His ideas also had social impact on clergy and women as he taught that women could have direct access to God like men. His emphasis helped promote women's literacy and believed women had roles to teach children to read the Bible. However, Protestants didn't organize convents so Protestant women didn't have opportunity to become leaders in vital institutions like Roman Catholic women. (1450-1750)

Balkan Nationalism

Movements to create independent nations within the Balkan possessions of the Ottoman Empire; provoked a series of crises within the European alliance system; eventually led to World War I.

China and East Asia: In China, Confucian belief system was tied to civil service ex. Song Dynasty relied on Confucian scholars to run a powerful and enduring bureaucracy. No other state had such a well-established system for government affairs across such a big territory. Ability to implement laws and carry out imperial edicts was key in state-building in China. Neo-Confucianism spread to Korea and Japan which allowed these rulers to justify and consolidate their political power as well (ex. in China emperor = "son of heaven" and similar things in Europe = God deigned and Americas = representative/descendant of the gods). Rulers in South and Southeast Asia also relied on Hinduism and Buddhism to aid in state strengthening Europe: Relationship btwn Roman catholic Church and state-building more difficult than the rest of Eurasia. The Church was part of state-building process at times but bc European states were so weak during Middle Ages, Church provided alternate structure for organizing society. Btwn 1200 and 1450, as more powerful states emerged in France and the Holy Roman Empire, the Church sometimes became a rival power

Religion was very important in state-building in the periods from 1200-1450. Give examples from states like China and East Asia and Europe.

Despite being on the Arabian Sea, the empire didn't have a real navy and they lacked natural defenses. Shah Abbas I (ruled 1588-1629) presided over the Safavid Empire at its height. His troop included soldiers--often Christian boys pressed into service--from as far nw as Georgia in Russia. Abbas relied on Europeans to advise his troops ab newly acquired military tech. Shahs also came to control religion and by using Shi'a Islam as a unifying force, Shah Ismail built a power base that supported his rule and denied legitimacy to any Sunni which caused frequent hostility w Ottoman Empire who was a stronghold of Sunni Islam. Issues btwn these two groups also arose over control of overland trade routes (ex. Ottomans used trade embargoes, official bans on trade, consistently against Safavid silk traders in order to assert dominance). Hostility btwn two groups remains today in present-day Iraq and Iran. Women permitted to participate in their societies but were still veiled and restricted in movements since it was traditional in the region. However, they also had access to rights provided by Islamic law for inheritance and divorce in extreme cases.

Safavid dynasty had origin in Safavid order of Sufism, established in northern Azerbaijan region (Iran). Early Safavid military hero named Ismail conquered most of Persia and pushed into Iraq then conquered Iran and was pronounced Shah. What problems did the Safavid Empire have? Give an example of renowned ruler and how these rulers consolidated their power which also led to conflicts. How were women treated? (1450-1750)

Islamic scholars translated Greek literary classics into Arabic (saved works from Greek thinkers like Aristotle from oblivion), scholars also brought math texts from India and techniques for papermaking from China, and also studied medicine from ancient Greeks, Mesopotamians, and Egyptians and made advances in hospital care like surgery. Improvements in agricultural efficiency like Champa Rice spread from India to Vietnam and China. W reliable food supply, populations grew which led to cities and industries growing as well. Papermaking reached Europe from China in the 13th century and along w improvements in printing tech, helped lead to rise in literacy. Seafaring tech improved w lateen sails, stern rudder, astrolabe, and magnetic compass as Chinese, Indian, and Southwest Asians expanded their knowledge in astronomy and other parts of natural world. Gunpowder and guns spread from China and influenced warfare as well.

Science and technology also spread across trade routes. Give examples. (1200-1450)

French Exploration: In 1500s and 1600s, French government sponsored expeditions in search of northwest passage. Ex. In 1535, French explorer Jacques Cartier sailed from Atlantic Ocean into St. Lawrence River; didn't find new route but claimed Canada for France. Explorers like Cartier and Samuel de Champlain found that there were valuable goods and riches in Americas. Ex. French found a land rich in furs and other natural resources and established Quebec in 1608. Unlike Spanish and English who were colonizing the East Coast, the French rarely settled permanently and instead of demanding land, they just traded for furs trapped by Native Americans. This is why French had better relations w the natives and their settlements grew more slowly (ex. New France whose population was 70,000 while English colonies included 1 million Europeans) English Exploration: In 1947, English king sent John Cabot to America to look for a northwest passage. He claimed lands but English didn't have sea power to defend themselves against Spanish naval forces. In 1588, however, the English defeated and destroyed all but 1/3 of the Spanish Armada and declared itself a major naval power and competed for lands and resources in Americas. English established colony in a land called Virginia when the French were founding Quebec. They built a settlement called Jamestown which was England's first successful colony in the Americas and one of the earliest colonies in the United States. Dutch Exploration: In 1609, Dutch sent Henry Hudson to explore and attempt to find a northwest passage. Although he didn't find the northwest passage, he claimed the Hudson River Valley and the island of Manhattan for the Dutch where a community called New Amsterdam was settled on the tip of this island (now day NYC). New Amsterdam prospered bc it was located where a major river flowed into the ocean and proved to be an important node in the Dutch transatlantic trade network. Dutch merchants bought furs from the north, purchased crops from the south (especially tobacco from Virginia planters) and sent goods to Netherlands for manufactured goods they could sell throughout colonial North America.

Spain's rivals in Europe also explored and claimed regions in the Americas. French, English, and Dutch explorers looked for a northwest passage: a route through/around North America that would lead to East Asia and precious trade in spices and luxury goods. How did this exploration go? (1450-1750)

Glorious Revolution or the Bloodless Revolution

Struggles for power took place within England as well. In 1685, James II became king. James was Catholic, and his anti-Protestant measures enraged many English people. A group of nobles invited William of Orange, who was James's nephew and son-in-law, to invade England with an army and become the new king. He agreed, landing in England in 1688. James fled to France. In 1689, William and his wife Mary II (James's daughter) began their joint rule of England. Both William and Mary were Protestant, and the English throne remained in Protestant hands after that (1450-1750)

Whether a secular (non-religious) leader, rather than pope could invest bishops w symbols of office. Resolved w Concordat of Worms of 1122 when Church achieved autonomy from secular authorities. Holy Roman Empire remained vibrant until it was virtually destroyed during the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). Lingered on but w very little power and came to a formal end when French leader Napoleon Bonaparte invaded central Europe in 1806

The German king Otto I was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 962 and his successors survived the power struggle w the papacy over lay investiture controversy of the 11th and 12th. What was this dispute over and when was it resolved? How long did the Holy Roman Empire last? (1200-1450)

Black Death killed 1/3 of the population in Europe. W fewer workers, agricultural production continued its decline but the reduced number of workers led to a new relationship between workers and those they worked for: peoples' labor became more valuable so workers demanded higher wages which laid the groundwork for economic changes that developed as feudalism declined. Black Death also led to similar loss of life in other areas including Africa, China, and Central Asia. South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa spared bc of very few trading ports.

The Mongol conquests helped transmit fleas that carried the bubonic plague (Black Death) from southern China all the way to Europe. Some historians believe that caravanserai that housed people and animals may have contributed since animals likely carried infected fleas. What was the impact of the Black Death? (1200-1450)

Steel production, oil which allowed for developments like precision machinery and internal combustion engine which then led to automobile and airplane technologies, electricity as electrical generators were produced which then led to street lighting and electric street trains, and communication tech like telephone from Alexander Graham Bell and radio from Gugliemo Marconi.

The United States, Great Britain, and Germany were key players in what is known as the second industrial revolution, which occurred in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The innovations of the first industrial revolution were in textiles, steam power, and iron. What inventions categorized the second industrial revolution?

Utopian Socialism

The economic and political theory of socialism refers to a system of public or direct worker ownership of the means of production such as the mills to make cloth or the machinery and land needed to mine coal. _____ ______ felt that society could be channeled in positive directions by setting up ideal communities. By the mid-20th century, socialist principles would influence most of Western Europe (1750-1900)

Count di Cavour

The so-called brains of Italian unification. Conservative Prime minster of Piedmont-Sardina whose political skill unified Italy under his King Victor Emanuel. To aid the unification effort, Cavour adopted the radical romantic revolutionary philosophy of Giuseppe Mazzini, who had been agitating for Italian resurgence (Risorgimento) since early in the nineteenth century.

Missionary activity was an important factor in the decline in practice of local religions in places like Sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and East Asia. In South Asia: converts to Islam increased due to military invasions by Islamic armies from Central Asia but Hinduism remained predominant in South Asia which led to periods of conflict and tolerance btwn followers of Islam and Hinduism on this sub-continent.

The spread of major religions (Islam, Buddhism, and Christianity) resulted in influence of religion over wide areas w each religion urging followers to convert non-believers. Trade networks in the Indian Ocean, South China Sea, East and Central Asia, and across the Sahara Desert helped spread religions as commercial activity increased. What effect did this have? (1200-1450).

Theravada Buddhism (focused on personal spiritual growth through silent meditation and self-discipline. Strongest in Southeast Asia), Mahayana Buddhism (focused on spiritual growth for all beings and on service. Strongest in China and Korea), Tibetan Buddhism (focused on chanting. Strongest in Tibet) (All 3 include a belief in Four Noble Truth which stressed idea that personal suffering could be alleviated by eliminating cravings/desires and following Buddhist precepts. Also embrace Eight-Fold Path, the precepts that can lead to enlightenment/nirvana ex right speech)

What are the three forms of Buddhism which shaped Asia? (1200-1450)

By late 15th century, Aztec Empire was in decline bc of low level of tech (ex. lack of wheeled vehicles and pack animals) which made agriculture arduous and inefficient. Aztecs' commitment to military victory and constant desire for more human sacrifices made leadership expand beyond what it could govern. Extraction of conquered people's tribute and sacrifice led to resentment which meant tribes ruled by Aztecs were ready to rebel if they had the opportunity which arrived w the Spaniards in 1519

What caused Aztec's decline? (1200-1450)

Conflicts with nomadic groups in Central Asia (Seljuk Turks, Mongols) like the Chinese, but unlike the Chinese, they also confronted European invaders (crusaders)

What challenges did the Abbasid Empire confront between 1100s and 1200s?

His famous work The Spirit of Laws (1748) praised British government's use of checks on power bc of its Parliament. This influenced American system which adopted his ideas by separating executive branch, legislative branch, and judicial branch

What did Baron Montesquieu believe in and how did that influence other states? (1750-1900)

proto-industrialization (a set of economic changes in which people in rural areas made more goods than they could sale. Relied on home-based/community-based production w simple equipment unlike later industrialization which featured large-scale production in factories using complex machinery. Ex. artisans/skilled craftworkers producing steel and other products under imperial supervision)

What did China experience under the Song Dynasty (1200-1450)

bureaucracy (continuity since Qin dynasty but expanded under Song dynasty), meritocracy and the civil service exam (Emperor Song Taizu expanded educational opportunities of young men of lower economic classes. By scoring well, a young man could obtain a highly desired job in bureaucracy and exams were based on knowledge of Confucian texts. However by end of Song, bureaucracy grew so large that it contributed to empire's weakness bc by creating so many jobs and paying officials good, Song increased costs of government to point where they dried up China's surplus wealth)

What did China's Song dynasty have that was so unique? (1200-1450)

Confucian traditions both respected and expected deference from women

What did Confucian traditions think of women? (1200-1450)

Frequent wars ex. In conflict btwn Lutherans and Holy Roman Empire resulted in 1555 Peace of Augsburg which allowed German states to choose whether its ruler would be Catholic/Lutheran. Churches and inhabitants were forced to practice the state religion and people who refused could move to another state where their preferred religion was practiced. In France, Catholics and Huguenots fought for nearly half a century. In 1593, King henry IV who had been raised Protestant attempted to unify the country by becoming a Catholic and five years later, he issued Edic of Nantes which allowed Huguenots to practice their faith. Edict provided religious toleration in France for next 87 years. In 1685, Louis XIV of France issued Revocation of Edict of Nantes which led to social and economic effects ex. skilled craftsmen leaving France. Final great religious conflict btwn Catholics and Protestants in Europe culminated in the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) which led to economic catastrophe for most of the continent. Initially the result of religious conflict w/in Holy Roman Empire but gradually developed into a more general conflict w European powers. War resulted in widespread famine, starvation, and disease and culminated the Peace of Wesstphalia which allowed each area of Holy Roman Empire to choose Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, or Calvinism. Allowing rulers of various areas of the Holy Roman Empire to choose a denomination had effects like giving countries and duchies more autonomy

What did Europe's religious divisions lead to? (1450-1750)

Argued that social contract implied right and responsibility of citizens to revolt against an unjust government. Believed that ppl had natural rights to life, liberty, and pursuit of property. Also emphasized that environment and education shaped people instead of just ancestry

What did John Locke believe? (1750-1900)

He wanted to divorce his wife since his wife kept giving birth to daughters while he wanted a male heir to succeed him. Pope refused which led Henry w the approval of the English Parliament setting himself up as the head of the new Church of England/Anglican Church which was free of pope control

What did King Henry VII form and why? (1450-1750)

a very direct relationship with China

What did Korea's location cause? (1200-1450)

Significant intellectual innovations and transfers (ex. House of Wisdom in Abbasid Baghdad, preservation and commentaries on Greek moral and natural philosophy, and scholarly and cultural transfers in Muslim and Christian Spain)

What did Muslim states and empires encourage? (1200-1450)

People's natural state was to live in a bleak world where life was "nasty, brutish, and short." By agreeing to a social contract, ppl gave some rights to a strong central government in return for law and order

What did Thomas Hobbes believe? (1750-1900)

Voltaire lived in England due to exile for 3 years and appreciated its constitutional monarchy and regard for civil rights. He then brought these ideas back to France where he campaigned for religious liberty and judicial reform. His idea of religious liberty influenced the US Constitution. He is best known for his social satire Candide (1762)

What did Voltaire do and believe in? (1750-1900)

The defensive walls used to protect cities. By end of 13th century, massive wall of stone (30 ft tall x 15 ft thick) surrounded capital city and became known as Great Zimbabwe. Stone wall was 1st large one on the continent that people built w/o mortar. Inside wall, most of royal city's buildings were made of stone however over grazing damaged surrounding environment so residents of bustling capital city (nearly 20,000 in late 15th century) abandoned it by end of 1400s.

What did Zimbabwe's rise and decline reflect? (1200-1450)

Since 8th century, Abbasids were an important link connecting Asia, Europe, and North Africa with goods flowing from one region to another on trade routes controlled by Abbasids w many going through Baghdad. However, trade patterns slowly shifted to routes farther north and Baghdad lost its traditional place at the center of trade and lost wealth and population which caused Baghdad to fall into decay

What did economic competition do to Baghdad and provide context? (1200-1450)

larger and more complex states (ex. trade in Sahara resulted in West African empires of Ghana and Mali)

What did growth of regional trade produce in parts of Africa and Southeast Asia? (1200-1450)

Increases in population put pressure on resources. Ex. overgrazing outside of Great Zimbabwe so severe that people had to abandon the city in late 1400s. In feudal Europe, overuse of farm land and deforestation led to soil erosion which reduced agricultural production. Little Ice Age also contributed to decrease in agricultural products. Environmental degradation was also a factor in the decline of the Mayans.

What did increases in population (new foods that spread across trade routes led to increase) lead to? (1200-1450)

ill-treated poor who lived in tenements in slums where diseases spread quickly and had to send their children to work since wages were low; women in this class worked in coal mines but were primary laborers in textile factories, new middle class grew which had access to goods, housing, culture, and education (white-collar); women were primarily housewives, industrialists and owners of large corporations were at the top and these so-called captains of industry soon overshadowed the landed aristocracy as power brokers and leaders of modern society. Burning of coal led to toxic air pollution and deadly respiratory problems. Water also became polluted as new industries dumped waves into streams, rivers, and lakes

What did industrialization lead to?

Embarked on Counter-Reformation to fight against attacks which allowed it to remain the largest Christian denomination in the world. The Church increased the use of Inquisition which had been established in late 12th century to root and punish nonbelievers, Jesuits were also opposed to Protestantism and undertook missionary activity throughout Spanish Empire, Japan, and India, and the Council of Trent corrected some of the worst of the Church's abuses and reaffirmed rituals like marriage.

What did the Roman Catholic Church (all-powerful in Europe since fall of Rome) do in response to Reformation groups? (1450-1750)

Living standards rose, there was more advertising as consumption needed to keep up w production, leisure activities became popular as middle class had some disposable income, companies encouraged workers to participate in athletics which led to popularization of sports, and commercialization of demand for public culture was seen in construction of music halls and public parks where diff social class mingled.

What happened as a result of consumerism that developed among working and middle class of society in Great Britain?

Many new states adopted Abbasid practices but were distinct ethnically. (Abbasid Caliphate led by Arabs and Persians but later Islamic states were shaped by Turkic people descended from those in Central Asia ex. Mamluks in North Africa, Seljuks in Middle East, and Delhi Sultanate in South Asia all at least partially Turkic. By 16th century three large Islamic states had roots in Turkic cultures: Ottoman Empire in Turkey, Safavid Empire in Persia, and Mughal Empire in India) Islamic states continued to form a cultural region. Trade spread new goods and great ideas and common use of shariah created similar legal systems. Great universities in Baghdad, Spain, Egypt, etc. created centers for sharing intellectual innovations

What happened as the Islamic world became politically fragmented? (1200-1450)

Larger cities and urban growth. Agricultural surplus from three-field system and other advances in agriculture encouraged growth of towns and markets which operated more frequently than just holidays. Demand for labor on manors increased and supply decreased. Series of severe plagues swept through Eurasia in 14th century and an outbreak of bubonic plague aka Black Death killed as much as 1/3 of the population. Growing demand for labor and deaths of many allowed serfs bargaining power w the lords. Urban growth hampered after 1300 by five-century cooling of climate known as Little Ice Age which meant ppl had less to trade as lower temperatures reduced agricultural productivity, there was an increase in disease and unemployment which led to increased crime.

What happened due to renewed commerce? (1200-1450)

The Christian Church in Europe split into two branches which was called the Great Schism. The Roman Catholic Church dominated most of Europe for another five centuries while the Orthodox Church was powerful east from Greece to Russia. Roman Catholic Church was the most powerful institution in Europe as Church staff were the only ones who could read and write in the community and if common people needed something read/written they would ask a Church official. Christianity helped provide people a shared identity. The Church also established the first universities in Europe which meant most thinkers in the Middle Ages were religious thinkers since Church led the area of education. Artists worked for the church and most focused on religious themes which provided images to help illiterate serfs understand the Bible. The Church also had great power in the feudal system and if a lord displeased the Church, it could pressure the lord in various ways ex. local bishop might cancel religious services for his serfs which angered the serfs to demand that the lord give in to the bishop. The Roman Catholic Church also had an extensive hierarchy of regional leaders; the regional religious leaders were called bishops and owed allegiance to the pope. Monasteries had the same economic functions of agriculture and protection as other manors and women could become nuns and exert their influence in monasteries of the Catholic church. The clergy took vows of poverty and supported charities in their communities but also wielded big political influence which allowed some monasteries to become wealthy. Wealth and political power led to corruption during 13th and 14th centuries which drove reformers like Martin Luther to take stands that shattered the unity of the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th century

What happened in 1054 and what did it lead to? Explain why the Roman Catholic Church was so powerful in Europe (1200-1450)

Monarchies grew more powerful at expense of feudal lords by employing their own bureaucracy and military. Employees worked directly for the king/queen (In contrast, in modern countries like US: bureaucrats and soldiers work for the country not the chief executive). Lands monarchs collected under control like England began to look like modern countries of Europe

What happened in the later middle ages in accordance to political trends? (1200-1450)

Delhi Sultanate (13th-16th century). Some Hindus converted to Islam but others resented Muslims and considered them foreigners (one factor contributing to resentment was Delhi Sultanate imposing a tax called jizya on all non-Muslim subjects of the empire).

What happened when Islamic forces were able to conquer the city of Delhi and much of the northern portion of South Asia and what was this reign called? (1200-1450)

Poetry of Lal Ded aka Mother Lalla (born in Kashmir, a region of northern India. While Hindu, emphasis on experience appealed to many Muslims especially Sufis)

What illustrated a major cross-interaction between religious traditions which shaped the history of Southeast and Southern Asia? (1200-1450)

These mechanizations doomed the household textile cottage industry since textile production was moved to factories big enough to house these bulky machines

What impact did the spinning jenny (allowed weavers to spin more than one thread) and the water frame (used waterpower to drive the spinning wheel), which reduced time needed to spin yarn and weave cloth, have?

Transformation to a trade-based economy using gold and silver. Commercial Revolution affected the whole world and resulted from factors like development of European overseas colonies, opening of new trade routes, population growth, and inflation caused by increased amount of gold and silver mined and placed in circulation and pressure of increasing population. High rate of inflation in 16th and 17th century was called the Price Revolution. Joint-stock companies also appeared which were owned by investors who bought stocks or shares in them. It offered limited liability (investor wasn't responsible besides amount of investment) and allowed shared profits. Developing middle class had capital to invest from successful businesses and also had money to purchase imported luxuries. Dutch, English, and French all developed joint-stock companies in 17th century, included British East India Company in 1600 and Dutch East India Company (made enormous profits in Spice Islands and Southeast Asia) in 1602. However in Spain and Portugal, government still did most of the investing itself through grants to certain explorers. Results in joint-stock companies differed from Dutch and France + England. Dutch prospered and had highest standard living in Europe while France + England fell victim to speculative financial schemes in 18th century. Known as financial bubbles, schemes were based on sale of shares to investors who were promised a certain return on investment. Frenzy drove up price of shares and when the bubble burst, investors lost huge amounts of money

What is the Commercial Revolution, how was it started, and how did it affect European states?

Sometime before 1000 in now day Nigeria, ppl of Hausa ethnic group formed seven states called Hausa Kingdoms which were loosely connected through kinship ties but had no central authority. People established city-states (like Mayans) each w own specialty (ex. several in plains where cotton grew well). Though region lacked access to the sea, contact w people from outside region was important and many Hausa benefited from trans-Saharan trade (network of trading routes across the great desert). A state on the western edge of region specialized in military matters and defended the states against attack but bc states lacked a central authority, they were frequently subject to domination from outside. In 14th century, missionaries introduced Islam to the region

What is the Hausa Kingdoms and give context (1200-1450)

Europe in c. 1200 was an area of decentralized feudal kingdoms w little contact w the rest of the world beyond the manor while Europe in c. 1450 was a region of agricultural abundance, growing towns and cities, increasing trade with other parts of the world, growing commerce, and centralizing states

What is the difference between Europe in c. 1200 and Europe in c. 1450?

Crusades; To acquire them, they organized trade of European resources. In 13th century, cities in northern Germany and Scandinavia formed commercial alliance called Hanseatic League and by controlling trade in the North and Baltic Sea, members of the league like Hamburg were able to drive out pirates and monopolize trade in goods like timber, grain, leather, and salted fish. League ships left Baltic and North Sears, rounded the Atlantic Coast of Western Europe, proceeding to the ports of Mediterranean where they picked up valuable goods from Arab caravans. League lasted until mid-17th century when national governments became strong enough to protect merchants

What led to Europeans' interest in foreign goods from Asia and how did they acquire them? (1200-1450)

Philosophes ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity were popularized in Europe. France spent too much on wars ex. supplying Americans in their revolution. In order to address, government called meeting of Estates-General (clergy, nobility, and commoners) in spring 1789 but inequality in voting caused commoners (97% of French society) to break away and from the National Assembly. National Assembly met in Paris but king threatened to arrest leaders. Angry crowds then rioted in Paris and elsewhere in France and on July 14, 1789 (French Independence Day), a crowd in Paris stormed Bastille, a former prison that symbolized abuses of monarchy and corrupt aristocracy. Some royal officials, peasants rose up against nobles in the country side, and the king was eventually forced to accept a new government w a National Assembly in charge. Declaration of the Rights of Man which declared basic human rights and abolition of feudalism were enacted early in the revolution. When Louis XIV and nobility refused to accept limited monarchy, there was dissatisfaction among radical groups like Jacobins and inspired establishment of First French Republic in 1792. Reign of Terror was when government executed thousands of opponents of the revolution, including the king and queen. This sprang from Jacobins. After turmoil and war, general Napoleon Bonaparte became emperor of France in 1804

What led to the French Revolution and give key events.

Despite Kublai Khan's adoption of many Chinese customs, Mongolian leaders eventually alienated many Chinese and hired foreigners for the government rather than native-born Chinese. Bc of promotion of Buddhists and Daoists and dismantling of the civil service exam system, the Mongols distressed the Chinese scholar-gentry class who were often Confucians. Although there was a policy of tolerance, Mongolians tended to remain separate from Chinese and prohibited non-Mongols from speaking Mongolian. Like Batu reaching limit of Mongol expansion to the west, Mongolian rulers of China failed to expand beyond China (ex. Japan, Indochina, Burma, and island of Java). Defeats suggested to the upset Chinese population that Mongols weren't as fearsome as they once had been. In 1350s, secret White Lotus Society organized to put an end to the Yuan Dynasty. In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang, a Buddhist monk from a poor peasant family, led a revolt that overthrew the Yuan Dynasty and found the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). Mongols' defeat in China paralleled general decline in power elsewhere and the empire began to shrink. Golden Horde lost its territory about 1369 while Central Asian territories conquered by Tamerlane at around the same time.

What led to the Mongols losing power? (1200-1450)

Commerce

What powered the golden age of natural and moral philosophy during dar-al-Islam? (1200-1450)

China's native traditions ex. Confucianism (but Buddhism had a strong presence and many Confucians adopted ideals into daily life)

What religion did the Song Dynasty prefer to emphasize? (1200-1450)

emergence of Mongols (a group of nomads from central Asia that conquered lands from central Europe to Pacific Ocean and created largest land empire in human history)

What shaped the context for events throughout Eurasia between 1200 and 1450?

Portugal since interests of the state and explorers were closely tied. Portugal could also only expand overseas since it was bounded by Spanish kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. The people who led these explorations were Prince Henry the Navigator who was the first European monarch to sponsor seafaring expeditions to search for an all-water route to the east as well as for African gold, Bartholomew Diaz who sailed around the tip of Africa: the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, and Vasco de Gama who landed in India which was a key step to expanding Portugal's trade in the Indian Ocean. Portuguese built forts stretching from Hormuz to Malay which allowed it to become a global trading empire based on small outputs and also restricted Indian Ocean trade to those who were willing to buy permits. Aims of forts were to establish a monopoly over the spice trade. Although Portuguese succeeded in global trade for several decades, it was a small nation that lacked workers and ships necessary for enforcement of a large trade empire. Many Portuguese also ignored government and traded independently and corruption was also prevalent. By 17th century, Dutch captured Malacca and built a fort at Batavia in Java in 1620 where it attempted to monopolize the spice trade while the English focused on India and pushed the Portuguese out of South Asia.

What state led the way in European exploration and why? Explain what happened after as well. (1450-1750)

Were Muslims, descended from Turkic nomads that once lived in Central Asia, spoke a Turkic language, took advantage of power vacuums left by breakup of Mongol khanates, and relied on gunpowder weapons like artillery and cannons. Initial success was the result of their own military might along w weakness and corruption of the regimes that they replaced.

What traits did the warrior leaders of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires share? (1450-1750)

Decentralized political organization based on a system of exchanges of land for loyalty known as feudalism. Bc of lacking of a strong government, people needed protection from bandits, rival lords, and invaders like Vikings from northern Europe. Feudalism was a system of mutual obligations: monarch granted land called fiefs to lords and in return, a lord became a king's vassal (owed service to the king), lords then provided land to knights and in return knights became vassals of the lord and pledged to fight for the lord or king, lords also provided land and protection to peasants and in return, peasants were obligated to farm lord's land, provide lord w crops and livestock, and to obey the lord's orders Feudalism provided security for peasants, equipment for warriors, and land to those who served a lord. Wealth was measured in land rather than cash since entire system was based on agricultural system. Feudal system incorporated a code of chivalry: written set of rules for conduct w honor, courtesy, and bravery and a way to resolve disputes. The code put women on a pedestal while not investing them w significant additional importance which meant women didn't have many rights

What was European civilization in the Middle Ages characterized by? (1200-1450)

Before arrival of Europeans in late 15th century, Aztec Empire in Mexico and Inca Empire in South America included 10 million-15 million ppl but collapsed when attacked by Spanish forces and European diseases. Cortés' forces overthrew Aztecs in 1521 w the help of groups that the Aztecs had conquered and established colony of New Spain. The Aztec's treasures were melted and the gold was sent back to Spain. They destroyed Tenochtitlán and built their own capital, Mexico City, on its ruins. Francisco Pizzaro attacked Inca and captrued their ruler Atahualpa and then killed him in 1553 despite the Inca fulfilling his command of filling a large room w gold. By 1572, Spaniards completed conquest of Inca Empire. In Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, Spain and Portugal divided Americas btwn them w Brazil under Portugal's rule while Spain claimed rest of the Americas. France and Britain vied for dominance in North America and British settlers formed ties w powerful Iroquois who had been in conflict w French over trade issues. However, Iroquois realized the British posed more of a threat than the French which led the Iroquois and French to sign a peace treaty known as Great Peace of Montreal in 1701. However, Britain ended up driving France out of India and Canada.

What was European presence in the Americas like? (1450-1750)

aristocracy, scholar gentry (bureaucratic expansion created new social class which outnumbered the aristocracy), farmers, artisans, merchants (low status reflected Confucian respect for hard work), peasants and urban poor (Song government provided aid to poor and established public hospitals for free care)

What was Song China's class structure? (1200-1450)

Each countries' relationship with China. Benefited from being close to China but faced challenges of maintaining own distinctive cultures and had to confront the issue of sinification (assimilation) of Chinese traditions and practices

What was an important dynamic to the histories of Japan, Korea, and Vietnam? What did these countries benefit from and what challenges did they have? (1200-1450)

Declined as Western Europe grew in strength economically and militarily, especially in sea power. Islamic empires didn't modernize but Russia did by modeling armies of England, France, and the Netherlands, which causes Gunpowder Empires to fall while Russia still remained powerful enough to survive as an independent nation-state. Weak leaders and corruption. Too much spending (ex. Safavids by luxury while Mughals by expansion)

What was common in the decline of the gunpowder empires (Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires)? (1450-1750)

Playing music, creating visual art, and telling stories (like culture everywhere bc they provided enjoyment and marked rituals like weddings). In Africa, these activities carried additional significance as song lyrics provided ways to communicate w spirit world while visual art commonly served a religious purpose. Artists in Benin and West Africa were famous for intricate sculptures in iron and bronze and in late 19th century, sophistication of these pieces of art caused Europeans to increase their respect for West African cultures

What was cultural life like in Sub-Saharan Africa? (1200-1450)

Extremely important and central to society. Aztecs worshipped hundreds of deities, many were considered to have both male and female aspects. Worship involved rituals and feast days as well as human sacrifices. Aztecs believed gods sacrificed themselves to create the world thus human sacrifice was atonement for human sin. Human sacrifice could've also had political component as it demonstrated might of Aztec empire. Much of the info of Aztec society came from Spanish invaders who may have exaggerated extent of human sacrifice in order to make Aztecs seem more deserving of conquest

What was religion like for the Aztecs? (1200-1450)

Islam prohibited Muslims from enslaving other Muslims or monotheists like Christians but permitted enslaving others. Muslims often imported enslaved people from Africa, Kievan Rus (present-day Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia), and Central Asia but institution of hereditary slavery didn't develop and many enslaved people converted to Islam which led to their owners freeing them. Enslaved women found themselves serving as concubines and were allowed more independence like going to markets than legal wives.

What was slavery like in Islam? (1200-1450)

Between 1337 and 1453, England and France fought series of battles. English archers armed w longbows helped win several early victories but by the end of the conflict, the English only retained the port of Calais in France. Important results of the war were how people saw themselves and how they fought: -On both sides, serving a monarch fostered a sense of unity among soldiers who spoke distinct languages/dialects. War marked step towards ppl identifying themselves as "English" or "French" instead of from a particular region like before -War also demonstrated the spreading use of gunpowder weapons (gunpowder invented by Chinese and spread west by Mongols)

What was the Hundred Years' War? (1200-1450)

Trade in enslaved ppl also played a role in exchanges in the Indian Ocean. While most Africans who were enslaved and transported to the Americas after 1500 came from west and central Africa, there had been a long-running slave trade in the eastern part of the continent. By routes over land/in the Indian Ocean, enslaved people from eastern Africa were sold to buyers in northern Africa, the Middle East, and India. Trade reached peak in 18th and 19th centuries. Enslaved ppl taken in Indian Ocean trade had different fates: more likely to provide forced labor in seaports/shipping industry and as household servants. They lived in towns and cities and had more opportunity to develop communities and to work alongside free laborers than those who were taken to the Americas. Enslaved ppl who ended in Islamic communities had certain rights like the right to marry. Bc of the Indian Ocean slave trade, African words, musical styles, and customs can be found in Oman, India, and elsewhere

What was the Indian Ocean slave trade and what was the result? (1200-1450)

city-state each ruled by a king and consisting of city and its surrounding territory. Most rulers were men but when no male heir was available/old enough, Mayan women ruled (gender balance?). Wars btwn city-states common but rarely fought to control territory. They fought to gain tribute (payments from conquered to the conqueror and captives were used as human sacrifices). Each Mayan king claimed to be descended from a god. Royal rule passed from father to son but kings who lost support of ppl were overthrown sometimes. Common ppl required to pay taxes (like other civilizations), usually in the form of crops and to provide labor to government. City-states didn't have standing armies so governments required citizens to provide military service in the case of war. No central government ruled all Mayan lands, although one city-state was usually strongest in the region and dominated its neighbors

What was the Mayan government like? (1200-1450)

In the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was no longer at the peak of its political power. However, it maintained some economic power. Sultan Mahmud II (ruled 1808-1839) reformed the Ottoman system. In 1826, he abolished the corps of Janissaries and abolished feudal system in 1831. Military officials could no longer collect taxes and tax collections went directly to central government which paid military personnel and ensured their loyalty. Mahmud's reforms also included building roads and setting up a postal service. Reorganization Reforms after Mahmud (during the years 1839-1876) are called Tanzimat (reorganization) and include the following changes: rooting out corruption in the central government, sultans created secular system of primary and secondary schools, sultans codified Ottoman laws and created new ones which made it easier for foreigners to do business in the empire, and updated the legal system in 1856 with Hatt-i Humayun which declared equality for all men in education, government appoints, and justice regardless of religion and ethnicity Ottoman workers were increasingly paid in cash rather than in goods. Financial enterprises such as banking increased. These economic changes occurred along with the slow spread of industrialization. The growth of industry affected men and women differently. For example, most new industrial jobs went to men. Legal reforms also benefited men more than women. Women also had rights taken away from Mahmud II's laws like the ending of the right of women to distribute their property or cash through trusts to family members. Tanzimat reforms of 1839 didn't even mention women. Sultan Abdulhamid took power in 1876 and drove advocates for reform known as "Young Turks" into exile as he feared "seditious" reforms.

What was the Ottoman Empire's response to industrialization?

In 1210, Genghis Khan and troops headed east and attacked powerful Jin Empire, which had been established by Jurchens a century earleir and ruled Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, and northern China. Genghis Khan earned reputation as terrifying warrior during this campaign (anyone who resisted was brutally killed). Sometimes Mongols wiped out civillian populations of entire towns after defeating their armies. Stories of brutality spread in advance of his new westward campaigns which caused some leaders to surrender before attack. In 1219, Khan conquered both Central Asian Kara Khitai Empire and Islamic Khwarazm Empire farther west. By 1227, Genghis Khan's khanate (kingdom) reached from North China Sea to eastern Persia

What was the beginning of Mongol conquest like? (1200-1450)

States in core areas of civilization grew larger while smaller states declined. Most of the world followed the same trend of building more centralized and powerful states. Differed place by place. For example Asia: military strength of Mongols created largest land-based empire in world history; West Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia: Islam was a key part in state-building; Europe: trade both internal and w more advanced civilizations of the Middle East had greater impact Another similarity was religion being a vital part. In order to unite diverse populations, empires and states often turned to religion in order to strengthen political control over territory ex. Through unifying power of shared beliefs and language (Arabic), Islam provided basis for legitimacy of rulers from West Africa to Southeast Asia

What was the common theme of state-building between 1200-1450? Give examples to how it differed.

Migrations of Bantu-speaking people outward from west-central Africa.

What was the development of Sub-Saharan Africa shaped by? (1200-1450)

Aztecs built tribute system (like Mayans) to insure dominance w conquered ppl forced to pay tribute (practical goods like food as well as luxury items like beads), surrender lands, an perform military service. Aztec allowed local rulers to stay in positions to serve as tribute collectors which allowed Aztec political dominance w/o direct administrative control and conquered ppl were extended Aztec protection in exchange. Aztecs grouped city-states into provinces and moved warriors + families to each province's capitals to ensure province remained under Aztec control + Aztec officials stationed at each capital for local official tribute collection. Had a theocracy government, which is rule by religious leaders. Top was emperor aka Great Speaker, who was both political leader and divine rep of gods, next was land-owning nobles (like Mayans except these formed majority of Aztec military leadership), then scribes and healers, then craftspeople and traders, then peasants and soldiers. Aztecs could also be enslaved usually bc of crimes/not paying debts. Enslaved people also offered as sacrifices for religious ceremonies

What was the government, economy, and society of the Aztecs like? (1200-1450)

Violent but created dynamic developments in religious thought, politics, economics, art, and architecture.

What was the interaction between Hindus and Muslims like? (1200-1450)

Mongol Empire was largest continuous land empire in history. During Pax Mongolica (c.1250-c.1350), Mongols revitalized interregional trade btwn Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe. Mongols built a system of roads and continued to maintain and guard the trade routes. Interregional cultural exchange also occurred as Islamic scientific knowledge made its way to China and paper from China made possible the revolution in communication powered by the Gutenberg printing press. Mongols transferred Greco-Islamic medical knowledge and Arabic numbering system to Western Europe Mongol conquests helped transmit fleas that carried the bubonic plague since it followed familiar paths of trade and military conquest Mongols ruled successfully due to their understanding of centralized power, a capacity that would transfer in many cases to the occupied civilizations. Mongols devised and used a single international law for all conquered territories. After Mongol decline in power, kingdoms and states of Eurasia continued to copy the process of centralizing power Mongol fighting techniques led to end of Western Europe's use of knights in army. (heavily clad knights couldn't react in time to Mongols' use of speed and surprise) Era of the walled city in Europe also came to an end, as walls proved useless against the Mongols' siege tech ex. cannon.

What was the long-term impact of Mongolian invasions? (1200-1450)

Large fiefs/estates referred to as manors. The manorial system provided economic self-sufficiency and defense. The manor produced everything that people living on it required which limited need for trade/contact w outsiders which meant serfs spent their entire life on a single manor. Manor grounds were small villages which often had a church, blacksmith shop, mill, homes of serfs, and wine presses. Although serfs weren't enslaved, they were tied to their land which meant they couldn't travel/marry w/o the lords' permission. In exchange for protection provided by the lord of the manor, they paid tribute in the form of crops, labor, or coins in rare cases. Children born to serfs also became serfs. When climate and technology improved, amount of arable land increased and agriculture was even more efficient by the end of the Middle Ages. The three-field system where crops were rotated through three fields came to into use (one field: provided foods like wheat/rye; second planted legumes like peas, lentils, beans which made soil fertile by adding nitrogen; third field was unused each year) Technological developments included windmills and new types of plows which promoted population growth

What was the manorial system and what did it provide? (1200-1450)

Song Dynasty in China (latest in series of states which ruled China and also in Mesoamerica, rise of Aztec was influenced by an earlier empire under Mayans like China)

What was the most innovative and wealthiest empire between 1200 and 1450?

The sun god Inti was most important of Incan gods (fun fact: Inca means "people of the sun"). Like Aztecs and Mayans to some extent (deity representation), Inca rulers considered to be Inti's representative on earth. As the center of two critical elements in Incan religion (honoring of the sun and royal ancestor veneration: practice intended to extend rule of a leader by mummifying dead rulers who continued to "rule" as they had in life and were thought to retain ownership of servants, possessions, and property. Incan rulers couldn't inherit land/property upon assuming power which helped motivate constant expansion of the empire), Temple of the Sun in Cuzco formed core of Incan religion. Priests consulted before important actions (Mayans and Incans particularly very focused on religion). To the Inca, gods controlled all things and priests could determine gods' will by studying arrangement of coca leaves in a dish or by watching movement of a spider (in contrast, Mayans focused on astrology for will of gods). Priests diagnosed illnesses, predicted outcome of battles, solved crimes, and determined sacrifices. Serious events like famines led to human sacrifices but scholars didn't believe human sacrifice was practiced as frequently as Aztecs. Inca religion also included animism (belief that elements of the physical world could have supernatural powers).

What was the religion of Incans like? (1200-1450)

Played an important role in Aztec tribute system as they wove valuable cloth which local rulers demanded as part of regular tribute. As demand for cloth tribute increased, Aztec husband could obtain more than one wife to pay for tribute. Most Aztec women worked in homes but some became priestesses, midwives, healers, or merchants. A few noblewomen also worked as scribes for female members of royal families which meant a few women knew how to read/write

What was the role of women like in Aztec society? (1200-1450)

Social hierarchy in Moscow almost static like in Kievan Russia earlier. Noble landowning class: boyars, merchants, and peasants (most numerous). Eventually the peasants sank more into debt and became serfs: peasants who received a plot of land and protection from a noble. Serfs bound to the land and transfers of land ownership to another noble included control of serfs on the land

What was the social hierarchy in the Russian Empire like? (1450-1750)

It was located on the Atlantic Ocean w its many seaways which made it well placed to import raw materials and export finished goods, was located on immense coal deposits which was vital to industrialization because when burned, it could power the steam engine, it had resources from its colonies, including timber for ships, abundant rivers which made transport of raw materials and finished goods inexpensive, had the world's strongest fleet of ships, legal protection of private property which gave entrepreneurs assurance that businesses they created/built up couldn't be taken away, and growing population and urbanization.

What were Britain's industrial advantages?

Portuguese used military superiority to take control of trade and created a string of armed trading posts along trade routes of the Indian Ocean but merchants in the Indian Ocean network still paid for rights to use certain ports/passageways and developed trade links through traditional networks. Spanish established encomienda in the Americas to gain access to gold and other resources. Encomenderos/landowners compelled indigenous ppl to work for them in exchange for food and shelter like serfs in Europe's manorial system. Coercive labor system was known for brutality. Hacienda system also arose when landowners developed agriculture on their lands and they used coerced labor to work on fields. Most conquistadores were men and had children w native women which made Spanish colonies unlike British colonies. Discovery of silver in Mexico and Peru revived economic fortunes for both individual explorers and Spain. Use of mercury to separate silver from ore increased profitability. For this industry to flourish, Spanish prospectors needed labor and indigenous population would do all but the most dangerous work in mines. In response, Spanish authorities in Peru transformed og Incan mit'a system of labor obligation (young men required to devote certain amount of labor to public works projects) into a coerced labor systems. Villages compelled to send percentage of male population to do dangerous work in mines. Silver trade strengthened Spanish economy. European powers at the time were adopting mercantilism, an economic system that increased government control of the economy through high tariffs and establishment of colonies.

What were changes and continuities in economic systems? (1450-1750)

Exportation of enslaved people caused century-long decline in population in African home countries, slavery resulted in a migration of status: free person to enslaved, and set up social classes that remained influential post-slavery, disrupted family organization as more men were taken than women and polygyny (more than one wife) became more common, and people with African roots helped shape and enrich language and culture of societies into which they had been brought. Mixing of ethnic groups resulted in new groups of multiracial ppl like mestizos and mulattos

What were demographic, social, and cultural changes due to growth of plantation economy and expansion of slavery in the Americas? (1450-1750)

Flow of wealth into Europe expanded middle class and provided capital that would lead to the Industrial Revolution but huge amounts of gold and silver circulation would cause inflation, regional markets in Europe, Africa, and Asia continued to prosper, and funding for arts increased as merchants and governments used sponsorship of arts to legitimize their rule.

What were effects of the new global economy? (1450-1750)

Women found rights eroding as a wave of patriarchal thinking and writing accompanied the movement from an agricultural society to a urban one. Even fewer women than men received education even tho women often managed manor accounts. One place where women had greater opportunities to display skills in leadership was religious orders. Some women became artisans and members of guilds (craftspeople and merchants) although not all had property rights. Women in Islamic societies tended to enjoy higher levels of equality especially in Africa and Southeast Asia)

What were gender roles like in Europe? (1200-1450)

Context of regional trade (which had been increasing since 600)

What were large empires around the world shaped by between 1250 and 1450? (1200-1450)

Like other powers, China under the Qing Dynasty felt pressure to modernize. Its major reform effort of the late 19th century was known as the Self-Strengthening Movement. It developed as a way for the government to face the internal and external problems confronting China. French and British advisors helped Chinese reform efforts. As another step toward reform, the Chinese government set up its own diplomatic corps and a customs service to help collect taxes on imports and exports. The government's strategy was to graft some modern ideas and technology onto Chinese tradition rather than to create major change. Demand for reform increased after China's defeat in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895). Kang Youwei convinced Emperor Guangxu to set up Hundred Days of Reform but Empress Dowager Cixi, the emperor's aunt and adopted mother was conservative and imprisoned the emperor and repealed reform edicts. Eventually she realized the outdatedness of the civil service system and stopped it.

What were reform efforts like in China?

the Columbian Exchange and rise of maritime trading empires, increased agricultural productivity (agricultural revolution resulted in increased productivity in early 1700s. Crop rotation and seed drill increased food production), improved medical care (infant mortality rates declining and people living longer which allowed more people to work in factories and provide a market for manufactured goods), and greater individual accumulation of capital

What were some factors to the Industrial Revolution?

Like Europeans fought to drive Muslims out of Sicily and Spain, they also sought to reclaim control of the Holy Land, the region of Palestine in the Middle East which contained sites of spiritual significance to Jews, Christians, and Muslims. European Christians enjoyed access to these lands for centuries even after they came under the control of Muslims. Social and economic trends of the 11th century added pressure among Europeans to invade the Middle East (ex. Rules of primogeniture where the eldest son inherited the entire estate left a generation of younger sons w little access to wealth and land). Landed nobles saw this military campaign as a way to divert ambitions of restless nobles and unemployed peasants who pillaged the lands of neighboring lords. Merchants desired unfettered access to trade routes through the Middle East which led to the Crusades: a series of European military campaigns in the Middle East between 1095 and 1200s. Politics also shaped the conduct of Crusades as tensions btwn popes and kings strengthened the intention of the Roman Catholic Church to take control. THe Church used spiritual authority to recruit believers and said that they would reach heaven sooner if they joined a Crusade. Support also came from the Orthodox branch of Christianity as well and when the Orthodox patriarch at Constantinople heard of persecution of Christian pilgrims by Seljuk Turks, he appealed to Pope Urban II to retake the Holy Land from Islamic control

What were the Christian Crusades? Give context. (1200-1450)

Genghis Khan's governing differed from the way he made war. The period of Eurasian history btwn 13th and 14th centuries were called Pax Mongolica. Genghis Khan established capital at Karakorum and in the construction of this city and establishment of his government, he consulted w scholars and engineers of Chinese and Islamic traditions. Social policies of Genghis Khan were liberal for the day (ex. he instituted religious tolerance throughout the empire which was unusual in the 13th century). Genghis Khan's soldiers after warfare took charge of protecting the Silk Roads which made them safe for trade and ushering in the third golden age of the Silk Roads. New trade channels were also established btwn Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe. Those who survived the conquests by Mongols and descendants benefited from reinvigoration of trade routes which hadn't been used since Roman and Han empires. Genghis Khan's effort to unify his empire included directing a scribe captured in 1204 to adapt the Uyghur alphabet to represent Mongol. (although the system failed, the alphabet is still used in Mongolia today)

What were the Mongols at peace like? (1200-1450)

Genghis Khan's empire wouldn't have been possible without the skilled and fearsome soldiers under his campaign. Mongolian soldiers were strong riders and proficient with the short bow and were also highly disciplined and Genghis Khan developed an efficient command structure. To help w communication, a messenger force was created whose members rode for days w/o stopping and even slept on horses while still continuing to ride. W Genghis Khan's help, Mongolian armies developed special units that mapped terrain so they were prepared against attacks and knew which way to attack. Military strategies extended to surprise and craft. Ex. Mongol forces often deployed a band of warriors smaller than that of their enemy, retreated in defeat; usually, enemy forces pursued retreating Mongols who then amassed larger forces to confuse and outflank the enemy. When coming upon an enemy settlement, Genghis Khan sent a small group ahead to ask for surrender and if the enemy refused, he killed all aristocrats but recruited skilled peoples like miners and craftworkers for the Mongol Empire. Mongols also incorporated into their military the weapons and technology of their conquered peoples (ex. improved siege weapons from China and Persia like portable towers). Genghis Kahn created a type of pony express w oral messages to keep contact w the far reaches of the empire

What were the Mongols at war like? (1200-1450)

Merchants in some places also introduced crops where they had not grown before and these new crops often had an impact on land use and population growth and distribution. In some places, people found ways to sustain abundant production while in others, overuse of the land led to environmental degradation. Migration of crops is seen in examples like Champa rice which was offered to Chinese from Vietnam as tribute. Champa rice was drought-resistant, flood-resistant, and capable of yielding two crops a year and contributed to population growth in China. Champa rice was able to be grown in land that was once thought unusable for growing rice bc of terraced farming and paddies. As population of China grew, people migrated to cities. Bananas were introduced to Sub-Saharan Africa. This food led to a spike in population and allowed Bantu-speaking people to migrate where yams didn't easily grow. To grow bananas, farmers increased land for cultivation. Conquering of caliphs beyond Arabian Peninsula led to the spread of Islam, Arabic language, and cultivation of cotton, sugar, and citrus crops. From there, these new foods were available along trade routes ex. Samarkand which introduced these products from Southwest Asia to Europe. Europe's demand for sugar eventually became so high that it was a key factor in the massive use of enslaved people in the Americas in 1500s and after.

What were the agricultural effects of exchange networks? (1200-1450)

Creoles opposed Spain's mercantilism which required colonists to buy manufactured goods only from Spain and sell products only to Spain, wanted political power and resented that Spain gave important jobs to peninsulares, and Mestizos (half European half Indian) wanted political power. Creoles like Simón Bolívar, continued to push for Enlightenment ideals in Latin America. Bolívar was born in Venezuela in 1783 to a family whose ancestors had been village aristocrats in Spain. The family had grown very wealthy which allowed Bolívar to access wealth for revolutionary causes. After considerable military success in Latin America fighting the Spanish, his forces achieved the formation of a large area that he called Gran Colombia. He hoped it would become a federation similar to the United States, one based on Enlightenment ideals. He described himself as a liberal who believed in a free market and the abolition of slavery. Bolívar's goals and concerns for Latin America are outlined in his "Jamaica Letter" (1815). The new nations of Latin America suffered from the long wars of independence. Armies loyal to their generals led to the rise of the caudillos— strong, local leaders with regional power bases. Caudillos often disregarded representative forms of government and rule of law. Creoles formed powerful and conservative upper class as they had before wars and women were still unable to vote (continuity).

What were the causes and effects of Creole Revolutions in Latin America?

Spread of Islam led to even more connection between cities (Muslim Persians and Arabs were dominant seafarers that were instrumental in transporting goods. Ex. Calicut on the west coast of India became thriving centers for trade due to interactions w merchants in search of spices from southern India like merchants from Arabia and China), increased demand for specialized products w every region involved having something special to offer trading partners (ex. ivory from Swahili coastal cities of Mombasa, silks from China, horses from Southwest Asia), environmental knowledge like knowledge of the monsoon winds which allowed merchants to time voyages carefully depending on when favorable winds would come their way, advances in maritime tech like lateen sails which allowed ships to catch winds from multiple directions and stern rudder (invented by Chinese) which gave ships more stability and made them easier to maneuver (trade facilitated rapid spread of sailing tech), and growth of states which institutionalized revenue from trade ex. Malacca and depended on trade for wealth

What were the causes of expanded exchange in the Indian Ocean? (1200-1450)

diasporic communities (many Arab and East African merchants stayed in western Indian port cities permanently bc they married women they met there; thus those merchants from Dar al-Islam were the first to bring Islam to southern Asia through intermarriage), increased demand for products caused trade to expand but it resulted in long-lasting effects like producers finding ways to be more efficient and roles of the state increasing to oversee efforts at efficiency and to raise money through customs (taxes on imported goods) and fees for use of seaports ex. Gujarat (revenue from customs here was many times more than the entire worth of some European states), creation of Swahili city-states ex. Mombasa (traded ivory to Arab trading partners for Chinese porcelain), significant cultural transfers ex. Zheng He bringing giraffes and understanding of the world around them

What were the causes of expanded exchange in the Indian Ocean? (1200-1450)

Crusades helped pave way to expand networks of exchange as lords and armies brought back fabrics and spices from the east. China was eager for Europe's gold and silver while Europe had a growing want for silk, tea, and rhubarb. Rise of new empires like the Abbasid Empire helped revive the land route of the Silk Roads and sea routes in the Indian Ocean while the Mongol Empire unified the Silk Roads through their conquering which allowed it to be unified in a system under the control of an authority that respected merchants and enforced laws. Mongols improved roads and punished bandits which increased safety of travel on the Silk Road. New trade channels also established between Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe. Improvement of transportation also led to growth. Travelers on the Silk Roads learned that traveling with others in caravans was safer and also learned how to design saddles for camels which increased the weight of the load animals could carry. China also made advances in naval tech that allowed it to control sea-based trade routes in the South China Sea. During the Han Dynasty, Chinese scientists developed the magnetic compass and improved the rudder which aided navigation and ship control along the seas. Another example was the Chinese junk (also developed in Han Dynasty) which had multiple sails and was 3x the size of the typical Western European ship at the time. This ship was less likely to sink.

What were the causes of growth of the Silk Road? (1200-1450)

Powerful new trading cities emerged scattered across Afro-Eurasia. Trade provided setting for significant cross-cultural exchanges. As merchants and other travelers moved from place to place, they introduced religious beliefs like Islam and developments in technology like paper making and gunpowder to new communities. Among these transfers included rapid spread of deadly diseases like the bubonic plague

What were the consequences of trade? (1200-1450)

In some areas, new connections contributed to syncretic (Africans combined Christianity w West African religious traditions like dancing in the Americas ex. Vodun and roots for African American church in the US) belief systems and practices while in others, connections contributed to religious conflicts (split btwn Catholicism and Protestantism drove settlement of North America as ppl sought freedom to worship)

What were the effects of belief systems between hemispheres? (1450-1750)

Slowed population growth, trade competition led to violence among societies but made African slave-raiding kingdoms economically dependent on goods from Europe which made the societies slow to develop more complex economies where they produced their own goods and set the stage for European imperialism of the late 19th century, African societies conducted slave raids ex. Dahomey to become richer from selling captives to Europeans for guns which led to raiding societies becoming even richer since neighboring groups couldn't fight off slave raids without firearms and intergroup warfare became more bloodier and common, imbalance of gender distributions which led to raise in polygyny and forced women to assume duties that had been traditionally men's jobs, and spurred population growth through an improved diet as Columbian Exchange introduced new crops like maize which became staples in African diet.

What were the effects of the Atlantic slave trade? (1450-1750)

Knowledge of the world beyond Western Europe increased as Crusaders encountered both the Byzantine and Islamic cultures. Encounters also increased demand in Europe for newfound wares from the East. Because of global trade, Western Europeans also opened themselves to disease like the Black Death that broke out between 1347 and 1351. W drastically reduced populations, economic activity declined in Europe. Specifically, a shortage of ppl to work on land had lasting effects on the feudal system and exposure to new ideas from Byzantium and the Muslim world contributed to the Renaissance and subsequent rise of secularism

What were the effects of the crusades? (1200-1450)

Mining of silver sparked inflation in Spain which contributed to the downfall of the Spanish Empire, diseases like smallpox were spread through Spanish soldiers, conquistadores, indigenous population fell by more than 50 percent due to disease, livestock shared for example, Mesoamericans consumed little meat but when Western Hemisphere introduced wheat, grapes, pigs, and cows, they eventually became parts of the American diet, Europeans brought horses which transformed culture of American Indians living in the Plains region as they could hunt buffalo on horseback so efficiently that they had a surplus of food and gave them time for other pursuits like art and spirituality but competition and armed conflict among tribes increases w those having the most horses having the most power, Europeans took back maize, corn, potatoes, and cacao to their home countries which caused tremendous population growth in 16th and 17th centuries, coerced arrival of enslaved Africans to the Americas brought biological and demographic changes ex. okra and rice which happened bc of sugar cultivation and increased transatlantic slave trade bc sugar was so profitable

What were the effects to the Columbian Exchange? (1450-1750)

By 1871, two new powers, Italy and Germany, were on the international stage in an environment of competing alliances. Balance of power would be achieved briefly through these alliances, but extreme nationalism would lead to World War I. Although unified, poverty in Italy (more in south) led to considerable emigration in late 19th century, especially to US and Argentina

What were the global consequences of Italy and Germany being united?

Bc of the rising demand for luxury goods, there were efforts to make production more efficient ex. China went through a period of proto-industrialization as it sought to meet the demand for iron, steel, and porcelain. As amount of goods increased, volume of trade on maritime trade routes began to supersede that of the overland trade routes. Demand of labor rose along w growing demand for products (continuity as forms of labor from earlier periods continued ex. free peasant farmers, people forced to work to pay off debts, and slaves). Typical social structures during this period were defined by class or caste and societies w rare exceptions remained patriarchies. There were areas were women exercised more power and influence ex. Mongol Empire (women were more free than women in other parts of Afro-Eruasia). In Europe women worked as farmers and artisans and had their own guilds. In SE Asia, women were skilled in marketplace practices. Outside of these limited areas, women w/in other major regions still experienced far feweer opportunities and freedoms than men in virtually all aspects of life. Interconnectedness that led to vibrant economic and cultural exchange also led to steep population decline as the bubonic plague and other infectious diseases along the trade routes. Black Death contributed to decline of once-great cities like Constantinople. Changes in trade networks also led to development of educational in cities like Cairo. Political instability and increased agriculture strained the environment ex. soil erosion from deforestation forced populations to migrate to other areas.

What were the social implications of the networks of exchange (1200-1450)

Magnetic compass and astrolabe helped Europeans steer ships and figure out how far north/south they were from the equator. Cartography and knowledge of current and wind patterns improved navigation. Lateen sail was in a shape of a triangle and allowed the wind to be caught on both sides of the ship and travel in different directions and when combined w the square sail, sailors were able to travel successfully into large bodies of water including oceans which allowed for further expansion of the trade route. Results of combining navigational techniques was a rapid expansion of exploration and global trade w the only part not being affected was Polynesia bc it was was far removed from trading routes. Gunpowder from China also helped Europeans in their conquests abroad and sea pirates like Dutch pirates known as Sea Beggars. CONTINUITY: Islam continued to spread rapidly bc of the growth of the Abbasid Empire which was centered in Baghdad and activities of Muslim merchants

What were the technologies spread over cross-cultural interactions and how did they lead to changes? (1450-1750)

Sinhala dynasties in Sri Lanka had roots in arrival of early immigrants from north India. Buddhists arrived in 3rd century B.C.E which made the island a center of Buddhist study. Buddhism so embedded that Buddhist priests served as advisors to monarchs. Government of one of the kingdoms oversaw construction of a network of reservoirs and canals to create an excellent irrigation system which contributed to economic growth but attacks by invaders and conflicts btwn monarchy and priests ultimately weakened kingdoms. Khmer Empire (aka Angkor Kingdom: 802-1431) was situated near Mekong River and didn't depend on maritime prowess for power. Kingdom's complex irrigation and drianage system allowed economic prosperity and made it one of the most prosperous kingdoms in Southeast Asia. Irrigation allowed farmers to harvest rice crops several times a year and drainage systems reduced impact of heavy monsoon rains. Capital at Angkor Thom w temples there showing variety of Indian cultural influences on Southeast Asia w Hindu artwork and sculptures of deities abounding. At a point Khmer rulers became Buddhist and added Buddhist sculptures and artwork to temples w/o destroying any Hindu artwork btwn 12th and 13th centuries. In 1431, Thais of Sukhothai Kingdom invaded area and forced Khmers out but ruins still stand and prove a testament of powerful influence of Indian culture on region

What were two land-based kingdoms in Southeast Asia? (1200-1450)

After the death of Muhammad in 632, Islam spread rapidly outward from Arabia

When and where did Islam spread from? (1200-1450)

Tang Dynasty (7th century Buddhist monk Xuanzang helped build Buddhism's popularity)

When did Buddhism's popularity become widespread? (1200-1450)

8th to the 11th centuries; gold and ivory to Muslim traders in exchange for salt, copper, cloth, and tools; In Ghana's capital city, Koumbi Saleh, the king ruled a centralized government aided by nobles and an army equipped w iron weapons

When did Ghana reach its peak, what did they trade, and what was Ghana's government like? (1200-1450)

700s or 800s; Mississippian culture and they built enormous earthen mounds (tall as 100 ft and covered 12 football fields; largest is Cahokia in southern Illinois) unlike other cultures which built monumental buildings. Social structure w chiefs called Gret Sun ruling each town then priests & nobles then enslaved people. Women farmed and men hunted and had a matrilineal society (social standing determined by woman's side of the family). People abandoned Cahokia around 1450 and othe rlarge Mississippian cities by 1600. Historians disagreed on why Mississippian people moved w theories surrounding extreme weather like flooding causing crop failures while others suggested diseases introduced by Europeans

When did the first-scale civilization in North America first emerge and what was it called and how were they unique? Also give details to the decline (1200-1450)

rural areas but urban areas grew in prominence in Song Dynasty. At height of Song Dynasty, China was most urbanized land in the world w cities containing more than 100,000 ppl ex. Guangzhou

Where did people live in most of Chinese history and how did that change in Song Dynasty? (1200-1450)

Suffered different fates as ppl from the Indian Ocean region were more likely to work in seaports as laborers in the shipping industry, sailors, soldiers, and as household cities while ppl from Atlantic were confined to agricultural and dangerous mining work. Indian Ocean trade allowed people to live in towns or cities which allowed them to develop communities and to work alongside free laborers while Atlantic forced them onto an isolated plantation. Those who ended up in Islamic communities had rights like marrying. However, in both trades, African culture was spread.

While most Africans who were enslaved were transported to the Americas came from west and central Africa, there was a long-running slave trade over or in the Indian Ocean which enslaved East Africans and sold them to buyers in northern Africa, the Middle East, and India. Trade reached peak in 18th and 19th centuries. How did this trade differ from Atlantic? (1450-1750)

In the 12th century, the Mongols were multiple clans of pastoral nomads who herded goats and sheep and were also hunter-foragers, north of Gobi Desert in East Asia. Since life on the arid Asian steppes was harsh, it also shaped Mongol culture. Mongols expected everyone, male and female, to become skilled horse riders and valued courage in hunting and warfare. Mongols coveted relative wealth of tribes and kingdoms near the Silk Roads

Who are the Mongols and what were their ideals? (1200-1450)

In his book The Wealth of Nations (1776), he responded to mercantilism by calling for freer trade. He generally advocated for laissez-faire which meant that governments should reduce their intervention in economic decisions and that if businesses and consumers were allowed to make choices in their own interests, the "invisible hand of the market would guide them to make choices beneficial for society. His ideas provided foundation for capitalism, an economic system in which the means of production, ex. factories, are privately owned and are operated for profit.

Who is Adam Smith and what did he believe in? (1750-1900)

Mongol leader Temujin; born in 1162. Spent early decades of his life creating a series of tribal alliances and defeating neighboring groups one by one. Very focused on building power and was often ruthless. His name means ruler of all

Who is Genghis Khan? (1200-1450)

A scholar from Morocco on the NW coast of Africa who was well versed in Islamic law (shariah). Islamic governments in Mogadishu (east Africa) and Delhi (India) sought his advice and welcomed him to their lands. His travelogue demonstrated how Islam's phenomenal growth increased connections among cultures of Asia, Africa, and southern Europe. His accounts made it clear that African societies that had adopted Islam still kept many of their traditions

Who was Ibn Battuta? (1200-1450)

Son of Charles V who took over Spain in 1555 when he abdicated. He took Catholic Crusade to Netherlands and ruled its 17 provinces from 1556 to 1581 but when he attempted to conquer and convert England, his Spanish Armanda was defeated by English naval power in 1588

Who was Philip II and what did he do? (1450-1750)

King Philip II; The first Estates-General met during Philip IV's rule. The Estates-General was a body to advise the king that included representatives from each of the three legal classes/estates in France: clergy, nobility, and commoners. Estates-General had little power but clergy and nobility felt little responsibility to protect a government they weren't paying taxes for/financing which was a problem that continued to increase in France up to the eve of the French Revolution of 1789

Who was the first to develop a real bureaucracy in France? What was the Estates-General and during whose reign did they first meet? (1200-1450)

(AKA Mexicas) originally hunter-gatherers who migrated to central Mexico from the north in 1200s. In 1325, they founded capital Tenochtitlán on site of now Mexico City and over the next hundred years, they conquered surrounding peoples and created empire that stretched from Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean

Who were the Aztecs? (1200-1450)

Central Asian Muslims which conquered parts of Middle East starting in 11th century and extended power as far east as Western China. Seljuk leader called himself sultan which reduced the role of the highest-ranking Abbasid from caliph to chief Sunni religious authority

Who were the Seljuk Turks and how did they create challenge for the Abbasids? (1200-1450)

It was separated by sea rather than land. Japan's Prince Shotoku Taishi promoted Buddhism and Confucianism along with Japan's traditional Shinto religion and during this era, Japan learned how to woodblock print from China, Japan emulated Chinese traditions in politics, art, and literature during Heinan period, but Japanese writers also moved in new directions for example a Japanese writer composed the world's first novel

Why did Japan have more ability to control interactions with China? How did the impact of Chinese culture appear anyway? (1200-1450)

Sufis emphasized introspection to grasp truths which could not be understood through learning. They tended to adapt to local cultures and traditions, sometimes by interweaving local religious elements into Islam which helped win converts

Why did Sufi missionaries play such a large role in the spread of Islam? (1200-1450)

China enjoyed affluence, a well-educated populace, and extensive contact w foreign nations

Why did intellectual pursuits thrive during the Tang and Song eras? (1200-1450)

Shah Jahan's son and successor, Aurangzeb (ruled 1658-1707) inherited weakened empire from corruption and failure to keep up w military innovations of external enemies. However, Aurangzeb aspired to bring all of India under Muslim rule and wanted to rid emprire of Hindu forces. By expanding south, he drained empire's treasury to the point where he was unable to put down peasant uprisings which were sparked by Aurangzeb's insistence on Islamic lifestyle and intolerance of minority religions. Empire grew increasingly unstable after his death which allowed British and French to gain more economic power in India. In the 19th century, the British would take political power away from the Mughals.

Why did the Mughal Empire decline? (1450-1750)

In 1571, after Suleiman's death, a European force made up of mostly Spaniards and Venetians defeated Ottomans in naval conflict known as Battle of Lepanto. Also after Suleiman's reign, Ottomans fell to weak sultans and strong European neighbors. Successors to Suleiman were also often held hostage to "harem politics": the efforts of wives and concubines of the sultan to promote their own children as likely heirs to the thrown which allowed some women to become powerful behind the scenes. Failed Siege of Vienna in 1683 marked turning point in Ottoman domination in Eastern Europe. British and French involvement in Ottoman territories, Greece's independence in 1821, and Russian expansion in 19th century further weakened Ottoman Empire.

Why did the Ottoman Empire decline? (1450-1750)

Ineffectual leaders (like Ottomans) who followed Shah Abbas combined lavish lifestyles and military spending w falling revenues which led to weakened economy. In 1722, Safavids weren't able to quell rebellion against oppressed Sunni Pashtuns in present-day Afghanistan. Afghan forces went to sack Isfashan and leader Mahmud declared himself the Shah of Persia. Although Safavid Dynasty remained nominally in control, resulting chaos was impediment to centralization and tax collection. Russians and Ottomans took advantage of weakened Safavids and by 1760, the declining Safavid Dynasty was replaced by Zand Dynasty

Why did the Safavid Dynasty decline? (1450-1750)

Because of increased productive capacity, expanding trade networks, and innovations in agriculture and manufacturing. Economy became increasingly commercialized and also continued to depend on free peasant and artisanal labor

Why did the economy of Song China flourish? (1200-1450)

Bc of the flourishing Tang Dynasty successfully promoting agricultural development, improving roads and canals, encouraging foreign trade, and spreading technology. Also continuities like the Grand Canal from the Sui Dynasty being expanded during the Song Dynasty which allowed China under the Song to become the most populous trading area in the world.

Why was the Song Dynasty so prosperous (1200-1450)

philosophes

Writers during the Enlightenment and who popularized the new ideas of the time. Ex. Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin (1750-1900)

Conservatism

a belief in traditional institutions, favoring reliance on practical experience over ideological theories, such as that of human perfectability. (1750-1900)