The Move to Global War (WW2) - P1

What happened event though Konoye was in power and trying stabilize the Japanese situation?

However, while the Tokyo government was not bent on war, more radical elements in the military still called for aggressive expansion, and even war with Great Britain, the Soviet Union, or the United States.

Foreign Policy in the USSR (Interwar Period)

"Socialism in One Country" (1924) → Foreign Policy To some degree, Stalin was focused on strengthening the USSR ("Socialism in One Country") was his chosen theory, as opposed to Trotsky's "Permanent Revolution"). The Comintern had failed to export Communism to Eastern European countries in the 1920s, hence the USSR joined the League of Nations in 1934. They tried to create a European alliance to prevent German expansion. European nations, especially Britain and Poland did not want to ally with the USSR, for ideological reasons. Nonetheless, during the Spanish Civil War, Russia sent money, arms, and men to fight the Fascists. Following during, the Czech Crisis of 1938, Stalin was not invited to the Munich Conference, and thus felt slighted by France, Great Britain and the USA. What happened after Vyacheslav Molotov became Commissar for Foreign Affairs? Relations with Germany began to "thaw" when Vyacheslav Molotov became Commissar for Foreign Affairs in 1939. This led eventually to the Nazi-Soviet Pact. Nazi Germany invaded Poland in 1939, and the USSR supported its ally during the first years of WW2 with military and food supplies. The Winter War against Finland in 1939-40.

Related historiography

"[Palmiro] Togliatti had been a member of the Comintern which directed International Communism. On 27 March Stalin's Italian arrived by ship in Naples. His first move, on Stalin's orders, was to direct his Italian comrades, for the sake of national unity, to withdraw their objections to the abolition of the monarchy until after the liberation. His aim - and that of Stalin - was cynically simple: to ensure that the Communists formed part of whichever government replaced Badoglio. He did not interest himself in the Partisan struggle, which he rightly regarded as of minor importance. The Allies would liberate Italy, not the partisans. Togliatti and Stalin were thinking from the start of after the Liberation when the Allies had gone home." (N. Farrell).

Fascism has been termed

'Mussolinianism'.

Congress of Vienna

(1814-1815 CE) Meeting of representatives of European monarchs called to reestablish the old order after the defeat of Napoleon.

Russo-Japanese War

(1904-1905) War between Russia and Japan over imperial possessions. Japan emerges victorious and gains areas of control for Manchuria and Korea.

Impact of domestic issues on foreign policies of Italy and Germany

*Italy:* Mussolini's Battle for Grain (1925), Battle for the Lira (1926), and "Mussolini Law" (1928) all fail for most part, resulting in a weak economy unable to support a strong military *Germany:* Economics recovery in 1920s, fascism, domestic economic issues

Ernst Rohm

- Bavarian, born in the South of Germany - Fought in WW1; was disfigured in the battle of Verdun - Founded the Sturm Abteilung (SA) in 1920 and led the SA for the Nazis up to his death.

How was unrest in Japan made apparent?

- Between 1912 and the outbreak of war in 1941, six Japanese Prime Ministers were assassinated. - Militarists assassinated Prime Minister Inukai in May, 1932, primarily for trying to bring the Army under closer control.

How did the battle between Japan and the USSR before Pearl Harbor affect Japanese affect the Japanese decision to expand into the Pacific?

- Defeat at Khalkhin-Gol can also be seen as a major factor in the Japanese decision to expand into the Pacific. - As expansion to the North-West was no longer an option, ill defended and scattered colonial territories made far easier targets. - Even the United States was deemed a less formidable adversary than the Soviet Union and, if the Japanse had not lost at Khalkhin-Gol, they would surely have never attacked Pearl Harbour.

What other political and military changes resulted from the Treaty of Versailles affecting Germany?

- Germany was forbidden to unite politically with Austria ever again. - Germany's military was reduced to ludicrously low levels, being allowed: An army of 100,000 men (smaller than its Fire Departments) and no tanks & no artillery. A navy of 6 battleships (still allowed to keep dreadnoughts), but no submarines. And no air force. - Germany was also ordered to pay reparations to the Allies: 132 Billion gold Marks, ($33 USD today) over a period of 42 years. - The final insult, however, was Clause 231, the "War Guilt Clause:" Germany was made to take full responsibility for causing WWI. -- Given the complex beginning, the scope and cost of the Great War, this was a humiliating and unfair punishment for Germany, which many historians agree saying that is was an unfair & punitive agreement (the treaty of Versailles), resulting in further struggles & yearning for security through nationalism in many countries. -- Hence, if what you want is peace out of a treaty such as this one, then it is not in favour of it, as it calls for revenge in the "loosing nations" population.

What is Goebbels known for?

- Goebbels was a master of propaganda; designing posters and coming up with catchy, powerful slogans; he made records and films of Hitler's speeches; distributed Nazi flags and banners throughout the country; and organized and conducted mass rallies. - He is recorded as having said: "If you are going to tell a lie, tell a big one, and tell it often, and people will come to believe it."

Heinrich Himmler

- He joined the Nazi party in 1923 - He was the mastermind of the Night of the Long Knives, eliminating the SA rivals - Was appointed as chief of the Gestapo in 1934 and oversaw all management of the Nazi Concentration Camps & Death Camps - Served as leader of the SS since its formation in 1929 - He committed suicide in 1945

Reinhard Heydrich

- He was first a part of the Frei Korps and was later discharged from the Military for dishonorable conduct - Was called "The Hangman" or "The man with the Iron Heart" - He joined the Nazi Party and became the chief Lieutenant in the SS - He was assassinated in Prague where he was serving as Gauleiter during the Nazi Occupation

The Reichstag Fire

- Hindenburg was losing control, and was little more than a figurehead at this point. - On the 27th of February, 1933, less than a week before the Reichstag elections, something happened to finally tip the balance of power in Hitler's favor, for good. - The German Parliament building, the Reichstag, was set on fire, and a Dutch communist named van der Lubbe was caught red-handed with matches and fire-starting materials at the location. - Whether this was really the culprit is debatable, but Hitler used this to immediately justify the arrest of many important Communist Party members in Germany. - Whether Hitler had caused this to happen or not, he took great advantage of it. - Using the fire as the final touch on his hard-fought election campaign, Hitler and the Nazis won 44% of the popular vote in the Reichstag elections on the 5th of March, 1933. - This was not enough, however, to give the Nazis a majority in the Reichstag, and so Hitler arrested all 81 remaining Communist Party members in the Reichstag, which did give him a majority.

Why was Hermann Goering speaker for the Reichstag and how did the SA stop any opposition?

- Hitler made Hermann Goering speaker for the Reichstag, giving the Nazis even more prominence and influence. - Nazi Storm troopers stopped opposition deputies going into the Reichstag, and beat up anyone who dared to speak against it.

What did the Japanese not learn from the the battle between them and the USSR before Pearl Harbor?

- However, although the Japanese probably took the sensible strategic course after Khalkhin Gol of targetting a 'weaker' opponent, they didn't learn the combat lessons dealt out by the Soviet army. - Honour and bravery remained central to the Japanese military mentality and, once they had recovered from the initial onslaught, the United States and Britain were able to mass their forces and push the Japanese out of the Pacific and back to the Home Islands in one brutal battle after another.

How is Konoye similar to Streseman?

- Konoye's main objective was to 'reduce internal friction' and direct the Japanese people's energies outwards, instead of inwards. - His leadership served as a stabilizing factor from 1937 to 1941, and prevented the warmongers from taking any further drastic actions.

The end of WW1 and Revolution:

- On the 10th of November, 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm abdicated his throne, fleeing in secret to Holland, never to return. - The Armistice was signed, and the blockade against Germany continued while the Allies discussed the end to the war at Versailles.

Which was the only battleship that escaped to sink (was still damaged though) because of the Pearl Harbor attack?

- Only one Battleship managed to get underway and try to escape the killing ground of the harbor, the U.S.S. Nevada. - Once it took damage, however, its captain chose to beach it rather than sink in the entrance of the harbor.

The Vision of Adolf Hitler

- Shaped by his youth, his wartime experience, and his struggle for political power, Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in 1933 determined to fulfill the vision he laid out in his manifesto, Mein Kampf, and the Nazi party's 25 demands. - Hitler's fury was directed at the Treaty of Versailles, the injustice of which had contributed directly to his political rise to power.

Germany 1919-1933 The history of Germany 1919-1933 falls into three phases: 1929-1933 After the Wall Street Crash of 1929, however, the Republic collapsed:

- Unemployment - Nazi Party grew more powerful - In 1933, Adolf Hitler became Chancellor

What did Hitler do for hopes to improve the Nazi's position further?

- Within days, Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to allow yet another election for the Reichstag; perhaps hoping to improve the Social Democrats' position further, he agreed. - The Nazis put all their efforts into ensuring a big win: posters, rallies, radio broadcasts and SA violence on the streets reached new heights. - Again, Goebbels demonstrated brilliance, holding Hitler up as the savior of Germany.

Cultural Experimentation that the German Population underwent during this time:

1. American consumerism: Germans, experiencing economic prosperity, go on an American style consumption binge, as they now buy products that are not only necessities, but desires. Something very unusual in German culture, as there money was solely there to buy necessities. Greatly helped the German economy to grow to greater proportions. Consumer credit was an acceptable level for all classes, and as American goods flooded the market, consumption increased. 2. "Living in the Present Effect" (historian Eric Weitz) → After experiencing hyperinflation, and great income instability, Germans realised that prosperity could disappear in an instant, and it was better to enjoy life now (in the present) than worrying about the future where all this prosperity could disappear. Making Germans more willing to consume and cause a boost in the economy. 3. Modern advertising: Consumerism also increased as Germany began an Americanzed style of advertisement, fusing sex appeal wih consumers ideals. Differently from American advertisement, German advertisement blended mass culture and high art Modernist designs (New Objectivity) are used to sell consumer products. Artists' works are published by intellectual journals and marketing firms. 4. Modern life -Urbanisation brings Germans into the cities, as they wish to experiment with entertainment services such as cinemas, radios, and boxing. People at this time took to consume media in different forms, no longer only newspaper, but also radio. To make that happen, Geobbels had seized control of the Reichs-Rundfunk-Gesellschaft—the Reich Broadcasting Corporation— a national network of regional broadcasting companies. After solidifying control of the broadcast infrastructure, he imposed rules on permissible content. His final task was to make sure everyone had access to an affordable radio receiver. But radios in Germany in the early 1930s were expensive, easily exceeding a month's wages for ordinary workers. Introduced in 1933, the inexpensive Volksempfänger (radio) helped spread Nazi propaganda to an eager audience. Goebbels approached electrical engineer Otto Griessing to design a radio that was technically simple, easy to mass-produce, and inexpensive. The result was the Volksempfänger ("people's receiver" or "people's radio"), which Goebbels introduced at the Berlin show. At a subsidized 76 Reichsmarks (about US $250), it was about half the price of the cheapest radios then on the market. More than 100,000 units sold during the first two days of the exhibition. The radio could also be purchased on installment. By 1941, nearly two-thirds of German households owned a Volksempfänger, and Goebbels had succeeded in giving Hitler a direct conduit into people's homes via the airwaves. Radio listeners jumped from 10,000 in 1924 to 780,000 in 1925, and 3.8 million in 1928. Exposes how many new people acquired new ways of consuming and digesting news / information. This was arguably the most significant aspect of cultural experimentation, in that the Nazis utilized Propaganda as the prime means to propagate their ideology. Only possible through the Golden Age development of radio and new telecommunications. Minister of Public Enlightment and Propaganda, Joseph Goebbels has stated that the radio was his favorite source of propaganda as it allowed him to broadcast Hitler's speeches, which reached the masses, not only in the cities, but also rural areas.

Social Policies - Policies towards the Church

1. Attempts to Nazify the Church 2. In 1933, Hitler had signed the Concordat with the church (guarantee the churches in Germany regardless of the Nazis reigning the state), however, it quickly became clear that the Nazis aimed to interfere with religion. Even though the Concordat was a legitimate agreement that aimed to maintain good relations betten the church and the Nazi party, they quickly realized that this was not in their interest. Particularly, because the grip had a tight grip on some ppl of society, eg. catholics/strict religious, hence if a rift was drawn between the church and the party many would follow the church. Thus, the Nazis quickly broke of the Concordat agreement in an attempt to establish their own Nazi church and drop ppl away from the catholic church = abanon catholicism and more endowed in Nazi ideology. 3. German Christians created the Reich Church, whose Reich Bishop was Ludwig Muller, and attempt to reconcile protestant and Nazi beliefs. 4. However, the Nazis were only partly successful in achieving the predominance of the Reich Church. 5. It was for difficult for the Nazis to head on attack the Church as they feared losing support from German Catholics, which was precisely the group they were attempting to sway. 6. Hence, a war of attrition between the Church and the State was developed: 7. To subtly attack the Church (instead of issuing very aggressive policies such as killing or closing down the churches / priests) , the Nazis: A) PROPAGANDA - Accuse priests of crimes such as sexual abuse and pederastry as an attempt to lure young people away from the Church. A very subtle way to convey the church wasn't the best place for the ppl. B) During the mid-1930s, the Nazis launched the Church Secession Campaign to encourage Germans to abandon churches. 8. Yet, despite these measures, the nazification of the Church failed, as the Reich Church had limited support and Catholicism remained popular. 9. Nevertheless, the Church was still in a delicate situation, as it too could not openly attack Nazism, given that the Nazi government was actually implementing policies enjoyed by the Catholic Church: → Historian Ian Kershaw has argued that the Church did not launch an attack on Nazism because it shared some of its beliefs. E.g→ The Nazis attacked 'godless' Marxism, they built an authoritarian state, and conducted a strong foreign policy. 10. Still, even though the Church did not consistently attack Nazism, they did not blindly support it either, as they often publicly condemned the regime when it opposed the Catholic doctrine: A) In 1937, Pope Pius XI publicly attacked the Nazi government for breaching the Concordat, and racial/nationalist idolatry. B) He also attacked the government in 1938 following the events of Kristallnacht. C) In 1940, Pope Pius XII repudiated the Nazi Euthanasia program (Akiton T4) and labelled it "Mass Murder".

Different types of Repression with Minorities / Asocials: (could be different paragraphs in an essay):

1. Barbaric/hostile treatment 2. Legal means/institutionalising the persecution 3. Popular inclusion in the persecution 4. Concentration Camps

Which of the following was a factor influencing the Church to accept Mussolini's answer to the "Roman Question" in 1926?

1. By 1926 it was clear Mussolini and the Fascists had established themselves, and the Church did not want to risk its position in society 2. The Church was in agreement with the Fascists in terms of the need for social order and respect for authority 3. Fascist policies on women and the family fit with Catholic belief

Rise of Mussolini (5) - IDEOLOGY

1. Creating an enemy (had 2 main enemies): 2. Mussolini blamed (scapegoated) Britain and France specifically for Italy's mutilated victory, and used this as a way to power. = So all could fight against a common threat / enemy. To rile up common support from the population. 3. Later he blamed (= he changed the common threat / enemy) the Communist/Socialists for being against Italy and wishing an Communist revolution in the nation.

Stage 2: Early years of Weimar (1919-1923) (Political Instability 2)

1. Creation of the NSDAP (1920): 2. The NSDAP was created in 1920, to which Hitler joined and became leader in 1921. 3. Hitler helped to draft the NSDAP's 25 point program which contained a variety of points which aimed to appeal to a wide audience. A) E.g→ The scrapping of the ToV appealed to nationalists and the military. B) E.g→ religious freedom (though it did not occur) appealed to religious people. 4. Its intention was to ensure mass support particularly towards nationalists, the industrial working class, the agricultural elites, etc. (Richard Geary) 5. The NSDAP failed to achieve power in 1923 with the Beerhall Putsch when they attempted to take the government by force. 6. Hitler was arrested but only served 9 months of his 5 year penalty. Yet, during his prison time, Hitler wrote Mein Kampf, and understood that the path to achieve power was through the political system.

What is true of the "Democrazia Cristiana" or Christian Democrats (DC)?

1. Dominating from 1947-48 until 1990, the DC had a virtual monopoly on Italian politics in the decades after the war 2. The DC had support from business and the middle class, as well as strong support from Catholics, the Church, and the Vatican 3. The dominance of the DC can also be linked to support from America and the "Americanization" of Europe in the decades following the war

5. Liberal Italy's stability (Negative factor)

1. Economic divisions: 2. The industrial North of Italy grew in economic prosperity while the rural South remained poor. 3. Economic divisions also generated great social disputes between the growing urban working class and their middle class employers. Because people felt they were living in very different conditions & felt the disparities.

Hitler's Consolidation & Maintenance of Power: From democracy to dictatorship (January-March 1933) - Use of Legal methods (3)

1. Electoral outcomes of the March 1933 Elections: 2. The NSDAP increased its seats in the Reichstag, obtaining 43.9% of the seats in the Reichstag -- indeed a huge number as Nazis were the greatest party in the reichstag, although they were still not the majority. 3. Stills, in spite of propaganda and the anti-communist hysteria the NSDAP was not an absolute majority. 4. The NSDAP only achieved a 52% majority in collaborating with the DNVP, who had obtained 8% of the votes. 5. Yet, the events of the election showed that the population was still unwilling to fully support Nazism. 6. → Historian Richard Evans has pointed out that the reasonable number of votes for the Zentrum and the BVP (examples of democratic parties = still had significant numbers of votes) suggested that some people still desired democracy.

Authoritarian States Review Guide Benito Mussolini & Fascist Italy Italy and Mussolini: Past paper questions from Paper 2/3

1. Examine the social and economic impact on Italy of Mussolini's domestic policies. (Nov 16) P2/3 2. Evaluate the methods used by Mussolini to gain and retain power in the years 1919-1926. (May 13) Compare and contrast the reasons for the rise to power of Hitler and Mussolini. (May 12) P2

The content of propaganda

1. Fascist ideology was complex and often contradictory. 2. There were many competing interests within the fascist movement and within Italian society. 3. The ideology that was transmitted through the content of the propaganda, therefore, was adapted to suit different audiences at different times, and fascist ideology went through significant changes during Mussolini's rise to power. 4. The fascist message by October 1922 was very different from the ideology of fascist revolution put forward when Mussolini formed his Fasci di Combattimento in 1919.

Which was a characteristic of the unrest Italy experienced in 1922?

1. Fascist leaders forcibly overthrew an elected communist council in Bologna 2. Local landlords in the countryside financed the Fascists to intimidate their rebellious labourers 3. The government and police did little to stop the unrest

Problems Japan faced in the 1920s

1. Fragile Democracy 2. Opposition to Shidehara's internationalism and the growing influence of the military on foreign policy 3. A growing economic crisis

Italian Political Divisions

1. Futurists A) Young men to be trained in strength and courage B) Demolish historical places to build modern ones C) Promoted war and violence 2. Nationalists A) Nationalist party est. in 1910 B) Called for unification of all Italians C) Promoted conquest of Libya in 1912 D) Promoted war and violence 3. Socialists A) Tried to overthrow government in 1914 in "Red Week" B) Overthrew local governments C) Held strikes D) Willing to use violence 4. Outbreak of WWI created new opportunies for the Nationalist and Futurists

Stage 3: The Golden Age (1924-1929) - Economic Factors Successes (4)

1. German modernity: 2. Prior to WW1 no new hospitals or schools had been built, due to most money being spent on military. Stresseman changed this. No houses had been built since the war, so architects were called on by Streseman to build new apartment blocks, libraries, parks, and transport systems with the Berlin metro coming into existence at this time. 3. Berlin became the 3rd largest city in the world.

Economic Policies (5) - The Blitzkrieg: FAILURES

1. Germany was pushed into a war of attrition, which it was not able to sustain (playing into the Allies' strengths) 2. The goals of the 4 year plan were not met -- UNCOORDINATED POLICIES PREVENTED GOVERNMENT FROM MATCHING THE WAR AIMS. 3. Hitler's wish to establish a New Order in Europe led to the issues outlined by Gordon Wright as the Nazis failed to effectively get the conquered population behind their war effort.

2. Liberal Italy's stability (Positive factor)

1. Great power status: 2. Italy was thriving on a diplomatic front in its foreign affairs, having joined the Triple Alliance in 1882, with Germany and Austria-Hungary. 3. Territory expansions - Italy had conquested Libya in 1911, expanding the Italian Empire to Africa. Major victory for Italy and people, mainly for the nationalists who have wanted this for a long time.

Short-term causes of rise of fascism (5)

1. Greater political representation: 2. In 1912, Prime Minister Orlando introduced universal male suffrage as an attempt to ease the tension within Italy (had hoped less disputes would occur, but the opposite happened = many different ideologies were represented). 2. The opposite occurred as many new ideologies entered the political scene, such as Communism. 3. This set off years of political instability that would last until 1922, when Mussolini became PM. 4. Small parties grew in parliament, including the PSI (Italian Socilist Party) and the PPI (Catholic Party), whereas the Liberals and conservatives were no longer a majority (declined in number of votes). 5. As these parties had conflicting ideologies, governing was very difficult, as parties would constantly disagree. 6. E.g→ Italy saw 6 governments and 4 prime ministers in only 4 years. Proved how unstable the government was.

Economic Policies (4) - The Four Year Plan: : FAILURES

1. Guns vs Butter: The economic investment in war production came at the opportunity cost of the production of consumer goods, especially food. 2. This meant that the German economy failed in sufficiently providing consumer goods and rearmament.

Hitler's Consolidation & Maintenance of Power: From democracy to dictatorship (January-March 1933) - Use of Legal methods (1)

1. Hitler calls upon the March 1933 Elections: 2. Hitler called for elections in March 1933 as he wished to achieve a parliamentary majority for the NSDAP's representation in the Reichstag. 3. The NSDAP had lost support in the November 1932 elections, losing over 2 million votes. 4. Yet, now Hitler could use his position as Chancellor and the strong regional branches, with Goering as Prussian Minister of the Interior and Frick as National Minister of the Interior.

Stage 4: Decline (1930-1933): Political Factors (5) - Nazi Pressure

1. Hitler appointed as Chancellor (January 1933): 2. Von Papen attempted to form a conservative-nationalist coalition and persuaded Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Chancellor, as Hitler would only accept the coalition if he was chancellor. Von-Papen believed that Hitler and other Nazis could be controlled. 3. Successfully, on January 30th, Hindenburg appointed Hitler as chancellor (of a coalition cabinet). 4. Noticeably, Hitler became Chancellor at a time when the NSDAP was losing support, as evident by the previous elections. In july of 1932 the nazis had peaked with a 38 representation in the right side an astounding number for any party which led hitler to claim the chancellorship as we discussed however hitler failed to effectively take grip of the chancellorship which was a message to many nazi voters and many of those who had devoted their confidence in the nsdep that the nazi were unable to grasp power even when given very remarkable opportunities which meant that by the time the november elections came through people looked at the nazi party and did not have as much confidence that they would be able to effectively implement their policies and effectively safeguard their position in the political system which thus led to a loss in 2 million votes this loss and votes also created a sense of urgency within the nazi party that they should quickly ascend to power because this initial downturn in their peak suggested that they would only continue to lose support over and over and over to the point where it would simply become unattainable for them to reach the chancellorship and for hitler to become the supreme leader they wanted him to become which is why the nazis would strive even harder for the chancellorship at this time because any later would be an impossible task which leads us to the period of chancellor khalifa which lasted only around a month between december of 1932 to january of 1933. um so let's talk about why uh schulich felt so quickly if he was a rather strong figure within the von puppen cabinet and who seemed like uh could consolidate power and assert support so ascended to the power at a time where his predecessors were falling majorly because of a lack of support in the right side which is why he was desperate to find some sort of support base that could consult that would allow him to consolidate his position and uh this is when he decided to turn to the left wing of the nazi party led by stressor to uh to rally some support and to uh safeguard uh at least some votes in the right state that would allow him to uh pass his policies and his bills although the nazis had lost two million votes in the last election schlieser was very attracted to this correlation with shredzer and the left wing of the nazi party because the nazis were still sizable enough in the rights that you exerted some influence and allowed lisa to exert some power in the political system it would be a great a door and a gateway for felicia to eventually guarantee a stronger support base in the right stick which would holistically and fully consolidate his position as chancellor the problem was however that this coalition was leaked to hitler who felt completely betrayed by strasser uh naturally uh as he himself was the leader of the nsdep and saw uh strasman's uh strazor's advocate as a bid to his um to hitler's own position and so he alienated strasser within the nsdp completely ousting him from all of his power and influence which subsequently meant that his coalition with sleepless ultimately failed as a result of this failed coalition just like his predecessors also felt from power which uh put germany at a place of complete uh political chaos given that no one was able to effectively take on the chancellorship and guide the nation which leads us to why hitler was able to emerge through the chancellorship at this point even though the nazis had lost support and a significant amount of votes in the previous elections well we know that german politics was completely chaotic at this time and so did van pappen who at this point was convinced that the only path for some sort of stability in germany was through the ascent of the nazi party to the chancellorship which meant that hitler had to take on the role as chancellor not because he enjoyed hitler or his policies but because he knew that the nazi party would only agree to pass legislation and collaborate in government if hitler was given the position of chensler and so von papen addressed hindenburg and persuaded him to form a conservative nationalist coalition between the conservative parties of germany and the nationalist party in which hitler would be granted the chancellorship of a coalition cabin which is something key for you guys to remember a coalition cabinet essentially meant that although hitler would take on the position of chancellor it wouldn't be completely made up of uh nazis he appointed but rather it would be a mix of conservative and nazi members as well in such a way that hindenburg and von puppet could keep tabs on hitler and keep him in check to ensure that he wouldn't steer chew away from the goal of the coalition in fact we know that this conservative nazi coalition was a mere pragmatist move by von pappen because he believed that hitler could easily be controlled uh even going up to hindenburg at one point and quote claiming that hitler would would be backed so far into a corner that he would scream however as we know vampin's belief that hitler could be tamed was completely wrong as even though hitler was chancellor of the coalition cabinet he managed to effectively use his own position and of the position of the other few nazis in the cabinet to completely out bomb happen from uh power and the other conservatives and effectively form a fully nazi government as a result on january 30th of 1933 hitler was given the position of chancellor of germany with ron popping being his vice chancellor uh and this it is critical that we understand that this came at a time when the nazis were losing support which meant that like we discussed the nazis were successful in securing their power position before they lost too much support to the extent that it would be impossible for them to rise up once again okay guys so we're here hitler is chancellor and nazi germany is soon underway

Economic Policies (4) - The Four Year Plan: SUCCESSES

1. Hitler successfully increased rearmament, even though this did come at a great cost. 2. In 1932, military spending accounted for 1% of Germany's GDP, yet by 1940 military spending reached 38% of Germany's GDP was specifcally targeted towards the German rearmament.

Hitler's Consolidation & Maintenance of Power: From democracy to dictatorship (January-March 1933) - Use of Legal methods

1. Hitler's mixed cabinet: 2. On January 30th 1933, Hitler had been appointed Chancellor, Von Papen was his vice-Chancellor, and there were only 3 Nazis in the cabinet, although he was not yet the leader of a Nazi government but a mixed cabinet, not solely nazis, but a bunch of different parties (Von Papen was at this time not yet a member of the Nazi Party) 3. Von Papen believed that Hitler could be tamed (or used to gain Nazi votes for the government and settle the economic and political situation) but he was ultimately wrong as Hitler used his position of Chancellor, Goering's role as Prussian Minister of the Interior, and Frick's as National Minister of the Interior to build a strong parliamentary base in government.

Historiography: Was Hitler a Planner, or an Opportunist, in foreign affairs? What did Hitler want?

1. Hugh Trevor-Roper Believed that Hitler's aims were radical: Hitler wanted to establish an East European Empire based on racial purity; this was a sharp break with traditional German policy. 2. AJP Taylor Believed that Hitler's aims were traditional: Hitler wanted to establish German dominance in central Europe by overturning Versailles.

The Neutrality Pact with the USSR

1. In 1941, the USSR and Japan signed a non-aggression pact. 2. This followed the conclusion of the undeclared Soviet-Japanese Border War. This war started in 1932, as a result of the Japanese occupation of Manchuria through the Kwantung Army and disagreements over the specific location of the border between Mongolia and Manchuria. 3. The Japanese sustained that the border ran along the Khalk River, while the Mongols and Soviets sustained that the border was actually 10 miles to the east, at the village of Nomonhan. This was the basis upon which many accusations of border incursion were launched. This conflict was especially concerning to the Soviets, as the Japanese were not far from the Trans-Siberian Railway, the only link between the Russian Far East and the "mainland". If at first the conflict was cold in nature, by 1935 it would begin to heat up. Between 1935 and 1938, there were 108 reports of armed attacks from both sides. 4. When Japan invaded China in 1937, the USSR supplied Chinese authorities with 82 tanks, 1300 pieces of artillery, 65000 rifles, 225 aircraft, and 1500 vehicles, as well as 3665 strategic advisors and volunteers, and loans in value of $250 million. 5. By 1937, there were almost 1500000 active personnel in the conflict. 6. Soviet Pilots served locally, shooting down 625 Japanese aircraft between 1937 and 1941. These volunteer squadrons were recalled upon the ratification of the non-aggression pact in 1941. 7. The most significant of the many border conflicts was the Battle of Khalkhin Gol (May-September 1941). In 1939, upon the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of non-aggression by Germany and the USSR, General Georgy Zhukov launched an attack against Japanese forces in the area and encircled the Japanese Sixth Army, hence killing 75% of the Japanese frontline troops. 8. This defeat ultimately discredited the proponents of the Northern Road Strategy in Japan and pushed the leadership to adopt the Southern Road Strategy for expansion and increased naval development. 9. On 13 April 1941, the two parties agree to a neutrality and non-aggression pact. Through this, both parties waive any right to the territory of Manchuria. This would ultimately allow Japan to carry out its Southern Road Strategy, especially in anticipation of the coming German invasion of the USSR. While the USSR was under attack, Japan was able to concern itself with the occupation of French Indochina. This motivated an embargo on iron and petroleum placed by the Roosevelt Administration. 10. Generally, Japan kept to its Southern Road strategy, and this allowed for the internal movement of Soviet tanks and resources (some of which had been dispatched to Khalkhin-Gol), and this would go on to play a decisive role in the Battle of Moscow in 1941. The Southern Road Strategy is essentially what engaged Japan into a war with the USA. Had the pact not been made and had Japan chosen to expand via the Northern Route, it is likely that the outcome of WWII would be very different.

The consequences of the invasion of Abyssinia

1. In May 1936, Mussolini was able to bask in the glow of victory. 2.Victor Emmanuel III was proclaimed Emperor of the Italian territories in East Africa, now re-named Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI) or Italian East Africa. 3. There was mass national rejoicing and Mussolini's popularity rose higher than ever. 4. In reality, the victory had been less than spectacular. 5. It took far longer than originally planned, it was only achieved at massive cost to the national budget and the fighting was not yet finished. 6. General Graziani, who took overall command in June, had to spend several months 'pacifying the country and dealing with rebellions and guerrilla warfare. 7. It was February 1937 before he established complete control. 8. People in Italy, however, took Mussolini's victory at face value. He gained approval from wide sections of society. 9. There were mass 1935 October Start of invasion demonstrations in favour of Mussolini and against 'foreign elements' who opposed his actions. 10. From the beginning of the war, leaders of the by Catholic Church expressed their approval. 11. Italy's victory on the battlefield did not bring an end to the diplomatic Will crisis caused by the war. 12. Mussolini had hoped that the European powers would quickly accept the conquest of Italian East Africa and give diplomatic recognition to the AQI. He expected a brief outburst of disapproval, after which Britain and France would allow diplomatic relations to get back to where they were before the war. This did not happen. The international crisis Mussolini had provoked by invading Ethiopia rumbled on for two years. 13. It did lasting damage to Italy's relations with Britain and France and helped to push Mussolini towards an alliance with Germany. There were several reasons for this: A) Mussolini had simply misjudged the response of Britain and France. The warning signs had been there in 1935, but he ignored them. B) It had taken too long for the conquest of Ethiopia to be completed. A quick decisive victory might have enabled Mussolini to avoid a major international reaction but the war lasted eight months. This allowed time for opposition to the war to grow and for the League of Nations to become involved. C) Emperor Haile Selassie mounted a very effective campaign to exploit international condemnation of Italian aggression. Haile Selassie's emotional address to the League of Nations at Geneva, in July 1936, after he had been forced into exile, had a huge impact on public opinion around the world. D) The attitudes and actions of France and especially of Britain were influenced by public opinion against Mussolini's aggression. At government level, there was a strong desire to get around the problem of Abyssinia and to rebuild the Stresa Front, but the public mood made this very difficult.

Four fascist leaders, the Quadrumvirs, were placed at the head of the March:

1. Italo Balbo, the Fascist Party boss of Ferrara. 2. Emilio De Bono, a senior general in the Italian army. 3. Michele Bianchi, a revolutionary syndicalist on the left wing of the PNE. 4. Cesare Maria De Vecchi, on the monarchist wing of the PNF.

The "Mutilated Victory"

1. Italy got Istria and Tyrol from Austria, but Dalmatia was given to Yugoslavia 2. Nationalists were enraged A) Arditi (commandos) began to organize in 1919 B) Mussolini joined an Arditi Association = Wanted to turn them into fighting groups = Established Fascio di Combattimento in March, 1919 = Goal: to kill the enemies of Italy

Rise of Mussolini (1) - IDEOLOGY

1. Journalist background: 2. Mussolini's background as a journalist is an important part of his self promotion and the promotion of Fascism. His understanding of the power of Mass media is also crucial to his uprising, though it will also influence the policies of Hitler and Goebbles.

What was true of the Salo Republic?

1. Known formally as the RSI, the republic lasted for 600 days and had all the features of a sovereign state, including a capital and a full set of ministries 2. The RSI had an army, navy and air force which fought alongside German forces 3. Fascist militias and paramilitary groups in the RSI played a key role in the Civil War fighting partisans

1. Mussolini's Rise to Power I (Long-term Weaknesses of Liberal Italy)

1. Lack of an Italian identity: The long history of political division amongst Italians hindered the ability of an Italian identity to be formed. 2. Few Italians were involved in the actual unification of Italy in 1871, and most people were more loyal to their families, or the immediate places in which they lived (regionalism), rather than the Italian nation. 3. Communication was difficult --> Hindered the building of an italian identity --> no united people to move the Italian people forward (difficult to develop economically and socially) --> Only about 2% of people spoke Italian, with the rest of the population only speaking dialects that were very specific to certain areas.

Prior to Lenin's Death

1. Lenin took power during the October Revolution in 1917 with his Bolshevik Party. 2. The Bolshevik Party transformed Russia from the Russian Empire of the Tsars into the USSR - the party had overcome all the major challenges to their authority (political enemies had been executed and critics within the party had been suppressed). 3. The government consisted of the Council of People's' Commissars and the Secretariat. Both were staffed and controlled by the Bolsheviks, making Lenin unchallengeable as a leader. 4. The principle of democratic centralism returned Russia to the absolutism that it had known under the reign of the tsars. 5. Lenin in other words created a basic apparatus of oppression for Stalin, in order to inherit and exploit his own leadership of the Soviet Union, after Lenin died in 1924.

Stage 3: The Golden Age (1924-1929) - Failures: Economic Factors (3)

1. Low industrial production: 2. Though this was improving, Germany fell behind in production in comparison to developed European states and to other nations around the world like the USA. 4. No new technologies were being introduced to factories, and though American techniques were admired, there was a lack of dynamism (not able to effectively implement new technology in industry) in the German economy. This led to high unemployment. 5. Major talking point for the extremist groups, as they argued that Germany was by far not as developed as the Weimar Republic made it out to be.

The Rise of Benito Mussolini: Nineteenth Century Italy

1. Metternich: A) Italy is a "geographic expression" Composed mainly of nine states in 1815 B) European powers did not want a unified Italy C) Nationalism was slow to bloom 2. Count Cavour, Prime Minister of Sardinia A) Gained favor with France and Britain by joining Crimean War B) Conquered Lombardy from Austria = Led to revolts in Austrian-held city-states, which joined Sardinia big European powers did not want Italy to unite...

How was Mussolini's Italy shaped?

1. Mussolini's Italy was shaped by war and the idea of war. 2. Fascism was born out of Italy's experience in the First World War and the social and political upheavals of 1919-22. 3. Fascism eventually collapsed (twice - once in 1943 and again in 1945) because of the military defeats that resulted from Mussolini's fatal decision to enter the Second World War in 1940. 4. In between, Mussolini first established a fascist dictatorship and then attempted to transform Italians into Fascists through totalitarian ideology, and to establish a New Roman Empire in Africa and the Mediterranean. In the end, Mussolini left Italy in a rather worse situation than he found it and his imperial ambițions led to disastrous defeats.

Which of the following was true about Italy between 1922 and 1927?

1. Mussolini's rule was generally popular with wide sections of the Italian people 2. There wasn't so much a removal of opposition as there was a "block of consensus" among the ruling parties 3. Despite Mussolini's popularity, there was not universal acceptance of Fascism in Italy

Short-term causes of rise of fascism (2)

1. National humiliation: 2. Italy felt humiliated for having suffered such significant casualties and not being properly compensated. 3. This greatly affected Italian morale. 4. Led to the resignation of PM Vittorio Orlando in June 1919 (he was overtaken by shame).

Treatment of the Opposition: Failure of the opposition (1)

1. Nature of the opposition: 2. Though Historian Frank McDonough has estimated that >1% of Germans engaged in opposition (because it was still too dangerours to oppose), there were still groups that engaged in 2 types of opposition: A) Silent opposition: Did not mean to threaten, not directly opposing the regime or attempting to taking it down. Eg. People refused to do the Nazi salute, or mocked the regime in private. B) Active opposition: People actively attempted to sabotage the regime through anti-Nazi propaganda, sabbotaging the workplace, or vene plotting Hitler's assasination (E.g→ Operation Valkyrie = aka. July Plot The plot was codenamed Operation Valkyrie and was led by the German aristocrat and army officer Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg in conjunction with General Friedrich Olbricht and General Ludwig Beck of the German general staff. The plot was the culmination of a more widespread anti-Nazi German resistance movement to overthrow Hitler and the Third Reich. There were several abortive assassination attempts on Hitler's life before Stauffenberg finally went ahead with Operation Valkyrie on July 20th 1944. Accompanied by his aide, Lieutenant Werner Von Haeften, Stauffenberg attended Hitler's military conference at the Wolfsschanze in East Prussia, carrying a bomb in his briefcase. The location of the conference was unexpectedly changed at the last minute from the underground Führerbunker to the main briefing room above ground due to the hot weather. At around 12.30pm Stauffenberg made an excuse to use a nearby washroom and armed the first bomb. A guard knocked, urging him to hurry as the meeting was going to begin, so he left behind a second bomb with Von Haeften. He returned to the briefing room and placed the briefcase under the conference table next to Hitler. After a few minutes, he took a pre-arranged telephone call and left the room. The briefcase was then moved by Colonel Heinz Brandt. At around 12.45pm the bomb exploded, destroying the conference room and killing three officers and a stenographer. Hitler survived, shielded from the blast by the solid-oak conference table leg. His trousers were in tatters and he suffered a perforated eardrum, but he was alive. In August 1944, Stauffenberg's brother, Berthold, was one of eight conspirators executed by slow strangulation in Plötzensee prison, Berlin. The entire execution was filmed for Hitler to watch at his leisure. And over the coming months, it is estimated that over 7,000 Germans were killed or sent to concentration camps as Hitler took revenge on the enemies of the Third Reich.). 3. Still, distrust remained between the remnants of the KPD and the SPD which meant that no united opposition occurred. 4. In exile, the SDP formed the SOPADE, in which the SPD attempted to engage in limited opposition while in exile in Prague and Paris (1933-38). 5. Other institutions which could have opposed, such as the church and the army also failed to do so.

Increasing Violence, 1920-1922

1. Numerous street battles (some even scheduled) 2. Fascist "Punishment Expeditions" to attack socialist peasants = Used torture to intimidate 3. Police and government did little to help Socialists 4. Fascist Party won 35 (out of 535) seats in Parliament in 1921

D'Annunzio and Mussolini

1. On 16 October, the day of his meeting with the Quadrumvirate, Mussolini also held talks with Gabriele D'Annunzio to try to overcome the disputes between them. 2. Although the two men had similar nationalist and anti-democratic ideologies, they were rivals rather than allies. 3. In August 1921, for example, when the fascist ras were furious with Mussolini over his Pact of Pacification with the Socialists, Balbo had proposed that D'Annunzio should replace Mussolini as Duce (leader). 4. D'Annunzio finally said no to the offer and Mussolini survived the challenge from the ras, but the episode deepened the bad feeling between him and D'Annunzio. 5. In the autumn of 1922, just before the March on Rome, it was known that D'Annunzio was talking to liberal politicians like Facta and Giolitti - and that D'Annunzio had agreed to take part in a mass rally of national unity in Rome, scheduled for 4 November. 6. The clear intention of the rally was to stop Mussolini's rise to power. 7. The March on Rome happened a week before the rally could take place and the challenge fizzled out. 8. On 24 October, the Fascist Party congress opened and Mussolini made his demands clear - five cabinet posts for Fascists in the next government, or else. 9. On 26 October, Mussolini made a rousing speech to announce that it was time to seize power. 10. On the night of 27 October, fascist squads seized the town halls and the railway stations in Florence and Milan. 11. On 28 October, the March on Rome began. If the government gave orders for the army to crush the Fascists, and if the army obeyed the order, it was certain that the marchers, who numbered 20,000 at the most, would be crushed. 12. Mussolini was fairly certain this would not happen and that Facta would crumble. 13. Mussolini joined the marchers just long enough for an impressive photograph to be taken, and then went back to his hotel room in Milan to conduct his political negotiations over the telephone, while the marchers straggled along the road towards Rome, mostly in pouring rain. 14. Many were stopped at police checkpoints. 15. On the morning of 28 October, Facta declared martial law. It was now up to the King to sign the decree bringing in a state of emergency. 16. He did not do so, partly because he was unsure of the army's loyalty. He preferred to see the negotiations between Mussolini and Salandra produce a compromise government including fascist ministers. 17. On 29 October, Mussolini turned up the pressure on Salandra and the King. He refused the offer of a share in government and demanded full authority for himself. The King caved in. 18. On 30 October, he appointed Mussolini as prime minister. At last, the March on Rome could be allowed to have its triumphant ending. 19. Swelled by many late arrivals, the Fascists paraded through Rome while Mussolini watched from his balcony in the Hotel Savoy. This was not a seizure of power; Mussolini was appointed legally, according to the constitution, although it was also revolutionary, accompanied by the whiff of violence.

1938 "New Order in East Asia"

1. Officially announced by Prince Konoye on November 3, 1938 2. This was issued following the fall of the Netherlands and France, pointing to a complete collapse of European colonial empires in Asia, offering the opportunity for the expansion of Japanese hegemony. 3. Military commanders in Japan sought to compel Chiang to join a New Order in East Asia (the greater east asia co-prosperity sphere) that included Japan, Manchuria, and China. Japan would try to build a new Asian control structure in which it would lead its Asian neighbors to prosperity.

Japanese annexation of Korea

1. On August 22nd 1910, Japan annexed Korea with the Japan-Korea treaty of 1910. 2. Signed by the prime minister of Korea, Ye Wanyong and Terauchi Masatake (First Japanese Governor-General of Korea) 3. Was able to annex Korea due to their military strength. In the first year of Japanese rule, 700 people were arrested for being opponents to colonial rule. They were imprisoned, tortured, and prosecuted. 4. Koreans were deprived of freedom of assembly, association, press and speech. 5. Educational curriculum was changed to focus primarily of japanese history and language rather than Korean history and language. 6. The first decade of rule was coined the "the military rule."

4. Liberal Italy's stability (Negative factor)

1. Political divisions: 2. Italian politics was becoming very polarised (would not agree on any stances). 2. The Libyan war of 1911 exposed the great political division within Italy. 3. While some groups, such as the PSI, condemned the Italian entry in war, others, the nationalists, encouraged it. 4. Attempting to moderate the situation, Giolliti was greatly criticised by the right, who thought that the PM had been too conciliatory towards the Left. 5. Nationalists started to seek some sort of authoritarian state in order to make Italy a great power. 6. As WWI broke out in 1914, besides the nationalist opposition, Socialists and Catholics became critical of the government too (things got much worse). 7. The Liberal government was in no imminent threat (because they were still the main political group), but its political monopoly power was over. 8. Coalitions still depended greatly on Transformismo (Liberals forced to form coalitions with other parties = different ideologies, polarization), which made things much more unstable. 9. Political divisions were intensified by the internal rivalries between Liberal leaders, who had opposing views on whether or not Italy should go to war. 10. In the end, the 10. Liberals decided to go to war, seeking the credit for making "Italy Great". 11. Yet, the opposite occurred, as the war widened political, and social divisions, and further undermined the Liberal prestige, laying the groundwork for the growth of Fascism.

Mussolini's Rise to Power

1. Prime Minister Luigi Fracta asked king for emergency powers 2. King refused and invited Mussolini to become Prime Minister 3. Mussolini made prime minister on October 30, 1922 A) Fascist columns arrive for parades and celebration B) Never fired a shot

General Hideki Tojo

1. Prime Minister of Japan during most of the Pacific War 2. He heavily influenced Japan's expansionist goals and policies 3. Directed Japan's military efforts during its earliest and most successful campaigns 4. Tojo was an ultra-nationalist, believing that Japan must rely on its own power to establish itself as the dominant force in Asia 5. He was also a staunch fascist who felt that Japan should abandon liberal democracy in favor of authoritarian rule. 6. Found guilty by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East of war crimes and hence sentenced to death by hanging in 1948

The instruments of propaganda: Posters and school books

1. Posters were a key component of fascist propaganda. 2. Posters conveyed a vivid message in a colourful and accessible form. 3. They were especially important in the 1920s, before the arrival of cinema newsreels, but they continued to have a powerful impact in the 1930s and during the war years. 4. Posters covered walls, advertising hoardings and school classrooms. 5. In the early 1920s, including the 1924 elections, there was a poster war between the Fascists and the opposition but from 1925 the fascist regime gained a virtual monopoly. 6. Posters were produced glorifying all aspects of Fascist Italy, especially the cult of Il Duce. 7. Many of the posters reflected the influence of futurist art and the modernist 'fascist style' in architecture. 8. Some very striking posters celebrated the two flights across the Atlantic by massed Italian flying-boats, led by Italo Balbo in 1930 and 1933. 9. The second of these flights, to the Century of Progress exhibition in Chicago, caused an international sensation and gave a huge boost to Italian prestige. 10. Above all, fascist posters aimed to transform the image of youth. 11. Countless posters portrayed youth as the future soldiers of Fascism. 12. From 1921, there was a magazine dedicated to Giovinezza (youth); this became the lavish and expensively-produced magazine Gioventù Fascista (fascist youth) from 1931. 13. Poster propaganda was targeted at youth through schools as well as the youth organisations. 14. Posters were used to illustrate classrooms and school books. 15. There were dramatic poster illustrations on the front covers of Il Capo Squadra Balilla, a handbook for young Fascists, and Quaderno, a school exercise book. 16. The Gentile Education Reform of 1923 put a fascist stamp on the school curriculum and the regime quickly ensured that schools used a new generation of textbooks full of propaganda material - though the regime's concessions to the Catholic Church meant that fascist propaganda in schools had to compete with Catholic religious instruction, especially in primary schools.

Mussolini's consolidation/maintenance of power: Use of legal methods/ Charismatic leadership

1. Rule by decree (November 1922): 2. Parliament gave Mussolini to rule by decree for one year, which essentially allowed Mussolini to pass laws and without consulting congress at all. 3. Mussolini claimed that this would only be a temporary measure until Italy was stabilised, yet it allowed him to execute acts as he saw fit. 4. He was supported by many conservatives, and prominent Liberals like Facta and Giolliti, with the main opposition being the Communists and the Socialists.

Hitler's Consolidation & Maintenance of Power: From democracy to dictatorship (January-March 1933) - Use of force (2)

1. Social outcomes of the March 1933 Elections: 2. Following the elections, street violence increased, as SA members attacked KPD and SPD members. 3. The breakdown of law and order was manufactured by the Nazis (emerge as a single-party state) and used to tighten control over Germany. 4. The KPD was banned as a party, and its 81 elected deputies could not participate in government. 5. Proofed that once again, Hitler's method of weakening opposition was successful.

Stage 6: The establishment of the Fuhrerprinzip (August 1934): Use of Legal methods/ charismatic leadership

1. The Death of Hindenburg (August 10th 1934): 2. Following the death of Hindenburg in August, Hitler dissolved the presidency and established himself as the supreme-leader of Germany: the Fuhrer. 3. With the Fuhrerprinzip established, Hitler had complete control over Germany.1

The Catholic Church: rivalry and collaboration

1. The Church had many reasons to fear and hate Mussolini in 1922. The first was ideological. In his early career, Mussolini was a fierce atheist and anti-clerical who made frequent attacks on the evil influence of the papacy. For Mussolini and many fascist radicals, the Church represented backward superstitions and was a barrier to modernity and progress. To the Church, Fascism represented 'godlessness' and a threat to the social order. 2. The second cause of conflict was political. Between 1919 and 1922, the new Catholic political party, the PPI, was an obstacle in the way of the rise of Fascism, competing for support from many of the same social groups. Before October 1922, Don Sturzo, the leader of the PPI, tried to join with other parties in order to keep Mussolini out of power. Even after this, the PPI was still a political danger to the new fascist regime. Another, related problem was the existence of Catholic trade unions, in competition with the fascist syndicates. 3. A third battleground was control over education and youth. Mussolini's dream of 'making Italians into Fascists' required extensive indoctrination of the young in order to establish fascist social values; this meant a head-on collision with the indoctrination of the young by the Church to establish Catholic social values. When the fascist regime moved to reform the education system and to set up new youth organisations, it came into conflict with the Church and with the Catholic lay organisation (Lay organisation: run by and on behalf of 'lay' people (that is, people who have not been ordained into the priesthood).), Catholic Action. 4. Despite the potential for conflict, there were also reasons why the Church and the fascist regime might collaborate. Onçe Mussolini was securely in power, political realism pushed the Church to compromise with the government of the day. The same political realism pushed Mussolini towards gaining at least passive acceptance from the Church, just as he compromised with other traditional elites. 5. For the Church, Mussolini seemed to be the man who could save Italy from the 'Bolshevik threat'. The Church hated and feared Fascism, but the Church hated and feared Communism a whole lot more. Anti-Communism was a particularly powerful influence on the thinking of the new Pope, Pius XI. Before his election to the papacy in February 1922, Pius XI had witnessed the fighting in Warsaw when the Red Army invaded Poland during the civil war that followed the Bolshevik Revolution. Pius XI became almost fanatically anti-communist and this encouraged him to avoid open opposition to Mussolini. 6. On 2 October 1922, therefore, three weeks before the March on Rome, Pius XI issued a circular letter to the hierarchy of the Church in Italy. 7. The circular ordered the Catholic clergy to remain politically neutral and not to give open support to the Catholic PPI. This was an important sign that the papacy was ready to make a deal with the Fascists once they came to power. 8. In January 1923, Pius XI's Secretary of State, Cardinal Gasparri, had the first of a series of secret meetings with Mussolini, Through Gasparri, the papacy was offering to support the new regime, at least indirectly, by withdrawing support from the PPI. What the Church wanted from Mussolini in return was a continued attack on Socialism and guarantees of protection for the rights of the Catholic Church. 9. Mussolini was still in a relatively fragile position in 1923 and he was very willing to make concessions in order to secure support from the papacy. He committed extensive State funding to rescue the Bank of Rome, which managed the assets of the Church and was on the edge of bankruptcy. Concessions on the religious instruction in schools were also included in the education reforms introduced by the regime later in 1923. 10. Pius XI's decision to compromise with Mussolini was the beginning of the end for Luigi Sturzo and the PPI. In June 1923, the Pope ordered Sturzo to disband the Catholic Party. This was of great value to Mussolini because the PPI still had 107 deputies in the Chamber and was capable of obstructing Mussolini's path to power. 11. Sturzo reluctantly resigned (as a priest it was almost impossible for him to disobey the Popel, leaving the PPI badly weakened. There was little public protest from the Church against fascist violence in 1923, even when Catholics were the victims. Several bishops issued statements of admiration for Mussolini.

Short-term causes of rise of fascism (7)

1. The Fascis Fascis ≠ Fascists (Not yet) 2. To combat Communism the government employed the fascis, a very violent and nationalistic paramilitary group. 3. They often disagreed on multiple fronts, but generally believed in similar things (ideals)→ pro-war, anti-communist. 4. They successfully repressed the Communists in just ½ year, and created a militia known as the blackshirts (just like the government wanted but become so powerful to create their own militia = the blackshirts to control Italian society). 5. Even though communism has been repressed, the blackshirts continue to persecute the left. 6. Yet, the government had extensively financed the group, essentially releasing an unstoppable force that grew influential in Italian society, undermining the liberals.

Social Policies - Policies towards Workers (1)

1. The German Labour Front (DAF) 2. Within Hitler's first year (1933-34), trade unions were abolished as part of the Nazification process, as trade unions were associated with leftism. 3. Unions were replaced with the German Labour Front (DAF), which did not fight for workers, but rather: Ensured workers were kept in order and the production was increased.

What was true of the period between the dismissal of Mussolini and his reinstatement by the Germans?

1. The King and Badoglio wanted to end the war without losing power or fighting the Germans 2. Messages that the King and Badoglio sent out were vague and seemed to suggest Italian troops would not engage the Allies but said nothing of the Germans 3. Mussolini had been moved to various secure locations until he ended up at a ski resort north-east of Rome

Marco-Polo Bridge Incident

1. The Marco Polo Bridge Incident, also known as the Lugou Bridge Incident or the Double-Seven Incident was a July 1937 battle between China's National Revolutionary Army and the Imperial Japanese Army. 2. Since the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, there had been many small incidents along the rail line connecting Beijing with the port of Tianjin, but all had subsided. On this occasion, a Japanese soldier was temporarily absent from his unit opposite Wanping, and the Japanese commander demanded the right to search the town for him. 3. When this was refused, other units on both sides were put on alert, and with tension rising the Chinese Army fired on the Japanese Army which further escalated the situation, even though the missing Japanese soldier had returned to his lines. 4. The Marco Polo Bridge Incident is generally regarded as the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War.

Rise of Mussolini (1) - EVENTS

1. The National Election (May 1921): 2. Mussolini, without a seat in parliament or any government position, managed to be almost as powerful as the government due to his control of the blackshirts (controlled the streets of Italy). 3. Hence, PM Giolitti invited him to form a centre-right National Bloc against the left = common threat at the time (to get Mussolini on his side -- harnessing his influence). 4. Successful for Mussolini -- Mussolini accepted and won a seat in parliament, but the National Bloc failed to achieve a majority. 5. Still, he used his new political position to rally the Fascis and ascend through the political system (national elections were very good for Mussolini, but not for PM Giolitti, as he placed Mussolini in a very influential position in the government and consolidate more support).

What was a reason for the RSI's failure as a republic?

1. The RSI controlled only small parts of Italy that were not exposed to Allied attack, and keeping economic life going without German support was very difficult 2. Resistance to Mussolini steadily grew, and the number of partisans increased as people saw Mussolini as the reason the war dragged on 3. Mussolini was frequently ill and ageing badly, no longer the dynamic leader he had been in earlier days

Stage 1: Post-war scenario (1918-1919) (Impact of War)

1. The Stab in the Back: 2. The NSDAP argued that Germany had been stolen from its future (stabbed in the back by social politicians) German military leaders (General Ludendorff and future President Hindenburg) believed that Germany had been betrayed by the liberals who signed the ToV. 3. These became known as the November Criminals (stolen Germany from its "righteous victory" = the signing of the ToV in November stole their future = overly repressed / punished), who the Nazis would later blame for Germany's defeat.

Three Power/Tripartite Pact (1940)

1. The Three Power/Tripartite Pact signed in Sept. 1940 Agreed that Germany and Italy would dominate Europe and leave East Asia to Japan, which would allow Japan to seize many colonies. 2. When Germany allied with Japan = the moment when Anthony Beever argued that the US was alarmed and awoken to enter WW2.

Hitler's Consolidation & Maintenance of Power: From democracy to dictatorship (January-March 1933) - Use of Legal methods (7)

1. The abolition of trade unions: 2. Labour unions were associated with Leftist influences and so they were dissolved. 3. Instead, trade unions were replaced by the German Labour Front (DAF): A) The DAF could not collective bargains (as that could be detrimental for the ecnomic outcome for the Nazi state) B) The DAF could not engage in strikes. (as that could be seen as trecherours toward the Nazi state) 4. The DAF was Hitler's plan to bring harmony to the Volksgemeinschaft ("People's Community") -- Nazi idea that all aryans should be protected under this community as the superior race in the world. Striving for a "greater germany" and greater reich. For people to be as happy as they could be under the circumstances.

Economic Policies (2) - Tackling Unemployment: SUCCESSES

1. The economic policies in terms of tackling unemployment was very effective --Unemployment was reduced, evident by how in 1933 unemployment was 6 million and by 1939 Germany suffered a labour shortage. 2. The Armed forces grew from 100,000 in 1933 to 1,400,000 in 1939. 3. By 1934, The RAD was made up of 400,000 men.

1919: the ideology of social revolution -

1. The ideology of Fascism in 1919 was based on extreme revolutionary ideas. 2. Fascism was anti-capitalist, anti-monarchist and anti-Christian. 3. Fascism called for a social revolution that would destroy the old elites. 4. The ideology of 1919 was also very diverse, mixing nationalists with left-wing extremists, republicans with monarchists, working class with middle-class values and aspirations. 5. Mussolini by no means had complete control over the movement and often had to give in to pressure from radical elements.

Stage 3: The Golden Age (1924-1929) - Failures: Political Factors (2)

1. The outcome of the Putsch trials (Nov. 1923) exposed how the judciary was still very imperialistic as judges continued to be lenient to right-wing/nationalists, and remained harsher with the left-wing. 2. Outcome of Presidential elections following Ebert's death (Feb. 1925) - Hindenburg, a former WWI general, was elected President. He had links to the 'old-order', being a former General, and believing nationalism and conservatism. → As Stresemann noted himself, "The truth is, the Germans do not want a president in a top hat... he has to wear a uniform and a chestful of medals." However, some viewed Hindenburg as a stabilising figure, providing continuity between the imperial past and the Republican present, which made the transition between these two ages much more smooth and well-received. However, while Hindenburg's presidency may or may not have helped the Weimar Republic at the time, something that truly did not help was the strengthening of the NSDAP during the Golden Age. 3. Strengthening of the NSDAP - Unlike other extremist parties, the NSDAP managed to reorganise itself and grow more as a national movement: A) Establishing the Fuhrerprinzip: strong leadership principle, under Hitler. B) Appointing Gauleiters: regional leaders subordinated to Hitler. C) Volksgemeinschaft ("People's Community"), which was based on (German) blood not class was built in this time, allowing the NSDAP to be strengthened. D) Youth and professional associations with Party links. E) Use of propaganda to explore grievances of those in distress during the 1929 crisis and after to gather support . F) Adoption of the "parliamentary road" to power, not just putsch attempts. -- Developed key strategies and talking points following the beerhall putsch. Very prosperous for the NSDAP, as it allowed to rally mass support. 4. Rise in anti-semitism - The economic system only really favoured big business, whilst small business did not see much prosperity. Extreme right-wing parties would use this as a way to blame the Jewish (who owned many shops and businesses) for stealing German prosperity. Naturally, this idea was well-received by the nationalists and conservatives who wanted someone to blame (scapegoat). 5. Women as a conservative symbol - Many women enjoyed freedom, sporting new American fashion and access to contraception. But not all Germans, especially the nationalists and conservatives were not fond of the Americanised lifestyle. This led conservative and religious groups to use women as a symbol of the degeneracy of the republic, and a loss of pure German morality.

Sino-Japanese War

1. Two wars, however the first one took place in 1894-1895 and is cited as one of the reasons for why Japan chose to go to war with Russia in 1904 2. The war took place because of contesting claims for Korea and was integral to establishing influence in the region, as previously it had often shifted between these two countries 3. Japan's apprehension regarding Korea was because there was a fear that, if Korea were to remain "undeveloped", then it could easily fall prey to foreign intervention, posing a threat to Japanese rule in the region. China had begun asserting influence in the region, interfering directly with Korean politics and stationing troops 4. It is said that the outcome of the war (China's loss) demonstrated China's inability to modernize as quickly as Japan had with the Meiji Restoration

Economic Policies (2) - Tackling Unemployment: FAILURE

1. Whilte the figures were very positive, there is also evidence for the manipulation of statistics: A large portion of the population, such as victims of civil purges, was not accounted for when calculating unemployment figures, suggesting the numbers were much higher. 2. → Historian Adam Tooze describes the 'hidden unemployed' and calculated that there were still 4 million out of work in 1935. 3. Hitler also incentivized single women not to work so they could get married and have children and qualify for marriage loans.

A closer look: Mussolini's foreign policy and the historians

1. Why Mussolini moved away from Britain and France and became the ally of Nazi Germany is not easy to explain. It may not even have been what Mussolini actually wanted, though this claim is a matter of dispute. 2. Many historians, especially Denis Mack Smith in Mussolini's Roman Empire, put the blame squarely on the errors and muddled thinking of Mussolini himself. The pro-Mussolini biography by Nicholas Farrell, Mussolini: A New Life, blames British policymakers, above all Anthony Eden, for missing numerous opportunities to maintain good relations with Mussolini. 3. According to Farrell, it was only when he became convinced there was no possibility of making a worthwhile deal with the British and the French that Mussolini decided it was necessary to side decisively with Germany. 4. In recent years, historians such as MacGregor Knox, Robert Mallett and John Gooch have strongly disagreed with this view of Mussolini as a 'rational opportunist'. 5. They emphasise the vital role of ideology in shaping his foreign policies, and the great extent to which the links between Mussolini and the armed forces from the early 1920s onwards revealed long-term plans for deliberate wars of aggression. 6. The title of Knox's book, Mussolini Unleashed 1939-41, reflects this view that Mussolini was ideologically driven and had a single-minded determination to launch war, even before 1935. 7. In Mussolini and his Generals, Gooch argues that only the poor state of the Italian armed forces held him back'. Deciding between the rival interpretations of Mussolini's foreign aims is difficult because Mussolini's words and actions were so often contradictory and deceptive, at times even to himself. 8. Mussolini had second thoughts almost immediately after the Pact of Steel had been signed. He sent a memorandum to von Ribbentrop a week later, stressing that Italy did not want any major war for the next three years - something he had omitted to include in the specific terms of the Pact. 9. On the other hand, this memorandum still clearly showed Mussolini's aggressive intentions in the longer term; it was full of statements about Italian ambitions to achieve a dominant position in the Balkans.

The cost of one loaf of bread in Berlin:

1918: 0.63 Marks 1922: 163 Marks January 1923: 250 Marks July 1923: 3,465 Marks September 1923: 1,512,000 Marks November 1923: 201,000,000,000 Marks

What was the "Salo Republic?"

A German-dominated puppet state in northern Italy led by Mussolini

Autarky

A policy of self-reliance, avoiding or minimizing trade and trying to produce everything one needs (or the most vital things) by oneself.

What was set up in Northeastern China (Manchuria) by the Japanese?

A puppet state called Manchukuo was set up in Northeastern China, and some semblance of legitimate Chinese governance was established by the installment of the "Last Emperor" of China, the young Pu Yi.

Pact of Steel (May 1939)

Agreement between Germany and Italy whereby each power promised to come to the aid of the other if it got involved in hostilities. Mussolini privately insisted that Italy was not ready for war, but Hitler ignored him.

German expansion (1938-1939)

Anschluss, 1938; Sudeten Crisis, 1935; May Crisis, 1938; Liquidation of Czechoslovakia, 1939; Pact of Steel, 1939; Nazi-Soviet Pact, 1939; Outbreak of war, 1940 Key events of WWII: April 1940: Hitler's troops occupy Denmark and land at Norwegian ports May 1940: Hitler and Germany achieve swift victories in defeating Holland, Belgium, and France Summer 1940: Operation Sea Lion; Battle for Britain June 1941: Operation Barbarossa launched

Anti-clericalism

Anti-clericalism: opposition to the Church having influence on politics and society outside the religious sphere.

Which was one of the strands of belief in Fascist ideology?

Anti-pacifist Anti-democratic Nationalistic

Why was there not a coordinated propaganda machine before 1930 in Italy as compared to Nazi Germany or the USSR?

Before 1930, both the "block consensus" of politics as well as the late arrival of talking movies and cheap radio sets made its use impractical

The inter-relationship of foreign and domestic issues

Between 1940 and 1945, the fate of Italy was decided by domestic and foreign issues that were inextricably linked. Once Italy had entered the war in 1940, Mussolini found that he was increasingly losing control over the internal situation in Italy. From 1943 until the end of the war, allied armies invaded and occupied southern Italy; German armies dominated the situation in northern Italy. After the war ended in 1945, it was obvious that the post-war government of Italy would be along lines laid down by the victorious allies. The following list indicates how some, though by no means all, of the events that happened to Italy and to the Italian people was determined by the inter-relationship of foreign and domestic issues: If Italy had stayed out of the war in 1940 (or if the war had been the short victorious war Mussolini hoped for), Italy might have avoided the enormous economic strains and political upheavals that resulted from the war. Italy's attempt to fight a separate, 'parallel' war completely failed. From April 1941, the direction of the Italian war effort was dominated by Mussolini's German allies. The Italian economy, though it had not achieved the successes claimed by fascist propaganda, was doing comparatively well by the end of the 1930s. It became badly overstretched from 1940 as a result of Mussolini's unrealistic foreign ambitions. Mussolini lost a lot of popularity because of the consequences of his alliance with Germany. People resented the commitment of 200,000 Italian troops to fight on the Eastern Front at Stalingrad. They resented the fact that many skilled workers were taken out of Italy in the later years of the war to work in German factories. The Forty-Five Days from July to September 1943 showed how decisive foreign issues were. Italy might have escaped two years of the miseries of war if it had been possible to negotiate a separate peace and a swift exit from the war. This did not happen, partly because of the failures by Italian political leaders and partly because of the actions of the allies and, especially, of the Germans. Between 1943 and 1945, the lives of Italians in the Kingdom of the South' were shaped by the actions of the allied armies. Being fed properly, being in a job, even being alive, depended on whether you were in the way of the fighting armies, or hit by bombing raids, or adversely affected by rising prices and the black market. The Italian provisional government in the South could only act in ways the allies permitted. Between 1943 and 1945, the lives of Italians in northern Italy were shaped by the German occupation and by the partisan Civil War. The Salo Republic was led by Mussolini and his fascist government, but the RSI only existed because the Germans liberated Mussolini from captivity and put him back in power. The RSI only existed as long as German armies remained in northern Italy. After the defeat of the Axis in May 1945, the future of post-war Italy was at least as much in the hands of foreign powers as of Italians. The economy was desperately in need of foreign aid. The transition to democracy in post-war Italy was going to be influenced by the policies and actions of the victorious allies.

Cheka:

Cheka: the secret police department of the fascist militia, the MVSN. The leader of the Cheka was Amerigo Dumini. The Cheka took its name from the secret police of the Bolshevik regime in Russia, set up by Lenin in 1921.

The left resistance movements

During the 20 years of Mussolini's rule from 1922, resistance from the left had been suppressed so effectively that it was almost non-existent. By 1943, however, the social conditions of wartime Italy provided an opportunity for anti-fascist opposition to gain support. The left was able to make a political comeback. Some of the left resistance was led by men who had been in exile in the United States or in the USSR, but there was also a home-grown element. There were several different strands of opposition on the left and many divisions between the various factions, but it did prove possible for them to cooperate at times, even though there was never a single united resistance. The CLNAI (Committee of National Liberation for Northern Italy) was formed in January 1944 as an umbrella organisation coordinating anti-fascist resistance in German-occupied Italy. The main groups were: Actionists. Moderate, middle-class opposition centred on intellectuals and left Liberals and led by Ivanoe Bonomi. They started to become politically active in 1940 and formed the Party of Action in 1943. About 25,000 of the partisans in 1944-45 were loyal to the Actionists. Socialists. Remnants of the old Socialist Party became involved in the resistance but they represented only a small proportion of the active partisan fighters. Catholics. Catholic opposition was centred on the newly-formed Christian Democrats (DC), drawing support from people who had previously supported the PPI, or belonged to Azione Cattolica. There were about 20,000 Catholic partisans. The Catholic resistance was not exactly on the left but was willing to cooperate with the left more than it ever had in the past. Communists. The best-organised resistance came from the Communists, who controlled more than 30,000 partisans. The impact of the Communists was increased by a change in policy by Stalin, whose traditional policy had been to forbid Communists to cooperate with 'bourgeois' parties. In March 1944, Stalin sent the Italian communist leader, Palmiro Togliatti, who had spent long years in exile (some of the time in Moscow), to Naples with instructions to collaborate with the provisional government and the other anti-fascist opposition groups. The resistance was a communist success story, although they were never able to monopolise the whole resistance movement. The Italian partisans were localised, with allegiance to many different parties. The partisans could not win pitched battles against the fascist militias in the North, but they were very effective in mobile hit-and-run warfare, such as sabotage, assassinations and ambushes. There were atrocities by both sides; whole village populations sometimes massacred as collective punishment. The larger partisan forces operated in the countryside but there were also urban guerrillas, such as the communist GAP (Patriotic Action Group). The effectiveness of the resistance is often disputed. Certainly, the Communists after the war were guilty of exaggerating the scale of their activities, or at least of claiming they had made a big impact much earlier than they actually did. It was in the second half of 1944 that the resistance really gained momentum and many people joined the partisans very late in the war, when it was clear to see who the winning side was. The resistance had more than nuisance value. Partisan activities in northern Italy tied down huge numbers of German soldiers and fascist militiamen by blocking their ability to move around and by forcing them into action in places they did not want to be. About 5,000 German soldiers were killed by partisans and another 25,000 wounded. The partisans also scored a propaganda triumph for anti-Fascism. One important effect of this was to 'legitimise' the PCI. A myth grew up around the heroic resistance by Italians liberating their country from Fascism. In reality, of course, it was not the 80,000 lightly-armed partisan fighters who Fig. 10 The execution of Achille Starace, 1945 defeated the German army. It was the massive force of the regular allied armies.

Terror and the Nazi State

Fascist doctrine was based on gaining control through the exercise of power, and Hitler moved quickly to create a totalitarian state through the use of terror.

Italian Unification

Giuseppe Garibaldi: 1) Led invasion of Kingdom of Two Sicilies in 1860 2) United all of Italy, except Rome and Venetia under King Victor Emmanuel 3) Established Kingdom of Italy in 1861: A) Venetia added in 1866 B) Rome added in 1870, against wishes of Pope = 1929 establishment of the Vatican City

What did Hitler think of the Jews as?

Hitler believed that the Jews were an "inferior race," not suitable to mix with the "Aryan Master Race" that he was creating.

What was the Paris Peace Conference?

In the aftermath of WWI, the leaders of the victorious nations—but not Russia (in civil war) or Germany (the looser), for the first time since the Peace of Westphalia (a peace conference after the 30s year war fought over religion, where similarly to WW1 this war costed 8 million peoples lives)—met for the Paris Peace Conference to discussed how to deal with the end of the war; established the Treaty of Versailles.

Did the Rentenmark help the German economy?

In the long run, these measures helped the German economy, but the immediate effect did little to help the common man, and actually increased the level of unrest in Germany.

Leandro Arpinati

Leandro Arpinati (1892-1945) was a friend of Mussolini before 1914. In 1920, Arpinati was one of the leaders of the fascist squadristi and a vice-secretary in the PNF From 1926 to 1929, he was podesta of Bologna. In 1930, he was accused of involvement in an attempt to assassinate Mussolini that had taken place in 1926 - he spent several years in prison or under house arrest. In 1943, Mussolini invited Arpinati to join the government of the Salo Republic, but he refused. He was killed by partisans in April 1945.

Liberal Italy

Liberal Italy: the name commonly given to the new united Italy from 1870 to 1922. Liberal Italy was a parliamentary democracy, ruled by a constitutional monarchy.

Weimar problems 1919-23 [ILRIM]: Munich Putsch

On 8-9 November 1923, Hitler's Nazis tried to take control of Bavaria (the Munich Putsch).

The Rise of the Nazis

Origins of the Party Hitler rose to leadership in the German Workers' Party in 1919, later renamed as the National Socialist Workers' Party (NSDAP), or Nazi Party for short Located on the radical right of the German political spectrum Hitler set up an army of "Stormtroopers" (SA), also known as the Brown Shirts, to scare off or attack political opponents (especially Communists) during Party meetings Mostly made up of former Frei Korps members Munich Putsch (1923) Hitler led a mob of over 600 SA to a beer hall, where a meeting between Bavarian government leaders was taking place, while Ernst Rohm led other groups of SA in taking control of government buildings and arresting officials The putsch was put to an end after the Bavarian government ordered the army to attack the Nazis, arresting Rohm and Hitler and killing 16 Nazi members Hitler was sentenced to 5 years in prison, but served only 9 months Reconstruction of the Party Hitler reformed the Nazi Party in 1925, adding on to the power of the SA by creating the SS ("Protection Squads"), an elite paramilitary force Branches were set up across the country, with mass rallies and propaganda (created by Goebbels) being used to popularize the Party and its policies Received only 2.6% of the national vote in the Reichstag elections of 1928 Frequent street fights between SA and SS officers and Communists Gaining Popularity Capitalizing on the economic devastation caused by the Great Depression and hyperinflation, Hitler appealed to Germany's population by promising economic recovery and reduced unemployment, as well as a reversal of the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles and a restoration of German cultural values and "rightful place" among world powers (25 Points) This appealed to a wide range of demographics, including the young, old, middle and upper class, employed and unemployed, etc. Received 6 million votes in the 1930 Reichstag elections, almost gaining the highest number of seats Frequent use of scapegoats for Germany's problems (November Criminals, Communists, Jews), strengthened by propaganda Reconstruction of the Party The Nazi Party doubled their votes in the 1932 Presidential elections, as compared to the ones in 1930, and gained control of the Reichstag in the same year However, Paul von Hindenburg occupied the position of President and Franz von Papen that of Chancellor Hindenburg frequently used Article 48, which enabled him to issue presidential decrees without the support of the Reichstag, to supersede the opposition of the Nazi Party and make von Papen's decisions into law Political Instability Von Papen lost a vote of no confidence in 1932, and arranged for another election in November Army general Kurt von Schleicher, after threatening Hindenburg with a general strike or civil war if he kept utilizing Article 48, replaced von Papen as Chancellor After only two months, both Hindenburg and Schleicher resigned Ongoing political instability pressured Hindenburg to swear in Hitler as Chancellor on the 30th of January, 1933, maintaining von Papen as vice-Chancellor in the hope of using him to reign the Nazis in Consolidating Power A fire broke out in the Reichstag less than a week before elections, on the 27th of February, 1933 After a Communist was allegedly caught lighting the fire, Hitler used his guilt to justify the arrest of key Communist Party members and instituting the "brown terror", where the SA attacked Communists and arrested 4,000 of them on the charge of "planning to incite violence" The Nazi Party won 45% of the vote in the 1933 Reichstag elections However, since this did not give them a majority, they arrested the remaining 81 Communist party members in the Reichstag The SA was also deputized to stop and attack and opposition members attempting to enter the building Having obtained a Nazi majority, the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act on the 23rd of March, 1933, granting Hitler the power to make his own laws This granted him the legal power to take absolute control of Germany

A closer look: The Spanish Civil War

The Spanish Civil War was actually three inter-related wars: 1. The first war was the nationalist revolt against the Spanish Republic, an internal struggle between the forces of the right (Francoists, Fascists, Catholic Conservatives and monarchists) against those of the left (Liberals, Socialists, trade unionists, Communists and republicans). 2. The second war was between the centre and the regions - the struggle by the Françoists to prevent the Basques and the Catalans from achieving self-rule. 3. The third war was the international trial of strength between fascist regimes and the Western democracies. A) The civil war began in July 1936, with a revolt of right-wing army officers, led by Francisco Franco, against the Spanish republican government. B) The revolt soon widened into a bitter civil war with many atrocities on both sides. C) By March 1939, the nationalists had achieved a decisive victory. D) Franco continued to dominate Spain until 1975. E) One key reason why Franco was able to win power in the end was that his rebellion received large-scale military support from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, whereas the legal republican government did not receive equivalent help from the Western democracies. F) Both Britain and France followed a policy of non-intervention, backed by economic sanctions. G) The republican forces did get military backing from Stalin and the USSR, and from the idealistic volunteer fighters in the International Brigades but this was ultimately ineffective - and the assistance from Stalin made the republican cause associated with Communism. H) Franco's victory weakened the Western democracies and strengthened the fascist regimes. I) The war also had the effect of bringing Hitler's Germany and Mussolini's Italy closer together. J) Italian military assistance to the nationalists in Spain was on a large scale. K) Twelve Italian bombers were sent in July 1936. L) In December, the first force of 10,000 Italian 'volunteers' arrived in Cadiz. By February 1937, there were more than 50,000 Italian troops fighting in Spain. M) At the height of Italian involvement in 1937, the total reached 80,000, backed by 150 tanks. N) Air power provided by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany was vital in tipping the balance of the Civil War away from the republicans and towards the nationalists. A total of 660 Italian aircraft were deployed in Spain. The Italian bombing raid on Barcelona in March 1938 was both militarily and psychologically very damaging to the republican cause. O) Intervention in Spain gained some of the prestige and political advantages Mussolini had hoped for, but it put severe strain on Italy's military and industrial strength. P) Mussolini had gambled on the involvement in Spain being short lived, but it lasted until the end of 1938. The total of Italian dead was nearly 4,000, most of them killed in the humiliating defeat by a smaller republican army at Guadalajara in November 1937. Q) One of the problems of Italian intervention was that most of the troops involved were not trained regular army units but Blackshirt militiamen, who were not prepared for the intensity of the fighting in Spain. R) General Franco had not really wanted a large Italian fighting force anyway - what he wanted most was money and weapons. S) The intervention in Spain had very important consequences for Italy afterwards, but it is not clear how far Mussolini realised this at the time. T) As stated by historian M. Clark, " his rise to power in the 1920s had shown, Mussolini knew how to play people off against each other, how to threaten and bluff, how to make propaganda and how to exploit temporary advantages; but he knew little of other countries and he ignored the underlying strategic realities. For him, foreign policy was an exhilarating game, played for high stakes. It was also a marvellous way of rousing and transforming the Italian masses. As Mussolini told Ciano in 1937: 'When Spain is finished, I will think of something else. The character of the Italian people must be moulded by fighting.'" U) In fact, Italy paid a high price diplomatically. In the Western democracies, there was strong support for defending democracy in Spain. 40,000 volunteers joined the International Brigade to fight in Spain. V) Franco became a hate figure for the left, especially in Britain, where public opinion turned sharply against Italy and Germany. W) It might still have been possible in 1936 and 1937 for Italy to rebuild relations with Britain and France, but links between Mussolini, Hitler and Franco in the Spanish Civil War made this much less likely. Intervention in Spain pushed Mussolini towards greater subservience to Nazi Germany.

What was true of the "Corporate State?"

The fascist regime was firmly on the side of workers and unions

What is the "dualism" of the Italian economy?

The virtually complete separation between the economies of the north and the south

Opposition to Mussolini and his removal from power in July 1943

The years of war opened the way for opposition against the regime. Some of this opposition was a direct reaction against the war and the hardships it created for ordinary people. Other forms of opposition were more deeply rooted. Anti-fascist groups who had always opposed the regime sensed the opportunity to start organising resistance activity as the public mood turned against Mussolini. People stopped thinking that Mussolini did not know how bad conditions were and that he would put things right if only he knew; they started to blame him personally for everything. All this gave an opportunity to the anti-fascist opposition. Previously, the divisions between the various strands of opposition had played an important part in Mussolini gaining and keeping power, but by 1943 the growing anti-war feeling enabled diverse opposition groups to reach much more agreement and unity than they ever had before. There were four key anti-fascist groupings - Martin Clark labelled them Actionists, Communists, Socialists and Catholics (M. Clark, Modern Italy 1871-1982, 1984). By 1943, wartime conditions in the industrial cities were causing resentment among the 6 million workers in war production. They were working longer shifts, under tighter controls, struggling with bombing raids, evacuations, rationing and food shortages. Prices were constantly rising and there was a growing black market. These pressures culminated in a massive wave of strikes by industrial workers in March 1943. The strikes began in Turin at the beginning of March and spread across northern industrial areas, including Milan. Altogether, about 100,000 workers were involved. This was the first major strike in Fascist Italy since the Corporate State had been set up. The workers were careful not to go too far. The strikes were usually in the form of brief, 'sit-down strikes', designed to make a point but not bring factories to a standstill, or to cost the workers too much in punishments or loss of wages. Even so, the strikes were a massive threat to the fascist system. The strikes also became politically motivated and organised by activists from the PCI. The Communists had been driven underground for many years and were small in numbers, but they were very effective in focusing people's grievances, even though they were only a small fraction of the workers involved. In the Fiat works in Turin, 21,000 workers took part in the strikes but only 80 of them were Communists. The strikes were not direct political opposition to the regime. The main demands were for more food, better conditions and an end to the war. There was no direct link between the industrial unrest and the fall of Mussolini. However, the protests were indeed politically important. They showed that many Italians hated the war and the way it had been run. The strikes showed that many people were losing faith in Fascism and losing faith in Mussolini. Posters appeared proclaiming the anti-war message. Another factor causing opposition was the ever increasing dominance of Italy's war effort by the Germans. People wanted to know why 200,000 Italian soldiers had to be lost at Stalingrad, fighting Hitler's war on the Eastern Front. They wanted to know why thousands of skilled workers were shifted from Italy to work in factories in Germany. Many of the Italians who witnessed it objected to the harsh treatment Fig. 2 Italian anti-war slogans inflicted by the Germans on the people in occupied Greece and Yugoslavia. Like the anti-war feeling, anti-German feeling led to criticism of Mussolini. This encouraged dissidents within the fascist movement to start plotting against him. By mid-July 1943, Italy was close to defeat. Axis forces had pulled out of North Africa. Allied armies had landed in Sicily and were advancing northwards. Mussolini did not hesitate to blame others. He blamed the Italian generals for failing to carry out his orders. He blamed Hitler (at least in private) for wasting men and resources in the Russian campaign when he should, in Mussolini's view, have concentrated all available forces to win the war in Western Europe. Most other people preferred to blame Mussolini. He was the man who had dominated Italian politics so completely since the 1920s. He was the man who had taken Italy into Hitler's war and who had commanded Italy's war effort. Now, many people reasoned, the best hope was for a quick end to the war by deserting the alliance with Nazi Germany in order to make the best peace deal possible with the allies. For those who wanted to pursue this course, Mussolini was no longer the solution to Italy's problem - he was the problem.

League of Nations' Response to the Manchurian Crisis

While the Lytton Commission was investigating, the Kwantung Army continued to expand in China, and "freed" Manchuria from Chinese rule.

Republic

a country without a king or queen.

What was the significance of the uniforms of the SA and their uniform?

- Hitler began to call his private army of thugs Sturmabteilung ("Storm Troopers") or SA for short. They often wore a brown uniform, and were also called the Brown Shirts. - Members also wore paramilitary (military-style) uniforms, and used an increasingly military style (to make people look like they were in the army = everybody sees this branding and presentation of control & discipline within the chaos = made people feel "safe"a) of discipline with Hitler as the supreme leader, or Fuhrer.

Short-term causes of rise of fascism (9)

1. Unemployment: 2. Demobilisation of troops led to an unemployment of 2.5 million in 1919, as firms were losing profit, and thus unwilling to employ workers. Plus, troops returned, but their jobs were occupied. 3. Unemployment was worsened by the shortages of food and raw materials, as people did not have jobs or resources. 4. This greatly decreased Italians' quality of life.

Results of the Manchurian Crisis

Deterioration of relations between Japan and USA/Britain; Within Japan, the League of Nations, international law, and the West were ignored; eventually influenced the signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany & the Soviet Union in Nov. 1936; Japanese control of Manchuria was accepted by China in 1933 with the Treaty of Tanggu.

What turned out to be the case in the 1920s about the Western Powers & Japan?

In the 1920s, however, all negotiations with the Western powers seemed to result in loss and disgrace to Japanese ambitions, and the people were angry.

Ivanoe Bonomi

Ivanoe Bonomi (1873-1951) Bonomi was a moderate Socialist who became prime minister of Italy in 1921. In February 1922, he was forced to resign because of a split in his coalition government. Bonomi withdrew from politics after Mussolini came to power and stayed on the sidelines until 1940, when he joined the anti-fascist opposition. He was made prime minister of the new Italian Republic in 1944, replacing Marshal Badoglio. Bonomi stayed in power until 1945. After the war, he played a key role in Italy's transition to democracy.

The Gulag System

Many victims of the purge were deported to Labour Camps (Gulags) for forced settlement and labour in the area - timber, mining, railroad construction. Many leaders or important members of ethnic minorities from recently-integrated territories were also sent here. The death toll is at around 13 million. GULag - ГУЛаг - Гла́вное Управле́ние Лагере́й - actually means "chief administration of the camps" and it denotes the government agency in charge of their administration.

Historiography: Was Hitler a Planner, or an Opportunist, in foreign affairs? How did they argue this?

1. Hugh Trevor-Roper (Hitler's War Aims, 1960) used Mein Kampf and the Hossbach Memorandum as evidence that Hitler's ideas (especially the Final Solution) were radical, and argued that these objectives were pursued with conviction and coherence. 2. AJP Taylor (Origins of the Second World War, 1961) used the Treaty of Brest Litovsk and the Bethmann-Hollwegg Memorandum as evidence that Hitler's ideas (especially Lebensraum) were traditional, and suggested these objectives were pursued with opportunism.

Social Policies - Policies towards Minorities

1. Minorities 2. The Nazi government considered asocials all of whom were undeserving of living in the Volksgemeinschaft. 3. Asocials included groups such as homosexuals, Jews, Roma/Sinti, the homeless, physically/mental handicap. 4. There was a anti of Volksgemeinschaft of sorts -- These people were part of the Community of aliens, who were treated inhumanely and with great hostility, in order to "protect the racially superior." 5. Treatment of asocials consisted of various ways of stripping people from their humanity: 1. Sterilisation -- denying a person the possibility to reproduce. 2. Demonization -- for example through national "smear campaigns" was a form of inciting hatred by this specific group on the site of their population - to make them feel like they were hated by the population. 3. Social exclusion -- the jews, for example, were put into ghettos or outside the german population because they were made to feel like they did not belong. 4. Euthanasia 6. Yet, the Nazis also institutionalized the persecution of minorities and anti-semitism by using legislation, so that these minorities could not operate or live within German society within a legal basis: E.g→ the Nuremberg Laws in 1935 -- Jewish people had to live with a David Star on their clothes, Jewish men and women had to put "Israel" in the end of their names to be easily identified. Both of these are examples of how these people were picked out of the society so that the state could persecute them. 7. A key factor was that the Nazis also ensured this instituionalized repression by inciting popular hatred of these groups, which made the persecution of these minorities a cornerstone of Nazism (not only by the SA, SS and Gestapo but also by the general public): E.g→ The Gestapo relied on Cultural Denunciation (which involved the general population) to find those undesirables that hid amongst Germans. E.g→ Kristallnacht in November 1938 was when there was a nationwide arrest of Jews and destruction of Jewish property as an attempt to incite Jews to leave Germany or kill them. 8. Finally, minorities were often sent to concentration camps, such as Auschwitz and Belzec, where they would be used as forced labour or as trial subjects for medical experiments or simply excluded from German society with very inhumane conditions and later on between 1940 to 45 when the euthanasia program was established, murdered. E.g→ It is estimated that 320,000-350,000 were sterilised in concentration camps.

Italy at War

1. Most socialists opposed war A) Split the party B) Benito Mussolini was a member and newspaper editor, and originally opposed the war = Eventually changed his mind and was thrown out of the Socialist party 2. Riots calling for declaration of war 3. Government joins war after secret Treaty of London in 1915 4. Italians faced brutal conditions: A) Tried to attack Austria over Alps B) Only marched 15 km into Austria C) Crushed at Caporetto D) 600,000 dead E) 950,000 wounded and 250,000 crippled for life F) Government had spent twice as much as it had in the 53 years since unification G) Inflation H) Unemployment

Why were newspapers the main instrument of propaganda for the Fascists?

1. Mussolini and others in the party were former journalists, and thus recognized how newspapers could be effectively used 2. There were a number of newspapers directly controlled by the Fascist party 3. Many editors "auto-censored" their stories, trying to guess what the regime would and would not approve of

Germany 1919-1933 The history of Germany 1919-1933 falls into three phases: 1923-1929 But the Republic survived and (after Gustav Stresemann became Chancellor in 1923) did well:

- Economic Prosperity - Foreign Policy successes - Cultural flowering

Martin Bormann

- He was Hitler's private secretary -- controlled the flow of information and access to Hitler - Head of Nazi Chancellery - Knew Hitler from his youth (Basically the second in command of Nazi Germany) - Also killed himself in 1945

How did Mussolini add to the instability in 1935?

- In 1935, Mussolini added to the growing instability by invading Ethiopia, also called Abyssinia. - Benito Mussolini wanted revenge, and to restore the honor of Italy; he also wanted to increase Italy's colonies overseas. - On the 3rd of October, over half a million Italian soldiers invaded Ethiopia, marching from the Italian colonies of Eritrea and Somalia. - Unable to defend his country, Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie called on the League of Nations for help.

What is similar about Japan's nationalism to Germany's ideologies of Race?

- Japan's people also possessed an extremely strong racial pride and confidence in their own destiny to be great. - The Emperor claimed to be able to trace his heritage back to the first Yamato Emperor, 2,600 years earlier, and the Japanese people were remarkably homogeneous--98% ethnic Japanese.

Why did Japan industrialize quickly after U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry sailed into Japan in 1853?

- Japanese Emperor Hirohito, knew that Japan needed to industrialize as rapidly as possible to become a major geopolitical player, yet they lacked sufficient natural resources to do so; namely iron ore, coal, and oil. - To this end, Japan militarized quickly, and Generals gained power and influence, despite Emperor Hirohito's general abhorrence of war and violence.

What were the key forms of propaganda in Nazi Germany?

- Joseph Goebbels continued to be a vital part of the Nazi totalitarian machine, using propaganda and mass communication. - Newspapers carried only uplifting and encouraging stories, and Goebbels designed the front page headlines for those who did not read the papers. - A new invention called the radio was sold at affordable prices and carried Hitler's speeches into the living rooms of every German house. - Mass rallies were held annually in Nuremberg, lasting an entire week and taking place in four specially built arenas that could hold 400,000 people each!

What was the Night of the Long Knives?

- June 29-30, 1934: Hitler commanded the SS to break into the homes of the leaders of the SA (he considered too radical) and arrest them - Hitler accused Rohm of planning to murder him and take power - Over the next few days, over 400 people including Rohm were executed over the weekend; 1000 others were arrested. - Carrying out the killings were Hitler's own black-shirted guards, the Schutzstaffel or SS, led by Heinrich Himmler

Germany 1919-1933 The history of Germany 1919-1933 falls into three phases: 1919-1923 At first the Weimar Republic had great difficulties:

- Left wing rebellions - All people were angry with it - Right-wing rebellions and terrorism - Invasion and inflation - Munich Putsch

Why did Austria feel itself the biggest loser from the Treaties (specifically the Treaty of St. Germain), with some justification?

- Legend has it that after negotiators had divided and allocated the best agricultural land and industrial resources of central Europe, French leader Georges Clemenceau scoffed "Le reste, c'est l'Autriche" ('the rest is Austria'). - Once the "beating heart" of an empire of 30 million, Austria was now a landlocked "left-over". It was reduced in population to around six million, losing three million of its German-speaking citizens in the Sudetenland (now part of Czechoslovakia) and South Tyrol (given to Italy). - Austria shrank in size to a mere 84,000 square kilometres, losing important farmland and industrial resources. - Austria was forbidden from any future political unification with Germany, and the name it had adopted at the end of the war - Deutsch-Österreich was also outlawed. - The Austrian army was restricted to a maximum of 30,000 volunteers; its entire air force and most of its naval ships were surrendered to the Allies. - Like Germany, Austria was compelled to pay reparations, though this was limited to 30 years.

What were meetings of the Nazi Party like and what did Hitler do to promote this?

- Meetings of the Nazi Party were often rowdy and violent, and members of opposing parties often came to boo or heckle speakers. - Hitler set up a "Gymnastics and Sports Division" to deal with such people—many of the key figures in this division were former Frei Korps members who enjoyed cracking Communist heads.

Who was most of the propaganda directed at?

- Much of Goebbels' propaganda was directed against a certain population of people in Germany: the Jews. - Anti-Semitism was a basic tenet of the Nazi Party; Hitler blamed them for the end of the First World War (an adaptation of the Stab-in-the-back Theory) and for the economic collapse of Germany. - Jewish businessmen were especially reviled, and propaganda was used to portray them as greedy traitors, hand-in-hand with the Communists. Hitler was using the Jews as a scapegoat and was determined to remove them from his "Greater Germany," stealing their wealth in the process.

Women in Nazi Germany

- Shortly after coming to power in 1933, Hitler passed the Law for the Encouragement of Marriage, promising to give newly-married couples a loan of 1000 Marks (about 9 months' wages). - The couple would also get to keep the money if they had children—a quarter of the sum for each child up to four—which was a huge incentive for people to increase the German population. - Women in Nazi Germany played an important role in the idea of the Volksgemeinschaft. They were to provide the foundations of the racially pure community that Hitler hoped to create. - Hitler said "every child that a woman brings into the world is a battle, a battle waged for the existence of her people".

How did the Munich Putsch end?

- The 3 Bavarian leaders quickly went back on their promise and ordered the army to attack the Nazis. - Rohm was arrested, and in a rescue attempt, armed police shot dead 16 Nazis. Hitler escaped with a dislocated shoulder, and Ludendorff unharmed, but the putsch was over. - Hitler and Ludendorff were arrested later that day and charged with high Treason.

How was the League's power tested by Mussolini in Abyssinia by 1935?

- The League acted immediately, condemning Mussolini & declaring economic sanctions on Italy = boycotting Italian, except for oil, which was vital for war. - Unfortunately, this first test of the League's power and influence failed: it took six weeks for the sanctions to be put into place, and some League members refused to take part. - The Italian forces did suffer to some degree because of the sanctions: gold, steel, grain and textiles became hard to obtain, but the sanctions did not include oil—vital for conducting war. - Furthermore, the United States of America was not a member, and so continued trading with Italy. - Mussolini won his war of conquest, and the League of Nations had failed once again to stop one member from attacking another. - Not to mention, all of this tension also ultimately contributed to the downfall of the Stresa Front, which was a coalition formed between Britain, France and Italy in April 1935 right before Mussolini's invasion of Abyssinia to oppose the foreign policy actions of Hitler. It was an agreement to resist any further attempts by Germany to change the Treaty of Versailles and stop german expansion. - Kissinger: "France and Great Britain never came to grips with the reality that they faced two mutually exclusive options. If they concluded that Italy was essential to protecting Austria and, indirectly, perhaps even to helping maintain the demilitarized Rhineland it had guaranteed at Locarno, they would have needed to come up with some compromise to save Italy's face in Africa and to keep the Stresa front intact. Alternatively, if the League was indeed the best instrument for both containing Germany and for rallying the Western public against aggression, it was necessary to pursue sanctions until it had been demonstrated that aggression did not pay. There was no middle ground. Yet the middle ground was exactly what the democracies, no longer having the self-confidence to define their choices, sought."

In comparison to the Germans & Italians, how much military power did the USSR send to the Spanish Civil war?

- The Republicans, meanwhile, were supported by the USSR, who committed about 1000 aircraft, 900 tanks, 1500 artillery pieces and large quantities of ammunition to the war effort. - Only about 1000 Soviet military advisors were sent to Spain, however, and instead Communists from around the world assembled to come to Spain to fight, calling themselves International Brigades. ("Internationale")

What did the SA start doing as their numbers grew tremendously?

- The SA—now numbering 4 million men—instituted the "brown terror," beating up Communists and throwing 4,000 of them into prison on the charge of "planning to incite violence." - Communist meetings were shut down and truckloads of SA roared through the streets, breaking into Communists' homes and looting them.

Nazi Aggression & Appeasement Intro:

- While Italian forces were invading Abysinnia, Adolf Hitler—whether according to his "master plan" to obtain lebensraum for Germany or opportunistically—pursued his own aggressive aims for Europe. - This began with Hitler's "dropping his mask" and revealing to the world his true intentions to make Germany a military superpower and create his "Greater Germany." - Hitler's primary aim was to create a "Greater Germany," and to do so he needed to revive German military strength, which he was doing through re-armament. - Then Hitler intended to reclaim all German-speaking areas taken from Germany in the Treaty of Versailles, unifying all Volksdeutsch ("German People") in his Third Reich.

Who was Martin Niemöller?

- While too many people remained silent in the face of Nazi crimes (bystander effect), some prominent Christian leaders, like Martin Niemöller, spoke out, and most died for it. - Any Church leaders who preached against the Nazis or Hitler's actions were beaten up, or arrested and interned at Dachau concentration camp.

Summary and significance of the LON's response to Japan

1. After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, the League of Nations sent a fact-finding mission to China Under the leadership of Lord Lytton. 2. The Lytton commission sent back a report called the Lytton report in October 1932, in which it concluded that Japan was the aggressor and that it had wrongfully invaded Manchuria. 3. Following the report, the league of nations ordered the Japanese to leave Manchuria, however the Japanese refused. 4. In 1933, a few months after the Lytton report, Japan decided to leave the League of Nations which made it look weak 5. The league decided to impose economic sanctions on Japan, however Japan continued to trade with the US. 6. The League also discussed banning arms sales to Japan, but the members quickly disagreed to this in fear of retaliation from Japan and the war would escalate. 7. Only the USA and the USSR would have had the resources to remove the Japanese from Manchuria but they weren't even members of the League. 8. In the end the League did nothing else and Japan kept control of Manchuria and invaded further into China. 9. The people who expected the League to keep peace began to despair as this matter had greatly weakened the League. This crisis had shown just how incapable the League really was and of course the League realized this and had to justify its actions. Excuses were made such as that Japan was too far away.

Stage 2: Early years of Weimar (1919-1923) (Weakness of the Weimar Constitution 2)

1. Article 48 (initially seen as a strength (safety measure in extreme conditions) but quickly turned into flaw) 2. This allowed the President to suspend basic constitutional principles and rule by decree in the event of threat to public order or security. 3. Though this was drafted as a safety measure, only to be used in extreme occasions, Ebert used it 136 times. 4. Sometimes it was justifiable, such as during the Ruhr crisis in 1923, but often, it was only a way to override the Reichstag 5. → Historian Stephen Lee has said that 'the presidential powers meant the existence of a 'reserve' or 'parallel' constitution - which had no need of parliamentary parties.' 6. This was initially considered to be a strength of the Constitution, but proved to be a weakness.

The invasion of Abyssinia

1. At the Stresa Conference in April 1935, France and Britain had been eager to achieve an agreement with Mussolini. 2. They did give warnings to Mussolini about Abyssinia, but privately and in rather coded terms. 3. Mussolini assumed, wrongly, that there would not be strong international opposition to an invasion. Mussolini had been thinking about invading Abyssinia for a very long time before the actual invasion. 4. Italian forces in Eritrea, to the north of Abyssinia, had been building up since 1932. 4. The Wal Wal incident of December 1934 showed how Italy was angling for an excuse to invade. 5. The appointment of Emilio De Bono as Commander in Chief of all Italian forces in East Africa in March 1935 showed Mussolini's intentions. 6. Italy continued with massive military preparations through the summer months. 7. The Emperor of Abyssinia, Haile Selassie, was well aware of the Italian threat and was already seeking support from the League of Nations. 8. The invasion began on 3 October. The main invasion force, led by Emilio De Bono, attacked from Eritrea in the North while General Graziani commanded smaller Italian forces on the southern front. 9. The day before, Mussolini made a big set-piece speech in Rome. At the same time, in public meetings in towns and villages all over Italy, people listened to announcements by local officials and to the live radio broadcasts from Rome. A massive effort was made to whip up patriotic enthusiasm for the war. 10. Mussolini's plans depended on winning a quick victory. A symbolically important victory was gained with the capture of Adowa on 6 October, but the advance of the Italian armies was frustratingly slow and Mussolini lost patience. 11. In December, he sacked De Bono and replaced him with Pietro Badoglio. 12. There was a counter-attack by the Abyssinian armies and the Italian advance stalled. 13. Mussolini was now facing two serious problems: one was military - how to win the war; the other was diplomatic - how to cope with the threat of international action to force him to back down. 14. During 1936, Mussolini was able to win his war but only by the use of massive military force. 15. In addition to the forces already stationed in East Africa, Italy mobilised more than 600,000 troops, equipped with modern weapons and with air support. 16. Mussolini urged his generals to use brutal methods, including poison gas. 17. Between February and April 1936, the Italians won a series of battles on both the northern and southern fronts. 18. Badoglio launched his final assault, the so-called 'March of the Iron Will', determined to get to the Ethiopian capital, Addis Ababa, before Graziani did. 19. Haile Selassie went into exile and the war ended on 5 May. 20. On 9 May, Victor Emmanuel III was proclaimed Emperor of Ethiopia.

The legacy of the past...

1. Benito Mussolini came to power in 1922, promising to rescue Italy from the economic and political crisis that followed the First World War and from the long-term failures of Liberal Italy since unification. 2. The rise of Fascism after the First World War was rooted in the legacy of Italy's past, both in the development of the united Italy from 1870 and in the situation of Italy at the end of the First World War.

Economic Policies (3) - New Plan: SUCCESSES

1. Bilateral agreements allowed Germany to import more raw materials and increase its influence over the Balkan region. 2. Mefo bills funded ½ of Germany's rearmament between 1933-38 = crucial for its successes.

Economic Policies (5)

1. Blitzkrieg (1939-41) 2. Blitzkrieg allowed Germany to obtain new territory that supplied them with labour and raw materials. E.g→ Anchluss and invasion of Czechoslovakia had supplied Germany with economic resources 3. However, the performance of the Nazi economy during war raises the question of whether Germany was a polycratic state (overlapping authorities) or the monolithic Fuhrer state. 4. → Historian Geary has referred to the overlapping authorities of the government as "personal fiefdoms" that prevented political and economic policies from running smoothly. 5. A lack of central wartime administration made it difficult for the nation to successfully mobilise resources and get all the people behind the war effort. This resulted in a sense of confusion. 6. E.g→ Overy has exemplified this productive inefficiency by pointing out that Fritz Todt, Minister of Armaments and war production (1940-42), had no control over aircraft production. 7. It was events like these that hindered the Nazi ability to react to war losses: E.g→ Inability to replace the lost planes in the Battle of Britain (1940). Gordon Wright has argued that the Nazis could have collaborated with the conquered territories as a way to benefit from the vast military and material resources. Instead, their policy of "smash and grab" was more convenient, but did not allow Germany to fully thrive from the conquered territories.

Using the sources and your own knowledge, to what extent do you agree with the suggestion that Japanese foreign policy aims up to 1937 were to be achieved through "gradual and peaceful ways" (Source J)? OWN KNOWLEDGE ASPECT OF Q:

1. By 1931, after the invasion of Manchuria, the Kwantung Army simply ignored efforts by the Imperial government in Tokyo to check its aggression. 2. Militarists assassinated Prime Minister Inukai in May 1932, for trying to bring the Kwantung Army under control. 3. By 1933 Jehol had been annexed and Manchukuo created under the puppet leader Pu Yi. 4. By the mid-1930s, army extremists had become impatient with Japan's existing political and economic policies that led to the attempted coup on 26 February 1936. 5. Although the coup failed militarists were committed to extending Japanese territory by force. 6. The signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany in November 1936 was seen as protecting Manchukuo against the Soviet Union and guaranteeing the safety of Japanese territory allowing for a more aggressive policy towards China. 7. In July 1937, tensions between Chinese troops and Japanese troops led to the Marco Polo Bridge Incident after which Japanese armies invaded China's northern provinces and quickly captured Beijing. 8. The Japanese captured Shanghai in November 1937 and then attacked Nanjing in December 1937 with the resulting massacre of the civilian population.

Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)

1. Considered the first major war that saw the defeat of a European power by an Asian nation 2. Started with the Japanese attack on Port Arthur (warm water port - important for Russia because, contrary to the port at Vladivostok which was functional only in the summer, the one at Port Arthur could be used year-round) 3. This attack was a response to the failure of negotiations regarding important territory in East-Asia - Japan offered to cede Manchuria to Russia as long as it recognized that Japan should have control of Korea, however Russia refused, leading to the breakdown of diplomacy 4. Russian expansionist policies in East-Asia (Manchuria and Korea mainly) → couldn't advance in the south because of China, but needed access to the sea. It eventually got some territory, important example being the port of Vladivostok, which rapidly became industrialized in the late 19th century and became an important naval base; desire to consolidate influence due to the railroad to Vladivostok 5. After Japan's victory, it was able to gain new territory, and formalized its control of Korea, later annexing it in 1910 6. The loss of the Russians demonstrated that Japan was a force to be reckoned with, consolidating its victory in the Sino-Japanese War

Short-term causes of rise of fascism (1)

1. Difficulties in war: 2. Italy performed poorly in the conflict (hoped to do a lot better = optimistic when it entered war). 3. Campaigns such as the Battle of Caporetto (1917) were considered national humiliations→ 500,000 Italians captured or deserted. 4. Over 1 million Italians casualties. 5. Victory at Vittorio Veneto (1918), made leaders hope that Italy would be well compensated, as it was a decisive battle that effectively destroyed the AH army. Many historians looked at this war to say Italy wiped out Austrian troops from the war. It was small victories such as these that made Italy hopeful, but were rare. 6. Italy, however, was poorly compensated.

The birth of Fascism, 1919-21: The post-war crisis

1. During 1919-21, Italy was gripped by a major political and economic crisis. There was rocketing inflation (rişing prices) and also widespread food shortages. 2. Integrating hundreds of thousands of ex-soldiers back into the peacetime economy was a difficult task that was often mishandled. 3. Industrial relations were very poor, with frequent strikes, factories being occupied by workers and lockouts by the employers; often accompanied by outbreaks of violence. I 4. n the countryside, there were several instances of peasants seizing land illegally. 4. The middle classes were fearful that there would be economic and political breakdown, leaving Italy open to 'Bolshevism', revolution and civil war. 5. In the crisis conditions that followed the First World War, the political elites of Liberal Italy found themselves struggling to maintain their traditional dominance. 6. On the left, there was a surge in support for the PSI, the Socialist Party founded in 1895. 7. In the first post-war elections, in May 1919, the PSI gained 32 per cent of the oligarchic system but faced growing challenges from new political forces, especially due to the rise of Socialism and trade union power as a result of industrialisation. 8. The First World War intensified these challenges but, in 1919, the leaders of the old liberal oligarchy still pulled the strings of government. 9. There were many Italians who felt that this 'Giolittianism' did not represent their interests. 10. Socialists and trade unionists objected to its 'favouritism' to businessmen and industrialists. The peasants, especially in the South, felt neglected and marginalised. 11. Republican idealists felt cheated and let down because unification had only gone halfway. 12. The Catholic Church was deeply hostile to the anti-clericalism of the State. 13. In the years after the First World War, new political parties were beginning to challenge the existing political ruling class.

The rise of Mussolini

1. Mussolini was a radical Socialist who turned away from Socialism because of his fanatical Nationalism. 2. He was a journalist with a flair for self-publicity, but the movement he founded in Milan in March 1919 was tiny, with only around 50 followers. 3. There was little ideological unity in this little group of troublemakers, who had wildly different attitudes, including monarchists, radical left-wingers and anti-Catholics and other extreme views. 4. In 1919, Mussolini was only on the fringes of Italian politics, virtually unknown compared with Gabriele D'Annunzio. 5. In the elections in November, Mussolini won only 2% f the vote in Milan. The Socialists out-polled the Fascists by 7 to 1. 6. By the end of 1919, there were no more than 4,000 fascist supporters in total. From these unpromising beginnings, however, Mussolini was able to mould his fascist movement into a significant political force. 7. This was achieved mostly by presenting the Fascists as Italy's 'last defence' against the threat of socialist revolution. 8. In the summer of 1920, about 500,000 workers took part in a mass occupation of factories in northern Italy after a dispute in the metallurgical industry boiled over. This sparked fears of revolution. Fascist membership increased sharply and Mussolini was able to claim that fascist violence was the only way to counter the socialist threat. 9. Fascist squadre d'azione (action squads) carried out an organised campaign of violence that established the reputations of the ras (the important squad leaders), such as Italo Balbo in Ferrare and Dino Grandi in Bologna. 10. Between December 1920 and May 1921, fascist squads killed about 200 Socialists and injured almost a thousand. 11. Many people, including those in government, approved of the fascist actions, at least privately. There was little interference from the police. 12. The elections of May 1921 revealed the growing strength of the Fascists and the success of their violent tactics. 13. Desperate to prop up his government, Giolitti invited Mussolini to join his National Bloc to fight the election together. This electoral pact with Giolitti gave the Fascists a lot more political respectability and they won 35 seats in the election. Mussolini and the Fascists had arrived on the political scene. Giolitti's attempt to use the 35 Fascists in the Chamber of Deputies to keep his coalition government going did not work. He was forced to resign in June 1921. 14. Parliamentary government almost broke down because the outcome of the election had left politics in Italy virtually deadlocked between three groupings (the government bloc, the centrist opposition and the left opposition) of equal size. 15. Between 1917 and 1919, Mussolini had shifted from a socialist journalist to become a violent revolutionary, but from May 1921 he decided it was tactically necessary to act like a respectable politician in order to maximise his influence in parliament. 16. In July 1921, Mussolini even made a truce with the Socialists, the so-called Pact of Pacification, to stop the violence between them. This caused fierce protests from the leaders of the fascist squadre d'azione, who were not interested in political compromises but wanted to be let loose. 17. In November 1921, the Fascists reorganised as the PNF (National Fascist Party). Mussolini gave in to pressure from the radicals and cancelled the Pact of Pacification. Fascist violence started up again on an even bigger scale than before. 18. By the end of 1921, Italian politics was in a permanent state of crisis. At that time, there was little likelihood of the Fascists coming to power, but there seemed no prospect of political stability being achieved by anyone else. 19. During 1922, the fascist movement was able to exploit the sense of complete breakdown in Italy and move closer to achieving power.

2. "Mutual fear led to increasing tensions between the US and Japan." Using the sources and your own knowledge, to what extent do you agree with this statement? OWN KNOWLEDGE ASPECT OF Q:

1. The US became increasingly fearful of Japan with the invasion of Manchuria (1931) and the withdrawal of Japan from the League of Nations. 2. Although at the time US response was limited to moral denunciation, the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937 increased fears for US national security. 3. Additionally, the Japanese naval expansion and the sinking of the American gunboat USS Panay (1937) contributed to the escalation of tensions. 4. Japan's intention to implement the "Southern advance" and to mobilize bombers to attack Burma, Malaya and possibly the Philippines raised alarm in the US. 5. Also, Japan feared the increasing involvement of the US in the Sino-Japanese War, such as financial and military aid to the Guomindang (GMD) was prolonging the war and pushing the Japanese economy to the limit. 6. Economic factors, such as the negative impact on Japan's economy of the US protective tariffs or Roosevelt's decision in 1939 not to renew the Treaty of Commerce and Navigation also contributed to their fear. These contributed to a negative perception of the US and to the rise of Japanese nationalism. 7. It was not only mutual fear that increased tensions between the US and Japan and refer to the fear of Soviet influence in China. 8. The US began to move away from its isolationist policy more openly after 1938 and by late 1941 some perceived the war against Japan as inevitable. OTHER LINKS: 9. The failure of diplomatic negotiations (such as the US rejection of a partial Japanese withdrawal from China; the Hull note), the rise of Japanese militarism, Japanese alliances with Germany and Italy and the influence on Japan of Nazi victories in Europe.

Unfortunately, the League of Nations was limited in several key ways:

1. The USA was still not a member; nor was the USSR, or Germany. 2. Members lacked enthusiasm—it was viewed as a "club of victors" by Germany, Italy, and Japan, in particular. 3 The league had no power to raise an army, and had no means by which to secure funding. 4. Their most stringent sanction was economic: a boycott (which again had to be done by all members to be effective as all decisions had to receive an unanimous vote to pass which meant that any party could veto a proposed League action = everyone had to be for the sanction or else it wouldn't be pulled through.)

The Pact of Steel

1. The relationship between Mussolini and Nazi Germany finally became a formal alliance in May 1939 when the Pact of Steel was signed. 2. The Germans had been pushing for such an alliance for some time - they suggested it several times during 1938. Mussolini's attitude was much more cautious, wishing to keep options open. 3. When the Pact of Steel was finally negotiated, it came as something of a surprise, especially to many leading Fascists, because there had been little detailed preparation beforehand. 4. On the German side, the negotiations leading to the Pact of Steel were logical and focused. Hitler knew he was going to war against Poland in the autumn of 1939. He wanted to cement an alliance with Italy in order to tie down British and French forces in the Mediterranean while his armies were fighting in the East (and to make absolutely certain that Mussolini would not suddenly switch sides). 5. In April, Hitler sent Hermann Göring to Rome to convince Mussolini of the military strength of Germany and reassure him that he need not worry about going to war for another two or three years. 6. Then it was arranged that Joachim von Ribbentrop would meet Ciano in Milan on 6 and 7 May to discuss a 'friendship' pact. 7. On the Italian side, the negotiations were muddled and improvised at the last moment. Mussolini was thinking in terms of being ready for war some time in 1943. He was still tempted by the idea of Italy holding the balance of power in Europe and not being committed to a formal alliance. He was hoping that the invasion of Albania, launched in April 1939, would demonstrate Italian strength. Late on 6 May, however, Mussolini made a sudden, apparently impulsive decision. He telephoned Ciano in Milan and told him to go ahead with a full alliance, which was more than the Germans had been asking for. There was no detailed planning behind this and the actual terms of the Pact of Steel were drawn up by the German side, without any haggling over the details by Ciano. 8. The agreement reached in Milan was then signed two weeks later on 22 May, in Berlin.

Summary and significance of the invasion of Singapore, Malaysia and Hong Kong

1. The victories of the Nazis in Europe created great opportunities for Japan to take over the Asian colonies of Britain, France and the Netherlands and, on 24 July, Japanese forces moved into southern Indo-China. 2. From there (as seen in the diagram to the right) they could threaten Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore. The USA and Britain, alarmed at this Japanese move, immediately froze all Japanese assets and this brought foreign trade with Japan to a halt → perpetuating the economic reasons for Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor .

The ultimate scope of this vision (the "Co-Prosperity Sphere" ) was monumental, including:

1. The whole of the Pacific, including Australia & New Zealand 2. Alaska, South Central America and parts of Mexico & Peru, Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica and the Bahamas. 3. Indonesia, the Philippines, Burma, Malaysia, part of India, and all of Southeast Asia.

Economic Policies (5) - The Blitzkrieg: SUCCESSES

1. There were successes: Predominantly limited to the German army, looked like the Nazis were going to win the war in Europe between 1939-41. Blitzkrieg evidenced many short-term successes. 2. Particularly with the military achievements and conquered territory.

The rise of the Fascists was assisted by:

1. The rise of the Fascists was assisted by the mistakes of their opponents. On 1 August 1922, the day Luigi Facta formed his new government, the Socialists organised a general strike. They hoped it would push the government into taking action against the Fascists, but it had the opposite effect. 2. It gave the Fascists an excuse to launch violent attacks against the strikers and it exposed the divisions in Facta's coalition. Some wanted firm action to suppress the Fascists, others wanted to include them in the government. 3. By September 1922, three rival political groupings were preparing to take decisive action to resolve the political crisis: ■ The first was the traditional political establishment. They expected Facta to resign and a new government to be formed under one of the old guard, either Giolitti or Salandra. A congress of liberal politicians was held at Bologna early in October to plan for such a government, which would try to 'tame' Mussolini by including fascist ministers. ■ The second was the group around Luigi Facta, who started making military preparations and ordered more troops to be stationed in Rome. Facta also wanted to use the prestige of Gabriele D'Annunzio, the 'hero' of Fiume, who had a strong following among ex-soldiers and was potentially a powerful rival to Mussolini. Facta and D'Annunzio made plans for a mass rally of national unity to be held on 4 November (the anniversary of Italy's victory in 1918). It was clear that this was intended to be a 'Stop Mussolini' rally. ■ The third group was the Fascists, who now controlled so many local governments in Italy that Mussolini was ready to make a bid for power. The fascist radicals were straining at the leash and Mussolini knew he had to act before the 4 November rally, which might have been a serious threat to him. The only question was how? Would it be through violence in the streets, or by peaceful means?

Fascism

A governmental system led by a dictator having complete power, forcibly suppressing opposition and criticism, regimenting all industry, commerce, etc., and emphasizing an aggressive nationalism and often racism = calls for extreme nationalism and racism and no tolerance of opposition.

Historiography on Italian-German Alliance

According to historian Nicholas Farrell, "The reason Mussolini wanted an alliance with Hitler is not because he wanted war. It is because he did not want war. Initially, Mussolini had ridiculed Hitler. Now he feared him. There was a certain affinity between Fascism and National Socialism but this was more to do with what they were against than what they were for. Mussolini chose Germany for two simple reasons, fear and greed. Britain wanted merely to stop an alliance between Hitler and Mussolini. This was fine as an aim but to achieve it Britain would have to offer Italy an alliance. This, Britain was not prepared to do. While Britain showed only limp interest, Hitler was full of seductive urgency. But Mussolini was still interested in his traditional policy of playing one side off against the other."

War and the fall of Mussolini, 1940-45 Mussolini's war, 1940-43: Historiography

According to historian Ray Moseley: "Mussolini was fanatically determined to subject the Italian people to the anvil of war, 400 000 Italians died in war and Fascism sent one million people or more to their graves. The blood of all these people is on the hands of Mussolini, who ranks just after Hitler and Stalin in the list of European war criminals in the Second World War. He was driven to hitch Italy to the German war machine by his vainglorious lust for territorial expansion; he wanted an empire just when the age of imperialism was already passing."

Achille Starace

Achille Starace (1889-1945) Starace was a fanatical nationalist who led fascist squads in the March on Rome and was the leader of the volunteer Blackshirt militia, the MVSN. Starace then became Secretary of the PNF (National Fascist Party) in 1931. Although he was regarded as a war hero for his actions in the Abyssinian War, he gradually lost favour with Mussolini and was replaced as Party Secretary in 1939. Starace was sacked as leader of the MVSN for military incompetence in 1941. His political career ended in 1943 when he was arrested after the fall of Mussolini. In 1945, he was captured by partisans and executed in Milan.

What marked the beginning of the Holocaust (Shoah)?

Adolf Hitler ordered the SS to begin arresting and imprisoning Jews, beginning with all those in Germany. As Hitler rearmed Germany, and as the Second World War began, these Concentration camps would provide a valuable source of slave labor for them. As the Nazis began to conquer Western Europe, the SS immediately and systematically rounded up the Jews in those countries and sent them to Concentration camps. It then continued in Austria, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Poland, then finally France, Norway, Denmark, Holland, Belgium, the Balkans and Russia. Only Switzerland and Sweden were allowed to remain neutral.

How many battleships were damaged and sunk by the Pearl Harbor attack?

All 8 of the U.S. Battleships were damaged or sunk, which was the entire "battle line" of the Pacific fleet.

What was also a part of Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points?

Also in his list of Fourteen Points was the creation of a League of Nations: a peace-keeping body that would be led by the victorious Allies, precursor for the UN.

How were Jews killed in other places around the world, even though there was substantial resistance to Nazi occupation?

People were also simply executed and dumped in mass graves, particularly in Russia and Poland, where there was substantial resistance to Nazi occupation.

Italy's international position in 1939

Superficially, Italy seemed to have achieved a secure position in the world by the end of 1939. Fascist aggression had succeeded in Abyssinia and Spain and enhanced Mussolini's prestige, even though it had made him enemies. The Western democracies appeared weak, committed to appeasement. The invasion of Albania in April 1939 had extended Italian influence across the Adriatic and provided Italy with a springboard for further expansion in the Balkans at the expense of Yugoslavia and Greece. The signing of the Pact of Steel in 1939 meant that Mussolini was closely allied to Hitler's Germany, but it was not yet impossible to escape involvement in Hitler's war. Mussolini, like most people, expected the war Hitler launched in 1939 to be similar to the First World War. He thought another long-drawn stalemate like that of 1914-18 would give him plenty of time and enable him to keep his options open. Mussolini did not believe that Nazi Germany would be able to gain total victory over France and Britain (he was not sure he wanted this to happen anyway), but it was almost certain to weaken them considerably and allow him to carry through his ambitions in Africa and the Mediterranean. Italy's international position was actually far weaker than it seemed. Mussolini had accepted Germany's Anschluss with Austria in 1938 only because there had been no way he could have prevented it. The Anschluss made Germany bigger and stronger. It also ruined one of Mussolini's key policies, to maximise Italian influence over Austria. Fear of Germany was an important factor in Mussolini's calculations. There were even private discussions between Mussolini and Ciano that Italy might one day be at war against Germany. Italy's armed forces were nothing like as powerful or as ready for war as the fascist propaganda claimed, or as foreign powers believed. The Duce's military and economic advisers told him that Italy's armed forces were not yet militarily prepared for war; Mussolini himself told Hitler in 1939 that Italy would not be ready for war until 1943. This was why, when the European war began in September 1939, Italy remained 'non-belligerent'. Finally, there was the problem that Mussolini had no coherent strategy and the armed forces were nowhere near ready to fight a major war, Mussolini told his generals to make preparations for war but they had no idea when, or which country they would be planning to fight against. As the 'Phoney War' continued into the early months of 1940, therefore, Mussolini's aims were unclear. Most of the time, he expected Italy would eventually join the war on Germany's side but he was unsure when the time would be right. Occasionally, he discussed the possibility of long term neutrality, 'while the two lions tore each other to pieces. Some leading Fascists like Dino Grandi urged him to make a last-minute change of policy and join with Britain and France.

The Comintern

The Comintern (Third Communist International) was the worldwide association of communist parties, formed in 1919 under the leadership of the new Bolshevik regime in Russia. Germany and Japan signed their Anti-Comintern Pact in November 1936; Italy joined in November 1937.

What were concentration camps like as systems?

The Concentration Camp system was massive, and there were many different types of camps throughout Germany. Many of these camps became massive, holding tens of thousands of people at a time, and organised and run by Himmler's highly efficient SS.

What is appeasement and what did Britain and France do with it?

The dictionary defines appeasement as the attempt to bring about a state of peace, quiet, ease, or calm through pacifying someone that has greater power/bully = give them territory, for example. In history, however, the word usually refers to the unsuccessful effort by British prime minister Neville Chamberlain to keep Adolph Hitler from starting World War II. - Kissinger: "To resist the impending German threat, Great Britain's leaders should have confronted Hitler and conciliated Mussolini. They did just the opposite: they appeased Germany and confronted Italy." - Kissinger: "With Italy out of the Stresa front, Germany's sole remaining obstacle on the road to Austria and Central Europe was the open door provided by the demilitarized Rhineland. And Hitler wasted no time slamming it."

How was Yamamoto's idea of a "moral shock" accomplished?

This "moral shock" would be accomplished by a crushing attack on Pearl Harbor.

What happened on December 1st, 1941?

Thus, on December 1st, 1941, the Japanese high command met with the Emperor, who reluctantly agreed that American demands were too humiliating to accept and that although war was 'regrettable,' it was the lesser of two evils.

Were immigration laws forbidding Japanese citizens to move to the USA and Australia causing damage to Japanese pride/nationalism?

Thus, racist actions taken by the United States and Australia to prevent Japanese immigration, as well as perceived failure at the Versailles Treaty were taken as an insult to Japan's honor, which could not be tolerated.

Totalitarian state:

Totalitarian state: a state in which political power is totally controlled by one party and in which all individuals are totally merged into one coordinated mass society.

Italy after Fascism

When the Second World War in Europe finally ended, Italy had been badly damaged by war and Civil War. The national economy had virtually broken down. Almost 1 million soldiers had been killed. Millions of Italians had gone hungry, endured bombing raids, become homeless or unemployed. There was corruption and the growth of the black market. There was inflation; by 1945, the cost of living was 23 times higher than in 1938. The situation of poor agricultural labourers in the South was desperate. There was high unemployment, which persisted after 1945. Around 1.6 million were still unemployed in 1947. Mussolini's promise to build a new Roman Empire had led to complete failure. All Mussolini's foreign conquests were lost and Italy was occupied by foreign armies. The peace treaty between Italy and the Allies, signed in Paris in February 1947, stripped Italy of all its colonies apart from Somalia. Eritrea was given to Ethiopia. Libya was handed over to British rule and became independent in 1952. Fiume was handed to Yugoslavia and France took possession of territories on Italy's Alpine frontier. Far from achieving a new Roman Empire, Mussolini had left Italy a smaller, defeated nation with no empire at all. Within Italy there was a dangerous political vacuum and bitter political divisions. Rebuilding the Italian State out of the ruins of Mussolini's Italy was bound to be a difficult and lengthy process. Between the end of the war and 1947, it gradually became clear who were the losers and who were the winners. For the foreseeable future, Fascism in Italy was discredited. Mussolini was both disgraced and dead. So were almost all of the leading fascist personalities. There were some remnants of Fascism. Some old Fascists stayed loyal to Il Duce's memory. (There was a brief sensation when a small group of Fascists 'stole' Mussolini's body from its unmarked grave in Milan and hid it in a church in Pavia.) A new neo-fascist party, the MSI, was formed but got very little support. There was no prospect of any revival of Fascism. Another loser was the monarchy. Despite the unification in the 19th century, many Italians had never really accepted the monarchy. From 1922 to 1943, King Victor Emmanuel III had been sidelined by Mussolini, who became the real figurehead of the Italian nation. With Mussolini as Head of State, it was hard to see any reason for Victor Emmanuel's existence. The King made a brief political comeback when he dismissed Mussolini in 1943, but was not able to restore his authority. Italy became a republic in 1946. Surprisingly, the Communists were losers, too. They did well in the first post-war elections and the PCI leader, Palmiro Togliatti, had a key role in the new government as Minister of Defence. In the crisis that followed the war, there were genuine fears that Italy would be taken over by the Communists, like the states of East Central Europe. This was one of the main reasons for the American decision to pour foreign aid into Italy. From 1947, it was clear that Italy would be on the side of the West in the Cold War. The PCI was excluded from the government and remained in frustrated opposition for decades. The winners in post-war Italian politics were the groups Mussolini thought he had destroyed in the 1920s. The extremes of Fascism and Communism were out; liberal democracy made a comeback. So did the political influence of Catholicism. The capitalist system was put back in place, with big business controlling the industrial economy again. Between 1950 and 1957, Italy became a founder member of the EEC (European Economic Community) - which, ironically, made Italy once again an ally of Germany. The political leaders of the new Italy all claimed that they represented the values and achievements of the resistance. The numbers of partisans eventually reached nearly 3 million by April 1945, but the majority of these joined only at the last moment, when victory was certain. The effective fighting forces in the Civil War totalled between 80,000 and 100,000. About 10,000 were killed, 21,000 badly wounded and more than 9,000 deported to Germany. The partisans did contribute to winning the last phase of the war but the Italian resistance was never as united as it pretended to be, nor was it as important in overthrowing Mussolini as was claimed; but the 'Resistance Myth' was very useful for giving credibility to the post-war political parties. Italy's first post-war government, led by Ferruccio Parri, was a coalition of Actionists, Liberals, the PCI and the Socialists. Parri's government gave a misleading impression of unity. Beneath the surface, there was a wide gap between the left and the right. After five months, a new government was formed, led by Alcide De Gasperi and dominated by the real political winners of post-Fascist Italy - the Christian Democrats. The DC (Democrazia Cristiana, or Christian Democrats) appealed to business, the middle classes and Catholics. The DC was founded partly on the old PPI led by Don Sturzo between 1919 and 1922, and on the Catholic trade unions. De Gasperi and other DC party leaders had close links to the Church and the DC was strongly supported by the Vatican newspaper, L'Osservatore Romano. The Catholic Church succeeded brilliantly in convincing people that it had all along been anti-fascist; the many examples of collaboration with Mussolini's regime were forgotten. From 1947-48 until the 1990s, Italian politics was virtually a DC monopoly. One reason for the dominance of the DC was the influence of the United States. American influence had always been strong in Italy. Before 1914, millions of Italians had emigrated to the United States. There was a lot of contact between Italian-Americans and families back in Italy. The presence of allied armies during 1943-45 had also 'Americanised' much of Italy, especially in cities like Naples. After 1945, Italy, like most of western Europe, was enthusiastic about American popular culture. This Americanisation was strengthened by the Cold War, with American troops stationed in Europe, American economic aid flowing in and American political influence directed towards making Italy 'safe for democracy'. Mussolini and Fascism, therefore, faded away with remarkable speed. Italy ceased to be either fascist or in any way exceptional. In most respects, Italy became a normal western democracy. The memory of Mussolini and Fascism did not completely disappear. There were still half-buried bitter memories of the divisions and Civil War of 1944-45; and lingering fascist loyalties in the MSI and in the old generation of fascist followers. However, they were only ghosts of the past. In the 50 years after his death, it became clear that Mussolini, the man who had promised to change everything, had not really changed Italy much at all.

Which group did Mussolini not have to "win over" after his power grab in 1922?

the peasantry & workers

Constitution

the way a government is set up

Related historiography

"(This extract should be seen in the context of the earlier liberation of southern Italy by Allied armies without any involvement of partisan forces] The situation was very different north of Rome. Here anti-fascists had to remain underground after the July 1943 coup. In these areas the Resistance played an active part in helping to liberate Italy, though the main fighting was done by the Allied armies. Numbering over 100 000 regulars by early 1945, the partisans launched a series of attacks on the Germans and the supporters of the Salo Republic. The communists especially fought a brutal war with Mussolini's remaining followers, which almost certainly increased the ferocity of the fascist response." (R. Eatwell).

Streseman Quote prior to his death in 1929:

"Germany is in fact dancing on a volcano. If the short-term credits are called in, a large section of our economy would collapse."

AJP Taylor Quote on Hitler's rise to power:

"If there had been a strong democratic sentiment in Germany, Hitler would never have come to power. [Germans] deserved what they got when they went round crying for a hero."

Related historiography

"In 1943-45, the main aim of the Communists had to be the liberation of Italy, not a socialist revolution. Togliatti made this explicit in the instructions he wrote for the party in June 1944: 'Remember always that the insurrection we want has not got the aim of imposing social and political transformations in a socialist or communist sense. Its aim is rather national liberation and the destruction of Fascism. All the other problems will be resolved by the people tomorrow, once Italy is liberated, by the means of a free popular vote and the election of a Constituent Assembly.'" P. Ginsborg

Founding of the Italian Fascist Party

"Liberal Italy" → this period lasted from 1870-1923, and it contributed greatly to the rise of fascism in Italy. The lack of a comprehensive national identity coupled with the breakdown of relations between the Church and the State caused a great divide in the population Additionally, there were working class protests in response to the poor treatment of the peasant class, in comparison to the privileges accorded to the middle and upper classes After the war, many Italians felt bitter towards the PSI because of its anti-war stance, and this sentiment extended to Italian liberalism Fascism, with its non-established ideals, appealed to the masses, and was a way to erase the division among the population The post-war economic situation was dire, with inflation and unemployment rates soaring. Fascism offered a solution to this with its strict regime and regulations

Volksgemeinschaft

"People's Community"—A German language expression that referred to Hitler's goal of breaking down elitism and uniting people across class divides to achieve a national purpose.

related historiography

"The RSI was a state riddled with contradictions, corruption and incompetence, while also being an organisation willing to condone and conduct violence of the most barbarous kind. Fascist Italians became direct perpetrators of the Final Solution. Some 7500 Jews were collected, generally by Italians, and despatched to their fate in the East. Six hundred and ten lived." (Australian historian, Richard James Boon Bosworth)

historiograohy (related)

"The creation of the Fascist Republic (the RSI) marked the return of Fascists who were more fanatically Fascist than Mussolini himself. The Fascists of the last hour were the Fascists of the first hour, many of them believers in the violent paramilitary Fascism of the early 1920s; now they were middle-aged men with paunches, squeezing themselves back into party uniform. Some, of course, had never really been away, like Farinacci and Pavolino." (british historian Philip D. Morgan)

A German politician on the old Reichstag quote:

"The old Reichstag was a useless parliament. It could speak but it had no power." - A German politician speaking in 1926.

Primary Source Analysis: What is the message of this cartoon? Who are the three figures portrayed, and what is the cartoonist saying about them?

"They Salute with two hands now"

Hitler Quotes on Propaganda:

"Through clever and constant application of propaganda, people can be made to see paradise as hell, and also the other way round, to consider the most wretched sort of life as paradise."

Alan Bullock Quote on Great Depression (unemployment rates) in Germany:

"Translate these figures into terms of men standing hopelessly on street corners of every industrial town in Germany; of houses without any food or warmth; of boys and girls without any chance of a job, and one may begin to guess something of the incalculable human anxiety and embitterment burned into the minds of millions of ordinary German working men and women."

Treaty of Portsmouth

(1905) ended the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). It was signed in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, after negotiations brokered by Theodore Roosevelt (for which he won the Nobel Peace Prize). Japan had dominated the war and received an indemnity, the Liaodong Peninsula in Manchuria, and half of Sakhalin Island, but the treaty was widely condemned in Japan because the public had expected more.

Stage 3: The Golden Age (1924-1929) - Failures

*** It is true that the Golden Age of Germany was a truly positive age for Germany, and it seemed like it would stay that way forever. But there were some significant insecurities at that time, that did set up Germany for the rise of Nazism later in 1933. With historians, such as Theodore Balderston referring to ... 1. The "Gilded Era" of Germany: 2. → Historian Theodore Balderston has renamed for Golden Age of Germany for the Gilded Age This is a result of the superficial economic prosperity masking deep economic issues.

Impact of fascism and Nazism on the foreign policies of Italy and Germany

*Fascism on Italy:* Mussolini believed that fascist Italy could be the second Roman Empire; impact of fascist foreign policy crippled the economy; Mussolini initially tried to play peacemaker in Europe, but after seeing Hitler's immense power changed course *Nazism on Germany:* undeniable impact; built off of ideas on a "Gross Deutschland", race and living space, and natural enemies and allies

Washington Treaty System

*Four-Power Treaty:* Ended the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. The USA, Britain, France, and Japan were to confer if there was a crisis in the Pacific *Five-Power Treaty:* Limited the tonnage of the US, British, Japanese, French, and Italian navies *Nine-Power Treaty:* Japan, the USA, Britain, France, Italy, China, Portugal, Belgium, and the Netherlands were to respect China's integrity and independence and abide by "open door" principles 1. The Washington Naval Treaty, also known as the Five-Power Treaty, was a treaty signed during 1922 among the major Allies of World War I, which agreed to prevent an arms race by limiting naval construction. 2. On 19 Dec 1934, Japan, pursuing her territorial expansions in Asia, openly refused to abide by the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. The treaty limited Japan to 315,000 in total tonnage of naval strength when the US and Britain were each given a limit of 525,000.

Japan Historiography

*Left-wing:* date the beginning of war in Pacific as Manchurian Incident (1931), and hold Japan responsible for "15 year war". *Right-wing:* identify December 1941 as start of "Great East Asia War", and support idea that Japan was freeing Asia from exploitation of Western colonialism, and argue that Japan was baited into a war by the oil embargo.

Joseph Göbbels Quotes on Propaganda:

- "If you tell a lie big enough and keep repeating it, people will eventually come to believe it. The lie can be maintained only for such time as the State can shield the people from the political, economic and/or military consequences of the lie. It thus becomes vitally important for the State to use all of its powers to repress dissent, for the truth is the mortal enemy of the lie, and thus by extension, the truth is the greatest enemy of the State." - "The most brilliant propagandist technique will yield no success unless one fundamental principle is borne in mind constantly - it must confine itself to a few points and repeat them over and over." - "Think of the press as a great keyboard on which the government can play." - "The essence of propaganda consists in winning people over to an idea so sincerely, so vitally, that in the end they succumb to it utterly and can never escape from it."

What were General Tojo Hideki's ambitions?

- A major proponent of war with the United States, Tojo was a man who was largely ignorant of the outside world, supremely confident in Japan's future greatness, and determined to expand the Empire of Nippon.

What was significant about Hitler's speech?

- Adolf Hitler was a powerful speaker, and had much to speak out against. He advertized in newspapers, stuck posters on walls, and held meetings in public halls and beer houses. - Soon, he was drawing large audiences at his meetings and enthralling them with his ideas and powerful oration. - Studies have shown that Hitler's normal spoken voice had 228 vibrations per second, as opposed to 200 in the voice of an average man speaking in anger. - This meant that "the onslaught on the eardrums of the audience was tremendous" (Z.A.B. Zeman, Historian) and that he did not need a microphone to be heard.

What is Hitler's backstory?

- All this time, a man named Adolf Hitler was living in Germany, becoming more and more frustrated and angry about what had befallen his once-proud nation. - He had a very harsh father, who made his childhood difficult, and he flunked out of school at the age of 16. - Failing to gain admission to an art school, he lived as a homeless tramp for four years in Vienna, scraping a living selling postcards of his paintings on the streets. - He was not German; he had been born in Austria, and had spent the first 24 years of his life there. - When militarism increased in Austria prior to the outbreak of the First World War, he dodged military service, and moved across the border to Munich in Germany. - He changed his views drastically in Germany, where he was caught in a photograph of a crowd in 1914, cheering the beginning of the First World War, having been infected with "war fever." - Hitler served bravely in the First World War, doing the dangerous work of carrying messages through the trenches and earning an Iron Cross First Class—the highest honor possible for a German soldier. - He never rose above the rank of corporal until the war ended for him in October, 1918 when he was temporarily blinded by British mustard gas. - While recovering in hospital, he wept in despair when he heard of the signing of the armistice.

The Crises of 1923

- As part of their punishment in the Treaty of Versailles, Germany had been ordered to pay reparations—a sum of 132 Billion gold marks—so massive that they would have to pay in yearly installments until 1987. - Still facing an Allied invasion if they refused, the Weimar government scraped together the first payment in 1921; a combination of gold, wood, coal, and iron. - It was all they could afford, and in 1922, they defaulted on their next installment.

What else did the Weimar Republic do when they had no more money to pay for the reparations to France?

- As they had no cash to pay for the reparations to France, the Weimar government responded by simply printing more money (had a short term relief), resulting in rising prices due to the decreased value of the Reich Mark. - The result of this was called hyperinflation: the faster the government printed new money, the faster prices rose.

What was the agreement formed at the Munich Conference?

- At Munich, Hitler plainly declared that: "It is the last territorial claim I have to make in Europe," and he was believed. - Upon returning to the UK, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain made the famous declaration that he had ensured "peace in our time" by placating Hitler once again, and avoiding war. - Unfortunately, Hitler had no intention of upholding the agreement Chamberlain held up so confidently, and 1938 would be Europe's last year for peace.

Hitler takes Power

- At the first meeting of the new Reichstag on the 12th of September, 1932, the first vote was a vote of no confidence in the Chancellorship of Papen: the results were 32 in favor, 513 voted no. - Faced by such overwhelming disapproval, Papen arranged for another election in November, hoping to gain more support. - While the results improved Papen's situation slightly, the Nazis clearly had the largest faction. Hitler again demanded the Chancellorship, and again Hindenburg refused, intending to continue supporting Papen with his emergency powers. - Surprisingly, a leading army general, Kurt von Schleicher, informed Hindenburg that the army would not allow this, and that a general strike—or perhaps even civil war—would result if Hindenburg continued to abuse his emergency powers. - As no government can retain power without the support of the army, Hindenburg chose to remove Papen, and replaced him with von Schleicher himself! - Von Schleicher lasted only 57 days; the Reichstag would not agree to his decisions, and had to ask Hindenburg to use his emergency powers once more to support him. - Fearing that Schleicher was manipulating him, Hindenburg refused and asked him to resign. - With two failed Chancellors in less than a year, Hindenburg felt he had no other option; he summoned Hitler to his chambers on the 30th January, 1933 and swore him in as Chancellor. - Hindenburg retained Papen as vice-Chancellor and hoped to control and limit the Nazis politically by using loyal and experienced Ministers; 7 to Hitler's 3 at that highest level of government.

Besides the battleships, what was also targeted by the Japanese Pearl Harbor attack?

- Besides the Battleships, which were the main target, three Cruisers, three Destroyers and one mine layer were destroyed. - Airfields were also bombed, destroying 161 U.S. planes damaging 107 more, and restricting U.S. Army Air Corps response to a minimal level.

How many assassinations happened in Germany between 1919 and 1922? And what was the most famous one?

- Between 1919 and 1922 there were 356 political murders/assassinations in Germany, most committed by right-wing extremists. - The most famous of these was a man named Walther Rathenau, Germany's foreign minister. - Rathenau was attacked by a group called the Organizational Consul, which sent four men to shoot and then throw a hand grenade at him while he drove to work in an open-topped car on the 24th June, 1922. - He was killed for cooperating with the French and British—authors of the Versailles Treaty—and his name was one of many on a long list to be killed. - His death saddened many average Germans, as he was a popular and effective Minister, and one million people marched the streets of Berlin in mourning the following day. - The killers were sentenced to an average of 4 years in prison for their crime.

What were the Stresemann Years known for?

- Between 1924 and 1929, life in Germany became calmer and prosperity returned somewhat, mainly because of the work of Gustav Stresemann. - Besides introducing a new currency for Germany, he met with Britain, France, and the USA in 1924 as Foreign Minister to discuss the issue of reparations. - These negotiations resulted in the Dawes Plan, which allowed Germany to pay what it could actually afford each year, starting with £50 Million in 1924. - Foreign business and investment was attracted to Germany once more, and over the next 5 years, over 2.5 Billion gold marks poured into Germany as loans. - New factories, machinery, and housing was built, and all this brought jobs to the German people. - Stresemann also repaired Germany's international reputation. In 1925, he signed the Locarno Treaties, promising never to attempt to change the borders between France, Germany and Belgium. - As a result, Germany was allowed to join the League of Nations in 1926, restoring its place among the leading nations of the world. - In 1926, Stresemann was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts: a clear sign that the leaders of the world approved of his hard work.

Hermann Goering

- Born in 1893; joined the Nazi party in 1923 - Took many leadership roles in the Nazi party such as Commander of the German - Luftwaffe (airforce) & director of the 4-year economic plan - Was thought to be Hitler's chosen successor - Had an enormous art collection and was addicted to drugs and pornography. - Committed suicide in 1946

Rudolph Hess

- Born in 1894 in Egypt - He was the Deputy Party Leader - Edited a lot of Mein Kampf for Hitler - Did a secret solo flight during WW2 to deliver proposals for peace but he was captured & held prisoner (the offer was not authorized) - He was convicted of crimes against humanity and served a life sentence until his suicide in 1987

Joseph Goebbels

- Born in 1897 - Was the Minister of Propaganda under the Third Reich - Edited the newspapers Der Angriff and Das Reich - Killed his 6 children and his wife and then committed suicide in 1945 (he had served as Chancellor for one day following Hitler's suicide) - Was the only high-ranking German official who was with Hitler when he died.

How did Britain and France respond to another violation of the Treaty of Versailles following the invasion of the Sudetenland?

- Britain and France were still unwilling to fight, and appeasement had already been used several times in response to Nazi aggression. - In September, 1938, therefore, the British & French set up a meeting with Hitler and Mussolini—the Soviets and the Czechs were not invited. - At this Munich Conference, organized by Mussolini, the Sudetenland was given to Hitler, whose aggression had paid off once again, and Czechoslovakia began to break up as a nation.

What were the results of the 1932 Reichstag Elections?

- By the summer of 1932, therefore, the SA ruled the streets with force, and millions of Germans were eager to vote for the Nazis in the Reichstag elections. - The Nazis were firmly in control of the Reichstag, but Hitler was unable to obtain the job of Chancellor (Prime Minister) from the President: Field Marshall Paul von Hindenburg.

The Czech Crisis

- Czechoslovakia had benefited greatly from the Treaty of Versailles, gaining land from Germany which was rich in mineral deposits and which was mountainous, forming a natural protective barrier against Germany. - Their nation was a mixture of ethnic groups, however, and Slovaks and ethnic Germans had long disliked each other. - The area where this conflict was most pronounced was in the Sudetenland, where a nationalistic Sudeten German People's Party had been set up in 1931 to try to gain independence. - If independence was granted, it would lead to the break-up of the State, as Poles, Slovaks, Magyars and Ruthenes all desired the same freedom. - Hitler also wanted the Sudetenland returned to Germany, and in 1938, ordered his Generals to make plans to invade.

What represented the Non-Intervention Committee during the Spanish Civil War?

- Despite this populist support for the Republicans, France and Great Britain would not commit any forces, instead setting up the Non-intervention Committee in 1936, agreeing to boycott arms sales to both groups. - Given the great involvement of Germany, Italy and the USSR, this was another signal of weakness and fear of conflict by Great Britain and France—Great Britain even ignored the attack on British merchant ships by Italian submarines to avoid war. - Meanwhile, Fascist ties had strengthened; in 1937, Mussolini signed on to the anti-Comintern Pact to oppose Communism alongside Germany & Japan.

Weimar woman vs. Nazi maiden

- During the years of the Weimar Republic women had become more modern. They were given the vote and enjoyed more professional opportunities. - The Nazis felt that this 'modern woman' was a degenerate threat to racial purity and the idea of Volksgemeinschaft and wanted women to return to their traditional role as mothers. - Hitler summed it up when he said women should stick to the "Three K's": Kinder, Kirche, & Kuche (Children, Church, & Cooking). - Many women were fired from their jobs as civil servants, teachers, or even doctors & lawyers and told to become housewives. - Even at home, women were not free: wearing make-up and trousers was frowned upon, and hair was not to be dyed, and only to be worn in a bun or plaits. - Women's interests were represented by the Nazi Women's League. They used propaganda extensively to encourage women to embrace the three Ks. - Many professional women lost their jobs and the number of female university students was restricted. - Women and men were supposed to exist in separate spheres according to Nazi ideology. The Nazis said that these separate spheres had a biological basis. - Hitler said "the world of women is a smaller world. For her world is her husband, her family, her children, and her house". - The role of women was celebrated and held up as important, however this separate social reality could indicate that women in Nazi Germany were inferior to men. - A later law (never enacted) in 1943 required all German women to "produce four children by racially pure German men. Whether these men are married is without significance. Every family that already has four children must set the husband free for this action." - Hitler's vision of the role of Germany's women was simple, therefore: bear as many children as possible in order to increase the population of the "Master Race." - The government also set up homes for unmarried mothers called Lebensborn ("the spring of life.") - These also served as brothels where unmarried women could go to "fulfill her quota" of children and get introduced to "racially pure" SS Officers willing to help her do so. - These "baby farms" aimed to produce Hitler's vision of the "Master Race": strong, blonde, Germanic people who would rule the world.

Who did Ebert and the Social Democrats gain support from to fight Communism (enemies of the government)?

- Ebert had gained the support of the Frei Korps (Free Corps)—ex-soldiers recently returned from the war who were willing to sell their arms and skill to fight Communism. - On the 10th of January, 2000 Frei Korps soldiers attacked the Spartacists in Berlin, sparking vicious street fighting that lasted for a week. - On the 15th of January, they captured and arrested Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht; beat them savagely, killed them, and dumped Rosa's body in a canal. - Having held onto power by use of force, Ebert's Social Democrats won a majority in the first governmental elections, and on the 11th of February, 1919, Ebert was elected President of the new German Weimar Republic.

What happened after Hitler & Ludendorff were arrested at the end of the Munich Putsch?

- Far from being the end of Hitler's political career, his 24-day trial was front-page news, and his fiery statements were read by millions of Germans. "It is not you, gentlemen, who pass judgment on us. That judgment is spoken in the eternal court of history. That court will judge us...as Germans who wanted only the good of their people and fatherland; who wanted to fight and die." - The judges were impressed by what they heard. Ludendorff was set free and Hitler sentenced to only 5 years in prison (with a possibility of parole after 6 months) for attempting to overthrow the lawful government. - Hitler served his sentence in the Landsberg Fortress, 80km west of Munich. He was allowed as many visitors as he wished, had free access to newspapers and books, and plenty of good food. - Much of this time Hitler spent writing a book, titled Mein Kampf ("My struggle")—a long, rambling and ungrammatical book in which he described his ideas about history, politics, race, and the future for Germany—intended to guide the actions of the Nazi Party. - He was released in December, 1924, after serving only 9 months in prison.

What were Field Marshall Paul Von Hindenburg's views on the Nazis and what consequences did this have?

- Field Marshall Paul Von Hindenburg was a hero of WW1, and commanded tremendous respect from the German people. - He told Adolf Hitler to his face that he could not give over the position and "risk transferring the power of government to such a new party such as the National Socialists... (who were) intolerant, noisy and undisciplined. - Instead, Hindenburg would allow the present Chancellor, Franz von Papen, to stay in office and would use his own power as President to make Papen's decisions into law. - (The country's constitution--in Article 48--provided for "emergency powers" whereby a President could make laws without the Reichstag's consent.) - Thus, Papen would be able to make decisions without consulting the Nazis, even though he had only 97 seats in the Reichstag.

What were Japanese diplomatic negotiations with the US until the attack on Pearl Harbor?

- Finally, Japan maintained diplomatic negotiations with the U.S. until the last possible moment, even sending an envoy to Washington to meet with the President on the day of the attack, supposedly to discuss economic sanctions. - Combined with a perfectly executed and secret plan, the attack on Pearl Harbor was a total surprise to the U.S.A.

What were a few methods that the Nazi Party used to increase their votes?

- First of all, the Nazi Party had answers to problems facing the German people and nation—their 25 points offered hope to every section of the population: the young, old, workers and middle class, employed and jobless. - Furthermore, the Nazis held up scapegoats to blame for the current situation: the November Criminals, Communists and Jews, giving the German people a target upon which to unleash their pent-up frustration and anger. - Propaganda was just as important, as it communicated the Party's messages to the people under the guidance of Joseph Goebbels.

Territorial changes in Europe

- France gained Alsace-Lorrains from Germany - Denmark got land north of Germany - Germany lost territory in the east, west, and north. - Austria and Hungary are now separate states. - Austria-Hungary shrunk and divided; new nation states created. Northern Austria-Hungary is now Czechoslovakia & Southern Austria-Hungary and Serbia is now Yugoslavia. - Bulgaria lost land to Greece - Russia didn't get their land back; it's made into Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia - Rhineland occupied - **All these nation-states were created so that self-rule could dominate**

What happened when France refused to believe that Germany was unable to pay the reparations?

- France refused to believe that Germany was unable to pay and decided to seize what was their due by force. - In 1923, five French divisions and one Belgian one invaded the rich Ruhr Valley area and occupied the demilitarised Rheinland (like an open house to the neighbors), Germany's industrial heartland. - They took over coal mines, factories, steel works, and railways to send their loot back to France. - Machine gun nests were set up in town squares, and German workers were forced to work for the French. German civilians were robbed of food and supplies, forced to vacate their homes for French officers, and thrown in jail if they did not cooperate.

Following the Kaiser's abdication, Friedrich Ebert (leader of the Social Democrats) took power, and two days later issued a statement guaranteeing:

- Freedom of speech and the press - Freedom of religion - An 8-hour work day However, the Spartacists clashed with the government, and troops under orders from Ebert killed 16 people in a demonstration in December, 1918.

How long did the signing of the Treaty of Versailles take and what impact did it have?

- From November, 1918, when the Armistice was signed, until June, 1919, people were starving to death in Germany because of the blockade. This is how long the signing of the peace treaty took, foreshadowing its ineffectiveness. - The Treaty of Versailles was signed on the 28th of June, 1919 in the Hall of Mirrors in Louis XIV's palace, and punished Germany severely for the war.

Who created the Gestapo?

- From the ranks of the SS, a secret police force was created by Hermann Gőring, called the Gestapo. - In 1934, Heinrich Himmler took control of the Gestapo and was made Chief of German Police in 1936 after the Gestapo Laws. His attention to detail and hard work enabled the Nazis to control the entire population of Germany. - Their job was to arrest people before they committed any crime; they called these people "Enemies of the State." - This happened in the middle of the night, when black cars took people away, usually never to be seen again. Their neighbors all learned the lesson as well: do not oppose Hitler. - Meticulous records were kept, which ironically contributed to the conviction of many Nazis for war crimes following the collapse of the regime. - The Gestapo Headquarters was in Berlin, inside what had once been an art Museum. - In its basements were prison cells, torture chambers, and people tended to avoid the area around it. - Even something innocuous like telling an anti-Nazi joke could be reported to the Gestapo, and result in your arrest. - Neighbors informed on one another, and even children on their parents. - Lead to a terror state = political tool = systemic & perpetual = paranoid people = a lot of potential for abuse & influence.

What was the aftermath of WWI in Germany?

- Germany had also suffered a revolution in 1918, and had no real government or leader at the close of the war. - Violence on the streets grew as different political groups—including a new political party called the Nazis—yielded for power.

What territorial changes resulted from the Treaty of Versailles affecting Germany?

- Germany lost all of its colonies much of its land was given away to its neighbors: Czechoslovakia, Belgium, and Denmark. - A new nation, Poland, was created, including the "Polish Corridor" which cut East Prussia off from the rest of Germany but gave access to the sea. - In Africa, Germany's colonies were divided between Great Britain and France. - Great Britain gained control of German East Africa, which they renamed Tanganyika, and which joined their other East African colonies of Uganda & Kenya. - France gained control of Togo and Cameroon, giving them even more control of West Africa. - At the end of the war the League of Nations placed South West Africa (became Namibia in 1990) under a British mandate, with the administration of the territory entrusted to the government of South Africa. - All of the land Germany had taken from Russia in the treaty of Brest-Litovsk was given back to Russia, with the exception of Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania, which became independent nations at this time. - The Provinces of Alsace and Lorraine were given back to France, and the area bordering France, the Rhineland, was made into a demilitarized zone—no German soldiers were permitted to be there for any reason.

What were other treaties that were signed after WWI, affecting Germany?

- Germany was not the only power punished at the Paris Peace conference, and other treaties were signed, with many significant effects. -Territorial changes were numerous and in some cases led to long-lasting resentment, and the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires were dissolved. - The armed forces of the losing powers were reduced in size and reparations were demanded in various amounts and forms from all of them.

Although the Jews remained Hitler's primary target, Nazi hatred extended to all sorts of "deviants" in society, who began to be imprisoned or simply executed:

- Gypsies - Mentally Handicapped - Ethnic minorities - Homosexuals - Physically Handicapped New symbols were created to represent these groups, who had to display them or face punishment. Another symbol from this period remains today, which is the pink triangle of the homosexuals, having been embraced like the Star of David by the Jews and disempowered in this way.

Who were the men that helped Hitler rule Germany?

- Hermann Goering - Martin Bormann - Rudolph Hess - Josef Goebbels - Heinrich Himmler - Reinhardt Heydrich - (Ernst Rohm)

What does Historian Richard Overy argue?

- Historian Richard Overy argues in his book The Road to War that many of the Japanese high command recognized that a full-scale war with the United States was a daunting challenge, if not an unwinnable proposition. - In July, 1941, as preparations for this very war were being made, Prime Minister Konoye discussed this issue with his war minister, (and soon to be successor) Tojo Hideki. Tojo is quoted as having said: "Sometimes it is necessary to jump with one's eyes closed from the veranda of the Kiyomizu temple in Kyoto," a feat that risked death on the rocks below. - Tojo was urging Konoye to trust in the Samurai spirit of his ancestors; saying that it was better to die bravely with honor than to live without it in shame. The spirit of the Japanese nation demanded nothing less. - Hence, Overy claims that Japan went to war because they believed this was their only window of time for it.

Swastika

- Hitler also always understood the power of symbolism and visual spectacle, and he adopted a new symbol for his party, called a Swastika. - This striking black, white and red symbol was a variation on the traditional German cross, and was put on flags and banners, and worn on arm-bands by Nazi party members.

What did Hitler do after serving in the army for WWI?

- Hitler continued to serve in the military as a "V-man"—an army spy whose job was to investigate new and potentially dangerous political parties. - One group in Munich consisted of only 6 members, and had no funding so speak of, but Hitler was attracted to many of its ideas, and in fact joined it in 1919.

What role did eugenics play in the role of Nazi ideologies?

- Hitler didn't come up with the concept of a superior Aryan race all on his own. In fact, he referred to American eugenics in his 1934 book, Mein Kampf. - In Mein Kampf, Hitler declares non-Aryan races such as Jews and gypsies as inferior. He believed Germans should do everything possible, including genocide, to make sure their gene pool stayed pure. And in 1933, the Nazis created the Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring which resulted in thousands of forced sterilizations. - By 1940, Hitler's master-race mania took a terrible turn as hundreds of thousands of Germans with mental or physical disabilities were euthanized by gas or lethal injection. - The theories of racial hygiene were embedded into the professional and public mindset. These theories influenced the thinking of Adolf Hitler and many of his followers. They embraced an ideology that blended racial antisemitism with eugenic theory. In doing so, the Hitler regime provided context and latitude for the implementation of eugenic measures in their most concrete and radical forms. As Nazis claimed these individuals placed both a genetic and a financial burden upon society and the state.

How did the Anschluss come along?

- Hitler had moved quickly, meeting with the Austrian Chancellor, Kurt von Schuschnigg, and blatantly threatened him into placing Nazi party members in key positions, such as the Minister of the Interior, who was in charge of the Austrian police. - Schuschnigg made one final play for power in his own country, calling for a vote of the Austrian people as to whether they wanted: "A free and Germanic, an independent and social, a Christian and united Austria." - Hitler realized that the phrasing had been intentionally made such that everyone would vote "yes" and was furious at this defiance. - He immediately called for the resignation of the Austrian Chancellor and all government ministers except for the Minister of the Interior, with the threat of invasion if they refused. - Schuschnigg stepped down, leaving the Nazi minister the only government left, and Hitler was promptly invited to occupy Austria. - Hitler rode into Austria in an open-topped car, and was greeted by Nazi supporters—political opponents were quickly rounded up by the Gestapo. - Austria's population of 183,000 Jews was deprived of citizenship, and Austrians were shockingly quick to adopt Nazi racism on this issue, helping the SS round up Jews and send them to Concentration Camps. - France and Britain delivered official protests to Berlin, but otherwise did nothing to prevent this blatant violation of the Treaty Saint Germain. - One month after Germany occupied Austria, the Nazis held another Referendum asking Austrians to say whether they supported Anschluss -- there was a formatting hint as to the "correct answer." - Jews, socialists, and Gypsies were not allowed to vote, and so the Nazis obtained some form of legitimacy for their occupation of Austria.

What happened when President Hindenburg died?

- Hitler immediately took over the Presidency and gave himself the title Fűhrer and Reich Chancellor. - On the same day, the 2nd of August 1934, all the men in the army (officers and soldiers alike) swore an oath to "render unconditional obedience to the Fűhrer." - Hitler now truly had absolute power as the "Leader" of Germany: called totalitarianism.

What did Hitler say to the Sudetenland during the Czech Crisis?

- Hitler instructed the Germans in the Sudetenland to stir up trouble, demanding impossible concessions from the government, and staging riots and demonstrations when they refused. - The German Army would invade, under the pretense of maintaining order on their border due to the Czech failure to do so. - This was yet another risk as the Czech military was strong, the Sudetenland was naturally defensible, and because it was a violation of the Treaty of Versailles.

Young People in Nazi Germany

- Hitler knew that, if his vision of a "thousand year Reich" was to become a reality, he needed to completely indoctrinate the German youth. - In schools, textbooks were re-written to reflect a Fascist perspective on history, and to hold up the achievements of Hitler as the savior of Germany. - Teachers had to join the German Teachers' League and follow the Nazi Party line on all social issues; compulsory training courses ensured that teachers knew what "truth" to teach their students. - Outside school, military-style organizations were set up to train the youth of Germany for future wars, teach them discipline, and create a cult of personality which worshipped Hitler. - The Hitler Youth Movement was made up of five organizations which youngsters were expected to join, and through which they would progress. - The Hitler Youth program had huge summer camps, organized in military style, where boys and girls spent months marching, training, and singing patriotic songs. - Discipline was harsh: on one occasion, a 14 year-old on "watch duty" shot to death a 10 year-old for not remembering the password. - Each Hitler Youth had a "performance book," rating his or her efforts in athletics, camping and fighting skills. - Those with the best marks were sent to special Adolf Hitler Schools, where they received additional training; they would be the leaders of the future Nazi state. - The very best of these went on to Order Castles, where they were harshly stretched to their limits; upon graduation they were elite soldiers. - By 1939, 8 million young Germans belonged to the Hitler Youth Movement.

What was Hitler's reason behind the Youth Movement?

- Hitler was building an army of the future which was completely loyal to him and his vision of people of "pure German blood" ruling the world. - Hitler used the term Aryan to describe his ideal Germanic person: usually strong, blonde and blue-eyed (unlike him).

What happened to the SA as Hitler's votes doubled?

- Hitler's doubling of his votes in two years was also assisted by the actions of the SA Storm Troopers, who had bashed Communist heads throughout the run-up to the elections, disrupting their rallies and making it difficult for them to campaign freely. - Communist leaders were murdered on the streets: 99 in the summer of 1932 and 1125 wounded. - The German police did nothing to prevent this violence—Hitler's "Brown Shirts" numbered more than 2 million men at this point!

How did Hitler demilitarize the Rhineland?

- Hitler's next objective was to reclaim the Rhineland, the demilitarized zone within Germany on the borders of Belgium and France. - While the Locarno Treaty had pledged Germany to never again attempting to alter these borders, Hitler desired domination and Lebensraum, and retaking the Rhineland was another step towards this goal. - In March, 1936, with the attention of the League of Nations focused on the Ethiopia crisis, Hitler ordered the German army to reoccupy the Rhineland. - A combined force of 10,000 soldiers and 22,700 policemen marched into the demilitarized zone, with secret orders not to fire on French troops, but to retreat if challenged in any way. - These orders proved unnecessary, as the French did not feel strong enough to resist Germany, and Britain viewed it as Germans reclaiming "their own back garden." - This had been a huge gamble for Hitler, but it had paid off, exposing the British and French as unwilling to use force to enforce the Treaty of Versailles, and showing that Britain had some sympathy for Germany following the unfair treaty. - Hitler was now willing to risk more in order to gain control of the European lands he coveted.

The Concentration Camp System

- Immediately following his election as Chancellor, Hitler ordered the construction of the first Concentration Camp: a prison for his political adversaries and other "enemies of the state" at a place called Dachau, just west of Munich. - Dachau was a massive complex of barracks-style dormitories, surrounded by barbed wire fences and towers filled with guards ordered to shoot if anyone approached too close to the fences. - Many of the people interned in Dachau were Christian leaders who opposed Hitler and his doctrines of hate and violence; eventually brought from all over Europe. - While numbers of people in the Camp started out relatively small, over 200,000 people were held in Dachau at one time or another. - As in all Concentration Camps, forced labor was carried out at Dachau; the motto of most such camps was "Arbeit Macht Frei" meaning "work sets you free." - Food was always scarce, but became more so as time went on; in-mates were fed out of buckets, and starvation was a common cause of death. - Corporal punishment was carried out on those who did not obey or submit fully, and others were executed publically to maintain discipline. - Conditions were so hard and life so hopeless that some resorted to suicide to escape. - In charge of Dachau and other Concentration Camps were the SS, and Himmler oversaw all of them. - While Dachau was the first, it was certainly not the worst, and was simply the prototype after which subsequent versions would be created.

The Turkish Revolution

- In 1921 revolution broke out in Turkey, under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk). - The Greek army was driven out and there was a Massacre at Smyrna. - This resulted in 1.4 million Greek refugees, and a humanitarian crisis. - The Treaty of Sevres was scrapped and replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) which returned some European lands to Turkey and recalled all foreign troops out of Turkey.

When did the Nazis start to boycott Jewish shops?

- In 1933, Nazi SA began to boycott Jewish shops, often standing outside to dissuade anyone from entering. - Jews were fired from their jobs at Universities, the civil service, law firms, and newspapers and radio—this created jobs for Nazis, and unemployed Jews were not counted in terms of unemployment rate.

How did unemployment increase worldwide through the Great Depression & Protectionism:

- In Germany, 6 million people were unemployed and half of Japan's factories were idle. - Prices of crops such as wheat in Eastern Europe and fruit in California fell to such a low that farmers chose to dispose of the food rather than sell it for a loss, while their people starved.

The Spanish Civil War

- In July of 1936, civil war broke out in Spain between two political groups: - The Republicans: They were in control of the Spanish government and were a left-wing group, supported by liberals, communists and anarchists. - The Nationalists: They were a right-wing group who threw a coup against the monarchy, and were supported by the Royalists, the Catholic Church, land-owners, and the Spanish Fascist party, led by General Francisco Franco. - Franco had taken control of the Spanish military in Morocco, and invaded Southern Spain, intending to set up a Fascist Dictatorship like those in Italy and Germany. - These groups over-simplified their reasons for fighting as an ideological war: the Republicans claimed to be fighting against Fascism, and the Nationalists claimed to be fighting for Christianity against Communist atheism. - While this was not the entire substance of the conflict, many people outside of Spain accepted this, and were eager to supply aid to the group which most closely represented their ideology; Hitler provided aircraft to move Franco's troops into mainland Spain.

1920-1922: Putsches & Murders

- In March of 1920, the Frei Korps decided to take power themselves, and launched a putsch—a coup d'état—in Berlin. - Led by Wolfgang Kapp, this Kapp Putsch had the support of the Frei Korps, police, and some of the army, but not of the majority of the people. - Workers organized a general strike (country can not work), shutting down the city, and the coup attempt lasted only 100 hours. - In the Ruhr Valley, Germany's primary industrial region, workers remained on strike, and were soon galvanised into a 50,000-man army by the Communists, called the "Red Rising" of March 1920. - While this was once again put down by the Frei Korps, who killed more than 2,000 workers before restoring order, it also served as a true scare to the government and many right-wing thinkers, and increased the fear of Communism in Germany. - Paradoxically, as said, this resulted in more people fearing communisms than right-wing extremists, although it was the Frei Korps that caused most deaths, unrest and fueled hysteria.

How was Hitler defying the League of Nations?

- In Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler was rapidly and blatantly defying the League through his policy of rearmament. - Although it had started secretly and on a small scale, by 1935, the Nazi military had grown to 550,000 men after Hitler's institution of compulsory military service. - The German air force also already possessed 2,500 planes at this point and was rapidly building more. - The French and British wanted to uphold the Treaty of Versailles, but quite simply lacked the strength or political willpower to do so. = Kissinger: "As for the Western democracies, they did not yet grasp the ideological gulf that separated them from the German dictator. They believed in peace as an end, and were straining their every nerve to avoid war. Hitler, on the other hand, feared peace and craved war. "Mankind has grown strong in eternal struggles," he had written in Mein Kampf "and it will only perish through eternal peace.""

What was the Munich Putsh?

- In November, 1923, at the height of hyperinflation, Hitler decided that the Nazis were strong enough to overthrow the German government. - Hitler planned to march to Berlin at the head of the uniformed SA, and believed that people would flock to his Swastika banner in a desire to see the French forced out of the Ruhr and the wrongs of Versailles righted. - On the 8th of November, Hitler led a mob of over 600 Storm Troopers to a meeting of three leaders of the Bavarian government, taking place in a Beer Hall (this is also sometimes called the Beer Hall Putsch). - Holding a gun to the head of one, he forced them to tell the audience that they would help him in his putsch. - Hitler was also supported in person at this meeting by General Ludendorff—a hero of WW1 in Germany. - The crowd cheered when Hitler told them: "Now I am going to carry out the vow I made five years ago when I was a blind cripple in the army hospital: neither to rest nor sleep until the November Criminals have been hurled to the ground, until on the ruins of the pitiful Germany of today has risen a Germany of power and greatness." - At the same time, the leader of the SA, Ernst Rohm was leading groups of Storm Troopers in taking control of government buildings and arresting officials who opposed the Nazis.

What and when was the Rome-Berlin Axis agreed upon?

- In October, 1936, Hitler met with Benito Mussolini who was encouraged by his victory in Ethiopia and eager to establish closer ties with his Fascist brother. - This resulted in the Rome-Berlin Axis agreement between the two powers, committing to work together on matters of mutual interest. - The term Axis Powers is used to describe these nations due to their geophysical position and their belief to be in the centre of the world. - It was formalized by the Pact of Steel in 1939.

What was Hitler's first priority?

- In his book, Hitler had talked about the necessity of obtaining Lebensraum ("living space") for the German people; they had been robbed of their colonies, the land won from Russia in WW1 and parts of their country, and needed to expand. - His first priority, therefore, was to create a Greater Germany, a Third Reich, which would include his homeland, Austria, but much had to be done before this could be accomplished.

What else did the Nazi State set up to control its people?

- In part of Hitler's attempt to set up a Totalitarian state, the Nazis created leisure activities for the German people. - A huge organization called Kraft durch Freude ("Strength through Joy") or KDF was set up to do so, led by Doctor Robert Ley, leader of the German Labor Front. - Ley worked out that there were 8,760 hours in a year, and that Germans spent one third of these at work, and another third sleeping. That left 3,740 hours a year available for leisure activities. - Concerned that bored workers would become unhappy with the regime, Ley and the Nazis created many affordable leisure activities to help them enjoy their lives more, including: - Cruises on two specially-built luxury liners (Nazi party members only) - Skiing, hiking, and camping packages. - Tours of Switzerland or Italy - Sports matches (Munich hosted the 1936 Olympics) - Visits to the Theater, Symphony Orchestra and Opera - Evening "continuing education" classes for adults.

What happened in 1941?

- In the fall of 1941, War Minister General Tojo Hideki was elected as Prince Konoye's replacement as Prime Minister.

What was considered another threat to the new Republic?

- In the south of Germany, in the province of Bavaria, the Independent Socialists had their stronghold. - Following the assassination of the leader of the Independent Socialists by a right-wing student in February 1919, they and the Communists made an agreement to join forces. - In March, 1919, the Bavarian Soviet Republic was formed—an independent Communist government built along Russian lines. = The goal was a secession of Bavaria. - With Munich as its Capitol, the Communists began seizing houses, cars, and personal possessions from the rich and distributing them to poor workers.

How were Hitler & Mussolini eager to demonstrate military power in the Spanish Civil War?

- Italy was also eager to assist the Fascists in Spain and to demonstrate its military power. Mussolini sent 73,000 troops, 759 aircraft, 157 tanks, 1800 artillery pieces, and 320 million rounds of ammunition to aid the Nationalists. - Hitler saw this as a chance to crush Communism, support Fascism, perhaps win an ally in Spain, and certainly test out new tactics and units in the German Wehrmacht (military). - It was a Proxy War for many other nations, as they just sent their equipment and left their troops at home. - The Nazis sent only a very limited number of men to Spain—16,000 troops—but they included the elite Condor Legion paratrooper units, which were a new innovation in modern warfare. - They were also accompanied by air support—45 fighters and 45 bombers as well as transport planes for the paratroops. - This Condor Legion is most famous for their bombing of a small town in northern Spain called Guernica in April, 1937. This attack completely leveled the center of the town and resulted in 1000 civilian deaths—it was memorialized in the painting of the same name by Spanish artist Pablo Picasso.

How was the Pacific Stage set after the Pearl Harbor attack?

- Japan's attack on December 7th was widespread and hugely successful. - At the same time as the Pearl Harbor attack, the Japanese bombed British Hong Kong and Malaysia, and sent 60,000 troops to invade and conquer Singapore. - On December 10th, Japanese bombers sank the British Navy's two most powerful vessels in the South China Sea--a blow to them as grievous as the Americans' loss at Pearl Harbor. - By Christmas day, Hong Kong had surrendered, and Singapore was to follow in February of 1942, making Japan's southern advance a total success. - The intent of this expansion was the creation of the "Co-Prosperity Sphere" which Japan would rule like a 'United States of Asia.' - This was a vision, formed in the 1940s, of an ideal of Asiatic harmony and unity, providing stability and freedom from tyranny of the West. - Since the Colonial powers had done practically nothing to benefit them, it was seen by the Japanese as far better to have a system run by Asians and for Asians.

What were advantages that the Japanese had over the US to their attack on Pearl Harbor?

- Luckily for the Japanese, the U.S. was not truly expecting an attack on Pearl Harbor; nor were Japanese citizens prevented from traveling to Hawaii. - Japanese spies were able to take airplane tours of the island of Oahu, photographing the entirety of the harbor and clearly identifying the location of all ships anchored there. A to-scale model of the Harbor was created and used in all Japanese plans for the attack. - On the day of the attack, Japanese pilots were even able to tune into Hawaiian radio, learning about weather conditions over the harbor, which were clear and sunny.

Germany and the Great Depression

- Much of Germany's renewed prosperity had come as a result of loans given to it by foreign powers—many of which were short-term loans, required to be repaid within 90 days. - Sadly for Germany, this "volcano" erupted in October, 1929 when the Wall Street Crash sent stock values plummeting in the United States. - Bankers and businessmen who had invested huge sums of money in the stock market lost everything; the only hope for others was to immediately call in all loans, including those given to Germany. - industrial production dropped over 40%, between 1929 and 1932. in 1932 around 40% of the German workforce was unemployed.

Anschluss

- On the 11th of March, 1938, the government of Austria was taken over by Austrian Nazi Party members. The following day, the German army marched over the border, without firing a shot, and in fact to the cheering of crowds and playing of bands. - On the 13th of March der Fuhrer announced that Anschluss ("union") with his homeland was completed. - This had been made so easy by political turmoil in Austria during the 1920s and 1930s, including riots, street battles between right-wing and left-wing forces, and even a short civil war in 1934, won by the right-wing. - An Austrian Nazi party coup d'état attempt followed in July 1934, but was stopped by Benito Mussolini, who had threatened to send in his army in support of the Austrian government. - When, in 1936, Mussolini became part of the Rome-Berlin Axis, he withdrew this support, and in fact notified Hitler that he viewed Austria as part of the German state.

Final Steps to War

- On the 15th of March, 1939, Hitler claimed that the Czech government had lost control of the territory still in their hands, and invaded the rest of the country, declaring it a "Protectorate." - Hitler then turned his attention north, occupying the port of Memel—which had been seized by Lithuania in the Treaty of Versailles process—on the 23rd of March. - The British and French—too late—began to see that Hitler had played them along the entire time, and that he intended to continue his conquests. On the 29th of March, the British and French gave the Polish Guarantee, promising to protect Poland from Nazi invasion, and increasing their own rearmament. - On the 7th of April, the situation became even more tense, as Mussolini's Italy invaded Albania—something they had been denied in the Treaty of Versailles also. - Britain and France responded by giving guarantees of protection to Greece and Romania—Europe was being set up as a System of Alliances once again. - Italy and Germany cemented this on the 22nd of May, 1939, signing the Pact of Steel and promising to aid one another in the event of war. - This signaled the end of the Stresa Front and made clear to Britain and France that the two were acting in a coordinated fashion, and desired Fascist domination of the entire continent.

When did the attack on Pearl Harbor occur?

- On the 7th of December, 1941 which was a Sunday, and most Navy personnel were sleeping in, intending to enjoy their day off in beautiful Hawaii. - There were several warnings that could have prevented the massacre which was to result, but the fact that it was early, and a weekend--and that Japan and the U.S. were not at war--dulled reactions. - For instance, the newly-installed radar installation alerted the defenders of a large-scale attack by air incoming, but this was assumed to be an american aircraft reason because it came from the north and was ignored. - Finally, in Washington D.C.--8 hours' time difference ahead of Hawaii--the Japanese envoy broke off negotiations and declared war against the United States of America, Great Britain, and the Netherlands, just as dawn was breaking over Pearl Harbor. - Unfortunately, none of these warnings prevented what happened next, which was the attack of 360 Japanese aircraft on a sleeping fleet at anchor.

When was the Versailles Peace Treaty finalised?

- On the 7th of May, however, the Allies finalized the Versailles Peace Treaty, and the blow to the German people and their pride was intense. - Reparations, loss of all colonies, and the infamous "War Guilt" clause all horrified the German people. - Furthermore, the fact that Germany had not technically lost the war allowed some to say that their brave soldiers had been betrayed by the government, who had surrendered too soon. - The politicians who had signed the Armistice were re-named the "November Criminals" and the "Stab in the back" theory was propagated—one that would be significant later. - Indeed, despite the Allies' ultimatum to sign the treaty or face invasion anew, the new government refused to do so, with Ministers of Parliament resigning in protest. - In the port of Scapa Flow (main port in Germany), captains of the German fleet sank their ships (which were to be given over to the British) in defiance. - The German army drew up new defense plans, and it seemed that the Great War might begin anew. - However, the chief of the German army, Field Marshal Hindenburg told President Ebert that he did not believe that the Germans could withstand an invasion, but that he could not "help feeling that it were better to die honorably than accept a disgraceful peace." - Rather than fight a suicidal war, and with only 90 minutes remaining until the ultimatum expired, President Ebert sent a telegram to Paris, accepting the terms of the treaty. - The next day, the German newspapers declared: "Today in the Hall of mirrors a disgraceful treaty is being signed. Never forget it. There will be vengeance for the shame of 1919."

Peace-keeping between the Wars through treaties:

- One of the goals of the Treaty of Versailles had been to create a peaceful world, and in the 1920s many nations took steps to make it so. - The Locarno Treaties of 1925 resulted in Germany pledging to never again attack France or Belgium; Italy and Great Britain signed on as guarantors of this peace. - In 1929, several key steps to lasting peace took place, and the future looked bright. - The Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1929 was an agreement between the United States of America and France, committing not to use war as a means of settling conflicts in the future. - Sixty-five countries signed this pact, raising hopes that war was a tragedy of the past. - The USSR also created the Eastern Pact with six of its neighbors, bringing stability to a region previously wracked by conflict and civil war.

What was one of the first areas that Hitler tried to reclaim and unify in his Third Reich as the german people?

- One of these areas was the Saar—a 2500km₂ area on the border with France—which contained coal deposits, factories and railway lines. - In 1935, as planned in the Treaty of Versailles, a vote was held in the Saar, called a plebiscite, to determine if it remained in French hands or returned to Germany. - 90% of the people voted to return to Germany, winning back Hitler's first piece of "Greater Germany" peacefully.

How many Japanese aircrafts were shot down by US antiaircraft guns or airplanes (and who is Dorie Miller)?

- Only 29 Japanese aircraft were shot down by U.S. antiaircraft guns or airplanes, and at least one of those was by Doris "Dorie" Miller, an African-American Navy cook who had never before fired a weapon. - Dorie Miller was later awarded the Navy Cross for his bravery--the first African-American to be given this award. He was killed in action when his ship was sunk in the Pacific in 1943.

The main objectives of this League of Nations would be:

- Peaceful Resolution: each nation having one vote. - Collective Security: each nation committing to protect any other member nation from attack or invasion.

The Plan: Why did was the Pearl Harbor difficult to make an attack on? What did the Japanese need?

- Pearl Harbor is a very shallow harbor, protecting it from a traditional torpedo attack. There is also only a narrow entrance, protected by submarine nets. Furthermore, a newly-installed radar installation would alert the defenders of any large-scale attack by air. - The Japanese, therefore, needed to make excellent tactical and strategic plans in order to launch a successful attack on Pearl Harbor.

However, it should be noted that hatred and persecution of Jews (called Anti-Semitism) in Europe was not a new event, but had occurred regularly for centuries, including:

- Pogroms (Jew-killing sprees) in Russia and Poland, particularly around Easter time - Murder and looting of Jewish settlements during the Crusades as Crusader armies passed through Germany - Blaming the Black Death on the Jews - The Expulsion of all Jews from Spain during the Reconquista ending in 1492 - The establishment of Ghettos, where Jews had to live inside European cities

What were the main political effects of the attack on Pearl Harbor?

- Politically, the attack shocked the U.S. and President Roosevelt, who had long been calling for the U.S. to enter the war against Germany. - In his famous 6-minute radio address to the nation the following day, President Roosevelt called December 7th "a date that would live in infamy forever." - On the 8th of December, less than an hour after Roosevelt's address, the U.S. Congress (with only one dissent) declared war on the Empire of Japan. - Four days later, on December 11th, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy declared war on the United States. Thus, the attack on Pearl Harbor was the catalyst that caused the USA to enter WWII.

How did the Great Depressions & Protectionism effect Italy?

- Protectionism in Italy went even further, as Benito Mussolini attempted to make his country completely self-sufficient (Autarky), and refused for the most part to take part in the world economy. - Mussolini conduced a series of "battles" in Fascist Italy, intended to improve his nation: 1. The Battle for Land: drained swamp land and turned it into fertile farmland 2. The Battle for the Lire: attempted to create a "strong" currency 3. The Battle for Babies: attempted to increase the population and future work force of Italy. - For the most part, attempts like Mussolini's resulted in harming international relations, and social unrest among the unemployed also increased worldwide.

Nazi policy on women - Was it a success?

- Some German women (non-professional, non-academic) were positive about the changes made as they enjoyed the increased status of motherhood and the domestic role. - Nazi policy on women was incoherent and inconsistent - many women kept their jobs (especially teachers) and some women were employed (and became powerful) by the Nazis (often through the Nazi Women's League). - The birth-rate did not increase as the Nazis had hoped - in fact after 1935 the number of births actually declined steadily. - Many women had to be re-employed to help with the preparations for war and with the war itself. - The divorce rate increased. - The cult of the family was unsuccessful as Nazi policy actually caused an increased tension in many families. Many women were unhappy about their new roles (mother versus woman).

What are some specific examples of battleship being sunk in the Pearl Harbor attack?

- The Battleship U.S.S. Arizona took a direct hit from an armor-piercing bomb to their armory, detonating their entire store of ammunition; the explosion lifted the 35,000 Ton ship completely out of the water and broke it in half. Its entire crew of 1,102 men died with her. - The U.S.S. Oklahoma was hit broadside by 5 or 6 torpedoes, and sank, trapping over 400 crewmen to drown inside its hull.

How did the Nazi-Soviet Pact (non-aggression) take shape?

- The British and French quickly tried to enlist the support of the USSR in the coming conflict, but their shunning of the Communists for the past decade and exclusion of the USSR from the Munich Conference about Czechoslovakia (a Soviet neighbor) made Stalin distrustful of their motives and commitment. - Indeed, shocking the world, Stalin and Hitler instead signed the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact or Nazi-Soviet Pact (non-aggression) on the 23rd of August of 1939. - Included in this agreement was a clause that divided Poland between Nazi Germany and the USSR and gave control of the Baltic States to the USSR— Stalin greatly desired to expand his territory and also keep a buffer zone between him and his ideological enemy. - Hitler, hearing that the pact had been signed, reportedly shouted: "I have them!" The road to the Second World War was clear.

What was the first thing Hitler used the Enabling Act for?

- The Enabling Act that had been put into effect on the 23rd of March, 1933 allowed Hitler to make new laws without consulting the Reichstag. - Hitler used this to make Germany into a One-party state, putting Nazi officials in charge of local provincial governments, closing down trade unions, and making a "Law against the Formation of New Parties." - Hitler had succeeded in making the Nazi party the only party in Germany, and had done it legally.

How did the Weimar Republic respond to the French invasion?

- The German government responded by declaring the French invasion illegal, along with all orders given to German citizens. - The Weimar government called on all German citizens to refuse to obey any French order or work on their behalf. - Passive resistance: It is hard to beat up/imprison everyone, and if all essential services cease, daily life becomes extremely difficult. - Essentially, the Germans called for another General Strike, crippling the French capability to extract resources from the Ruhr. - The French responded with brutality: when workers in the Krupp Steelworks refused to obey, French soldiers opened fire on them, killing 132 and expelling 150,000 people from their homes. - Unfortunately, the passive resistance in the Ruhr caused great harm to Germany's economy as well. - All of this fueling revenge.

How many Japanese men vs. US cititzens died in the Pearl Harbor attacks?

- The Japanese lost only 55 men in the attacks, including all 5 midget submarines, one large submarine. Their Carrier fleet sailed away undetected and unscathed. - Total U.S. casualties were over 3,000 men, and although only 18 of the 96 ships making up the Pacific fleet were destroyed, the U.S.'s attack capability was completely negated. The only survivors were the three Aircraft Carriers in the Pacific, which had coincidently been out of the harbor on various missions at the time of the attack; these would prove decisive in the war in the Pacific Theater which was to follow.

What did the Japanese secret fleet consist of & how did this relate to their plan?

- The Japanese secret fleet consisted mainly of 6 Aircraft Carriers carrying 430 planes, Destroyers for protection, and 20 Submarines (including 2-man 'midget' subs) to precede the main fleet and do reconnaissance. - Their plan of attack was to steam as close as possible to Pearl Harbor, and then launch a massive attack of aircraft, carrying both conventional and modified torpedo bombs. Each aircraft had an assigned target, complete with location and photographs of the ship to be attacked.

What was also occurring in the 1920s that fueled unrest in Japan?

- The Japanese traditional way of life was also collapsing in the wake of the world-wide economic recession, and massive urbanization was taking place. - Military extremists were increasing in number and influence and radical nationalism, though disorganized, was increasing in popularity.

What was the 'KdF Wagon'?

- The KDF was also involved in Hitler's vision to provide cheap automobiles to every family in Germany. - Called Volkswagen ("People's Car") these were designed by Austrian engineer Frederick Porsche according to Hitler's instructions that it was to "look like a beetle." - A payment scheme was made to enable people to obtain a car, but in fact not a single one was provided during Nazi rule.

What was the National Reich Church?

- The National Reich Church was the competition/replacement for the christian church, as the german church split in WW2 with many Christian leaders going against Nazi ideals. - Hitler, instead, fostered belief in a Nazi state religion, called the National Reich Church, set up in 1936. - This was really merely an attempt to legitimize Nazi ideology under the guise of Religion: parades, monuments, and uniforms were used to increase the hero-worship of Adolf Hitler and strengthen his power. - Social Policy: Bibles were banned, and all crosses and religious objects were removed from churches, and replaced by a copy of Mein Kampf.

Empire of the Rising Sun

- The Tokugawa Era in Japanese history saw Japan forcibly expel all European influences and technologies from its homeland and return to an Isolationist Samurai-led Feudal state for over 300 years. - This preserved Japanese culture and religion, but when U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry sailed into Japan in 1853, superior military technology--in the form of ships, guns and cannons--forced Japan to open its borders. = Was good for Japanese culture, but not for development & urbanisation.

The Treaty of Sevres: Turkey

- The Treaty of Sevres had many long-lasting consequences for the region, including but not limited to: - The occupation of Turkey by French, British, Greek & Italian armies (and the Armenian Genocide) - The "Zone of the Straits" falling under the control of the League of Nations - The setting up of French mandates in Syria and Lebanon and British mandates in Palestine, Iraq, and the Transjordan - Granting of independence to Arabia (but not the Kurds or granting of a Jewish territory in the Levant)

The Treaty of Trianon: Hungary

- The Treaty of Trianon (June 4th 1920) finalised the fate of Hungary. - Like Austria, Hungary lost more than half of its population, several major cities and large amounts of valuable territory. Most ended up with the newly formed Czechoslovakia, while some eastern territory passed to Romania. - The Hungarian army was restricted to 35,000 men and prohibited from acquiring planes, tanks or heavy artillery.

How did intelligence play a role in the attack on Pearl Harbor?

- The U.S. had deciphered the Japanese secret code used for communications, however not the naval code and the Japanese knew this and used it to their advantage. - The strategy was to simply flood the airwaves with plans for attack; some legitimate, and others fabricated = misinforming them, and including Pearl Harbor. American listeners did not know what to believe.

How did the Weimar government respond to the idealistic secession of Bavaria?

- The Weimar government responded by placing Munich under siege, resulting in starvation in the city. - Then, ironically, on the 1st of May, (Workers' Day) the government attacked; Frei Korps killed at least 600 Communists, including women and children.

How was the attack on Pearl Harbor executed?

- The attack was perfectly executed, with Japanese aircraft coming in waves across the island and flying unopposed over the harbor, reaching their destination at 7:49am, local time. - The main target of the attack was "Battleship Row," where all of the U.S.'s Battleships lay at anchor--perfect targets. - Besides the modified torpedoes, armor-piercing bombs had been developed by the Japanese, which would be able to penetrate the normally impenetrable ships' decks.

Who was the author of the Japanese plan to attack?

- The author of the Japanese plan was Admiral Yamamoto Isoruku, a Harvard graduate who had worked as a military attaché in the U.S. - Yamamoto had seen the military and industrial might of the U.S., and believed that the only chance for Japan was to deliver a "moral shock" to the heart of the U.S., perhaps demoralizing them enough to avoid all-out war, which he believed Japan could not hope to win.

Social Darwinism

- The belief that only the fittest survive in human political and economic struggle. - The application of ideas about evolution and "survival of the fittest" to human societies - particularly as a justification for their imperialist expansion.

Who were General Tojo Hideki's main threats?

- The main threat to this future was the intervention of other powers who might not wish them to gain geopolitical control, especially Great Britain, the Netherlands, and the United States, which were Japan's main provider of oil (Arabia/Indonesia). - These powers had threatened to embargo Japan as part of sanctions for their annexation of Manchuria and withdrawal from the League of Nations in 1933. - If Japan's oil supply were to be cut off, Japan would find itself unable to expand further, and unable to use its existing military resources, such as warships and airplanes.

What were the main military effects of the attack on Pearl Harbor?

- The military effect of the attack was the destruction of the American Pacific fleet, ending any immediate U.S. threat to Japan, and denying the U.S. any possibility of resisting Japanese expansion into the Pacific. - The U.S. immediately had to begin rebuilding the Pacific fleet, both to take the fight to Japan and also to protect its own coastline. - It was predicted that, were the Japanese to launch a land invasion of the United States, they could penetrate to Chicago before the Americans could stop them. - Defenses were built along the coastline near major cities such as San Diego, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Seattle, and troops were sent to reinforce the Panama Canal, lest the Japanese try to penetrate into the Atlantic, gaining access to the East Coast of the United States as well. - Military enlistment sky-rocketed; (13 "Giddens" boys who were the appropriate age all joined up in the first week) including both of my Grandfathers. Even my 16 year-old great uncle enlisted, lying about his age, which was not an uncommon occurrence.

Threats to the new Republic:

- The victory of the Social Democrats did not ensure peace in Germany in 1919. - In March, Communists organized riots and strikes in Berlin in another attempt to seize power; again, the Frei Korps were called in to bash heads. Over 1000 were shot dead, including a group of 30 sailors collecting their wages.

What had begun after the attack on Pearl Harbor?

- The war in the Pacific had begun, and Japan had a formidable starting position, but still had much more to conquer before the goals of its most extremist visionaries would be accomplished. - Admiral Yamamoto Isoruku, who conceived of and led the attack on Pearl Harbor is purported to have said that he "feared that (Japan had) merely woken a sleeping Tiger" in the form of the United States of America. - Certainly, World War II in the Pacific was far from over.

How did European powers view Japan's rise in colonial foothold in Asia?

- These developments were viewed with no little alarm by European nations and the United States, who had traditionally taken a very contemptuous and racist view of the Japanese. Indeed, many of Japan's conquests in China had been taken from them by European powers. - However, in 1902, Great Britain entered into an international agreement with Japan about expansion into China, and in 1907, the U.S. and France also entered into "equal" treaties with Japan for the first time, mainly to preserve their own holdings in the region.

How was the final step to dictatorship made possible by the Constitution of the Weimar Republic (Article 48)?

- This final step to dictatorship was made possible because of the Constitution of the Weimar Republic (Article 48), which allowed for the awarding of Emergency Powers to the President in a time of crisis. - Using the perceived threat from the Communists, and Nazi thuggery to intimidate the opposition, Hitler took advantage of this loophole to pass the Enabling Act. - Hitler now had the legal power to do anything he liked, and the Nazi Party possessed absolute control of Germany: the Third Reich had begun.

What was an economic policy imposed by the Nazi regime in Germany?

- To combat the massive unemployment in Germany, Hitler began fulfilling his election campaign promise of "work and bread." - Hitler set up the Reichsarbeitsdienst (RAD), or the National Labor Service to begin to put the 6 million unemployed to work. - Mostly, these jobs were on public works: digging ditches, planting forests, building new schools and hospitals, and creating a massive network of highways called the Autobahn. - The men in the RAD wore Nazi uniforms, lived in camps, and received only a little spending money, but it was better than unemployment: it gave them purpose, and took care of their material needs, including food.

How was the Great Depression in Germany an opportunity for the Nazis?

- To the Nazis, however, it was a fantastic opportunity to gain support from people increasingly desperate for answers, whatever the source. - One of the Nazi leaders, Gregor Strasser, said in 1931: "All that serves to bring about catastrophe...is good, very good for us and our German revolution." - In the General Election of 1930, the results surprised even Hitler himself.

What happened two days before Christmas when the new government was slowly being formed (Ebert became leader of the Social Democrats)?

- Two days before Christmas, 1000 underpaid and disillusioned soldiers broke into Ebert's headquarters and held him hostage, demanding more pay. - On Christmas Eve, 1918, the Spartacists renamed themselves the German Communist Party and one of their leaders, Rosa Luxemburg, wrote in their paper: "To battle! There is a world to conquer and a world to fight against! In this last class war of world history...our word to the enemy is: Thumb in eye and knee on chest." - On the 6th of January, 1919, the Communists began their revolution.

What collapsed by the end of WWI and what did it lead to?

- Two major Empires had also collapsed during the war: The Ottoman Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. - Thus, many people groups that had been part of those Empires now sought nations of their own (e.g. Romania).

What happened under the surface of the Stresemann Years?

- Under the surface, however, tensions remained high, particularly between the extreme political parties: the Communists and the Nazis. - Hitler had re-formed the Nazi party in 1925 and had increased the power of the SA by creating the Schutzstaffen ("Protection Squads"), called the SS—a more elite paramilitary force. - They wore black uniforms with stylized SS symbols and their symbol was the "Death's Head." They were sometimes called the Black Shirts because of this. - Nazi Party branches were set up all over the country, and Hitler began working towards gaining power through legal means. - Mass rallies were held, and propaganda was produced in massive quantities, mostly by Hitler's expert film-maker and propagandist, Joseph Goebbels. - The Communists themselves were becoming more organized and more aggressive, forming the Red Fighting League to combat the SA and SS. - Street battles were fought between the two factions, particularly in Berlin, but neither gained much political momentum. - In the 1928 Reichstag (Parliamentary) elections, the Communists won 54 seats out of approximately 280, and the Nazis won only 12.

What did the RAD (an economic policy imposed by the Nazi regime in Germany) contribute to? What was another policy that contributed to this?

- Unemployment rates dropped rapidly. - Another reason for this, however, was the introduction of a policy of rearmament. - In March, 1935, he started compulsory military service for young men, and set up an air force: both actions were completely in violation of the Treaty of Versailles.

The impact of the Great Depression on the road to WW2:

- Unfortunately, in 1929, a breakdown in the world economy began with the Wall Street Crash of the stock market. - This Great Depression spread from the USA to the rest of the world, and many countries, including the USA, began a policy of protectionism: raising tariffs on imported goods to ensure the survival of their own industries. - Isolationism also increases and as this happens it destroys many ways by which people can share commerce, sell & receive, which makes it disastrous in the long-run = not helpful when you can't trade with anyone = economy fails = unemployment. - "When America sneezes the rest of the world catches a cold".

How did the battle between Japan and the USSR before Pearl Harbor affect Japanese involvement in the attack against the Soviet Union in 1941?

- When Hitler finally invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 the Japanese, although tempted to join the attack, remembered the lessons of Khalkhin Gol and decided to remain on the sidelines, ensuring that the stretched Soviet military could focus its forces on just one front. - This, in turn, meant that Nazi Germany was forced to fight a four year war on two fronts - against the Soviets in the East, and the British and Americans in the West.

What did Britain & France do as they knew that Germany was rearming?

- While Britain and France (and the League of Nations) knew that Hitler was re-arming, they were too weak to stop him from doing so. - In 1935, therefore, Britain and Germany signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, allowing Germany to have a navy one-third the size of Britain's, and a force of submarines equal in size to Britain. - Even though it was meant to restrict the number of submarines Germany could build, without overseeing the Germans were free to do whatever the wanted. - This was completely against the Treaty of Versailles, however, and was viewed as an indication of weakness on the part of Britain.

Historiography: Was Hitler a Planner, or an Opportunist, in foreign affairs? There are in fact two debates going on here:

- William Shirer (The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, 1960) agreed with Taylor that Hitler's aims were essentially traditional, but agreed with Roper that Hitler had a clear strategy for achieving those objectives. - Alan Bullock (Hitler: A Study in Tyranny, 1964) tried to reconcile Taylor and Roper by arguing that Hitler was a strategist, but used opportunistic techniques. However, this is an unworkable compromise based on a fluffy definition of a "planner". A planner is someone with very clear objectives, a very clear timetable, and who is proactive rather than reactive.

How bad was the hyperinflation in Germany by 1923?

- Workers' wives would wait outside their husbands' factories on pay day to receive the bales of money that were tossed to them over the fence; they had to rush to spend it that very day or it would lose all value. - Food, clothing, and heat (from coal) became unaffordable for many, and the worst suffering came from pensioners, whose fixed income was now merely a pittance.

In 1932, there were three important elections in Germany:

- two in the Reichstag and the Presidential election. - In the Presidential elections, Hitler's success showed:

Ian Kershaw 2 Quotes on Hitler's rise to power:

1. "Without the changed conditions, the product of a lost war, a revolution and a pervasive sense of national humiliation, Hitler would have remained a nobody. His main ability by far, as he came to realise during the course of 1919, was that in the prevailing circumstances he could inspire an audience which shared his basic political feelings, by the way he spoke, by the force of his rhetoric, by the very power of his prejudice, by the conviction he conveyed that there was a way out of Germany's plight." 2. "Hitler was no inexorable product of a German 'special path', no logical culmination of long-term trends in specifically German culture and ideology. Nor was he a mere 'accident' in the course of German history."

Short-term causes of rise of fascism (8)

1. (short-term) Economic Weaknesses & Inflation (direct consequence of WW1): 2. An inflation of about 50% hit and greatly damaged the middle class. 3. The effects of this were worsened by the 85 billion Liran national debt in 1919, resulting from war loans from the USA. 4. This greatly affected workers→ Industrial workers' wages fell by about 25%. 5. During the war, industry appeared to be fine due to increased government spending on war materials, guns, and resources. Came as a shock to the entirety of Italian population. 6. Yet, the end of the war marked the end of lucrative contracts for industries, who now had to survive on their own. Unemployment sky-rocketed. 7. This quickly led to the bankruptcy of large industrial firms, which was seen by nationalists as a government failure to protect Italian patriots.

The Road to World War II Timeline

1. 1931: Japan Invades Manchuria; League of Nations fails to stop this 2. 1933: Adolf Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany, winning an election with the NSDAP and its clear desire for revenge & Lebensraum. 3. 1933: Japan quits the League of Nations, as does Germany 4. 1934: Russia joins LoN 5. 1935: Mussolini's Italy invades Abyssinia 6. 1935: Stresa Front begins to weaken 7. 1935: Anglo-German Naval Agreement (First U.S. Neutrality Act) 8. 1935: Hitler begins active & blatant rearmament 9. 1935: Saar Plebiscite 10. 1936: Hitler remilitarizes the Rhineland 11. 1936: Rome-Berlin Axis is formed 12. 1936: Spanish Civil War breaks out 13. 1936: Anti-Comintern Pact is formed between Germany and Japan 14. 1937: Guernica attack in Spain 15. 1937: Italy joins Anti-Comintern Pact 16. 1937: Japan invades China, December: "Rape of Nanking" 17. 1937: Italy quits the LoN (Second U.S. Neutrality Act) 18. 1938: Anschluss with Austria The Sudetenland Crisis The Munich Conference Germany invades Czechoslovakia The Polish Guarantee 19. 1939: The Invasion of Albania by Italy Guarantee of protection for Greece and Romania 20. 1939: Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact ("Nazi-Soviet Pact") 21. September 1st 1939: Germany invades Poland (Third U.S. Neutrality Act) 22. September 3rd: France & Britain declare war on Germany (The "Phony War" begins)

Summary and significance of the Tripartite Pact

1. 1940: Japan signs the Tripartite Pact with Germany & Italy 2. The German victories in the spring and summer of 1940 had encouraged the Japanese in their expansionist policies for fear of "missing the bus", as stated General Hayashi (whose governance of Japan was a short-lived period between February and June of 1937) in 1959. 3. Hence, in September 1940, Japan entered into a the Tripartite Pact with the European fascist powers Germany. This stated that if Japan, Germany or Italy was attacked by any third power not then engaged in the European War or the China War, the other two Axis powers would aid the victim of the attack. This convinced many Americans that the war in Europe and the war in Asia were the same war. 4. The Tripartite Pact was notably put into effect in 1941, following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. On December 8 the United States declared war on Japan, and four days later Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. Thereafter, however, the pact was largely seen as ineffective, Germany and Japan having divergent interests and largely pursuing their own agendas. For example, in April 1941 Japan signed a neutrality pact with the Soviet Union, but two months later Germany invaded the communist country. The Japanese subsequently refused German calls to intervene.

A United Italy

1. 25 million Italians 2. Growing nationalism = Unified by language and history 3. Reminiscences of the Roman Empire

What best describes "Syndicalism" or the "Corporatist" System that the Fascists wanted to set up?

1. A "third way" between capitalism and communism 2. A system where corporate owners would have to cooperate with workers and accept some of the trade unions' demands 3. Employers and employees would both fit into a "national plan"

Bombing of Shanghai

1. A conflict between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan that took place in the Shanghai international settlement. 2. It was sparked after 18 Japanese monks were attacked (two injured and one killed) near Shanghai Sanyou Factory when they were shouting anti-Chinese slogans. This resulted in a surge of anti-japanese protests with Shanghai residents calling for the boycott of Japanese goods. 3. 30 ships, 40 planes and 7,000 japanese troops were on the Shanghai shoreline to put down any resistance that broke out. 4. The conflict first started in Hongkew district of the international settlement as it had a large Japanese population; the Japanese military's defence for the attack was the defending of its citizens and concession. Japan demanded that the Chinese government took active steps to put out any anti-japanese protests in the city following the monk incident and wanted compensation for property damage. The Shanghai council agreed to these demands on the afternoon of January 28th. 5. Midnight on January 28th (1932), a Japanese aircraft carrier bombed Shanghai. Around 3 thousand Japanese troops attacked targets such as Shanghai north railway station. First aerial battle between between Japan and China also occurred on the 28th as the Chinese Air Force dispatched nine planes. (no losses on either side) 6. Shanghai had many forgein interests invested in it, so other countries such as Britain, U.S and France attempted to negotiate a ceasefire between China and Japan. Japan declined and continued to mobilise troops in that region. 7. A half day ceasefire was agreed upon however, this allowed humanitarian relief to reach civilians caught in the middle of the conflict. 8. China declined Japan's demand for them to retreat 20km from the border of Shanghai concessions which intensified fighting in Hongkew. 9. A ceasefire was signed by Japan and China on May 5th (The Shanghai Ceasefire Agreement) which made Shanghai a demilitarized zone and stopped China from garrisoning troops around Shanghai, Suzhou and Kunshan while allowing a few Japanese units in the city. China was only allowed a small police force within the city itself.

Short-term causes of rise of fascism (3)

1. A notion of a mutilated victory (used by Fascists to gain support): 2. Italy was not compensated as it had desired, and the costs of war were far greater than the gains. 3. Italy regained some desired territory, such as Trentino and the Istrian Peninsula, but did not; receive the Adriatic port of Fiume, German colonies, or major financial compensation. 4. This idea would be extensively used by the Fascists to turn people against Liberalism.

Rise of Mussolini (2) - IDEOLOGY

1. Abandonment of Socialism (pre WWI): 2. In his early career, Mussolini was extremely Socialist, yet, as he accompanied the works of philosophers like Nietzsche, he steered away from Socialism. 3. Mussolini started to believe in integral nationalism, and in the idea that the Italians were a superior race. 4. Started following a lot more rightist views. He started to view war as a way of liberating the Italian people and crushing the inferior Austria-Hungarian race. 5. After the War, Mussolini further increased his popularity by founding organisations such as: A) The Fascist Revolutionary Party (which still possessed many Socialist beliefs) (1915) --> marked as the point of transition between socialism and fascism by historians. B) The Italian Combat Squad (1919), which started to gather the Blackshirts, and other Fascist militia groups.

Political changes and compromises

1. After his appointment as prime minister in October 1922, Mussolini quickly set up a 'national government' - a coalition much like the one Salandra had proposed, including three Fascists, two Democrats, one Liberal, one Nationalist, two from the Popolari and two senior army officers. 2. The only difference from Salandra's scheme was that Mussolini was in charge, not one of the old guard. 3. The make-up of the new government showed how much Mussolini depended on political compromises, especially with the army. 4. Until October 1922, the economic and political crisis had worked in Mussolini's favour - the worse things were for, more especially, the worse people thought they were) the easier it was for Mussolini to offer himself as the radical solution to the country's problems. 5. Once he was prime minister, his situation was completely changed. He had to achieve success quickly, or his government would be blamed. 6. Mussolini had several political advantages at the end of 1922. He could put the key ministries in fascist hands. 7. He could transform the squads into an organised fascist militia, the MVSN. 8. Local government in many towns and cities was already in fascist hands and now Mussolini could extend this control by appointing Fascists to positions of authority. 9. Mussolini also needed the ability to pass laws swiftly, without endless parliamentary debates. 10. He was able to achieve this, at least temporarily, by playing on the fear of revolution in Italy to persuade the other parties to rush through a law granting his government temporary emergency powers for 12 months. 11. Mussolini then moved to tighten his control over his own movement by setting up the Fascist Grand Council. 12. Despite its imposing name, the Fascist Grand Council existed simply to rubber-stamp Mussolini's decisions. It had no real power - at least not until 25 July 1943.

A closer look: Victims of the German occupation of Italy (1943-45)

1. After the armistice was proclaimed on 8 September 1943, the German army quickly consolidated its hold on Rome and northern Italy. The SS controlled security, including deportations of Italian Jews. Mussolini had passed race laws in 1938 but persecution of Italian Jews was mild until 1943. Then, in the razzia of 16 November, 8,000 Jews in Rome were rounded up for deportation. Most went to the death camps, though some were protected by neighbours, or by the Church. It is still a matter of bitter debate whether Pope Pius XII and the Church should be condemned as guilty of collaborating with the Nazis and condoning anti-Semitic atrocities, or applauded for working quietly behind the scenes to save as many Jews as they could. In the Salo Republic, there were also round ups of Jews, organised by Giovanni Preziosi, a fanatical anti-Semite who was Inspector of Race from March 1944, though other fascist officials occasionally intervened to overrule Preziosi. The Germans also carried out brutal reprisals against the partisans The worst was the Ardeatine Caves massacre, near Rome, on 24 March 1944, when 335 Italian hostages, 77 of them Jewish, were killed on the orders of the SS police chief in Rome, Herbert Kappler. Hitler personally demanded the killings in revenge for an attack by partisans the day before, in which 28 German policemen had been killed. It was not only a German crime; Kappler got a lot of assistance from the Italian police chief in Rome, who rounded up the hostages for him. It is estimated that German forces and the fascist militias killed 9,500 Italian partisans during 1943-45. Mussolini denounced the Germans for 'stupidity' in using extreme violence (though he took no action to stop them, and there was also increased anti-German feeling among ordinary Italians, Germany controlled most of the political and economic activities of the Salo Republic until the end of the war. The government of the RSI had very limited freedom of action. Its economy was totally subordinated to the German war effort and many skilled workers were conscripted for work in factories in Germany.

The monarchy

1. After unification was achieved, Italy became a constitutional monarchy. 2. The King of Piedmont, Victor Emmanuel I, became King of Italy in 1861. 3. This resulted in a long-term lack of legitimacy for the Italian monarchy. 4. Piedmont, a kingdom in the north-west corner of Italy, did not represent the whole nation. 5. Emmanuel I was succeeded by his son Umberto I in 1878. 6. In 1900, King Umberto I was assassinated by an anarchist, leaving his only son, Victor Emmanuel III, to become king - a small, rather unimpressive man, who sometimes found it hard to exert his authority. 7. In 1919, there were rumours that Victor Emmanuel III might be forced to abdicate in favour of his cousin, the militaristic Duke of Aosta.

Why did Japan attack Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941? Economic Lense

1. Again, Japan's foreign policy in the crucial year of 1 941-42 was determined by domestic issues; in this case the increasing control that the military now had on the government and the economic concerns arising from the US blockade on Japan. 2. The economic embargo placed on Japan as a result of its expansion into Indo-China would be fatal in the long term for Japan. The Japanese could not sustain the war in China if their key war supplies were cut off. Therefore, a war of conquest to gain and ensure resources from the European colonies seemed to be the only option. However, opinion in Japan was divided on the question of expanding the war. Some argued that Japan could withdraw its forces from Indo-China and thus get the embargo lifted. Others wanted no retreat and did not view the USA as a real danger to their ambitions. 3. Negotiations between the USA and Japan continued throughout 1941. Washington wanted Japan to agree to respect the territorial integrity of its neighbours, to pursue its policies by peaceful means and to continue to maintain an "open door" trade policy in the areas under its control. 4. Japan could not agree to these conditions and the deadlock continued into August despite the efforts of Prince Konoe to negotiate . While negotiations with the USA continued, the military in Japan made alternative plans.

Stage 3: The Golden Age (1924-1929) - Failures: Economic Factors (2)

1. Agrarian distress 2. The fall in food prices led to the accumulation of farmers' debts, even before the 1929 crash. 3. Little government spending was focused on this sector (more on the secondary/tertiary sector = services), making it seem like the government did not care about farmers. 4. Unions such as the Rural League were not fond of the government, and easy targets for the NSDAP to gain support.

Summary and significance of the "Second United Front"

1. Alliance between CCP and Nationalist forces in China between 1936 to 1946, formed in order to resist Japanese occupation 2. The Comintern recommended that communist groups should form alliances with non-communist governments in order to build a united front against fascism. Combined with calls for national unity within China, primarily from the CCP, this laid the groundwork for the formation of the alliance 3. Jiang Jieshi, the Nationalist leader, was more concerned about eradicating the CCP than countering the Japanese. 4. Zhang Xueliang, a northern warlord ordered by Jieshi to mobilise his army against the CCP, disagreed 5. At talks in Xi'an in December 1936, Zhang told Jiang he would not fight the communists at the expense of ignoring Japanese aggression 6. Anticipating retribution from Jiang, Zhang sent 150 troops to the latter's quarters. Jiang surrendered later that day 7. Communist leader Zhou Enlai also went to Xi'an, negotiating a ceasefire between the Nationalists and the CCP and assuring Jiang's release 8. The alliance between Zhou, Jiang, and Zhang included an acceptance of Sun Yixian's Three Principles. The Red Army was placed under a central command and was transformed into the Eighth Route Army and New Fourth Route Army 9. The CCP used the Second United Front to spread pro-Communist sentiment in Shaanxi, by presenting their ideology and actions as a means to counter Japanese expansionism 10. Mao later claimed that Japanese presence in China distracted the Nationalists, thus weakening them and giving the CCP a break and time to restructure 11. Historian Joseph Esherwick agrees, claiming that without the Second United Front, "the Guomindang might have tightened the noose and eliminated the Red Army" 12. The two armies usually battled independently, preferring to engage in guerrilla warfare rather than full-scale battles 13. Even so, the Nationalists and Communists cooperated occasionally, including the Battle of Taiyuan (late 1937) and he Battle of Wuhan (1938) 14. Local skirmishes between the two factions occurred in regions that were not under threat from Japan 15. Notably, the New Fourth Army Incident of 1941, an 80,000-person Nationalist regiment attacked the headquarters of the CCP's New Fourth Army. Three-quarters of the 9000 CCP soldiers inside were killed, captured or went missing. Although the attack was costly, it allowed the CCP to paint themselves as martyrs and fuel anti-Nationalist sentiment 16. After the WW2 Japanese surrender, a lasting peace agreement was unable to be brokered between Jiang and Mao, even with intervention from foreign advisors like American George Marshall 17. This led to war breaking out between the Guomindang and CCP by late 1946

Why did Italy remain non-belligerent in 1939?

1. Although Mussolini had signed the Pact of Steel in May 1939, clearly committing Italy to support Germany in any future war, Italy remained 'non-belligerent' after Hitler's invasion of Poland on 1 September until June 1940, when the German conquest of France was already nearly complete. 2. Mussolini insisted that Italy's position was not neutrality. 3. The term 'non-belligerent' indicated that Italy was clearly on Germany's side, even though not yet taking part in any fighting. 4. Italy's 'non-belligerence' in 1939-40 revealed that even the Pact of Steel had not finally ended Mussolini's indecision in foreign policy. There are several possible reasons why Mussolini decided to stay on the sidelines: A) Despite all his aggressive actions since 1935 and the serious disagreements with Britain and France, Mussolini still wanted to keep his options open. He always had mixed feelings about the German alliance, even after entering the war on Germany's side in 1940. B) Despite all his propaganda boasts about military greatness, he was afraid war might expose the fact that Italy was not militarily or economically ready for a major conflict. C) Mussolini had entered the Pact of Steel thinking in terms of making war in 1943 or even later. He had not realised how soon Hitler would attack Poland. When the war was imminent in the summer of 1939, Mussolini made desperate appeals to Hitler not to do it. D) Hitler did not really need Mussolini's help in Poland. For Germany, the value of the alliance with Italy was that Italian forces would tie down British and French forces and hinder any attempt they made to invade Germany, while Hitler's armies were busy in Poland. E) After the rapid defeat of Poland, the war in Europe entered the long lull in hostilities known as the Phoney War'. Mussolini was thus able to sit on the sidelines through the winter of 1939-40, waiting for Hitler's next move. Until almost the last moment in June 1940, Mussolini had the opportunity to stay out of Hitler's war - if he wanted to.

Treatment of the Opposition: Failure of the opposition (2)

1. Anti-Nazi Youth Groups: 2. These groups sprung all around Germany, and actively opposed the regime in secret. 3. Most of them were non-violent, as it was too dangerous to outright attack the Gestapo, the SS, and other party officials. 4. Groups would often secretly speak out against Nazism or engage in activity that boycotted the regime. E.g: 5. The White Rose→ The group operated in 1942 but were caught by the Gestapo in 1943. They were made up of students from the University of Munich and led by Sophie and Hans Scholl. The group opposed the regime by secretly distributing leaflets, and engaging in a graffiti campaign that spread anti-Nazi messages, calling upon resistance. Sophie Scholl, Hans Scholl, and Christoph Probst were executed by guillotine on February 22, 1943. While their deaths were only barely mentioned in German newspapers, they received attention abroad. 6. Irena Sendler- This social worker saved over 2,000 Jewish children from the Warsaw Ghetto. She later received a Righteous Among the Nations medal in 1965, and only died in 2008.

Rise of Mussolini (3) - IDEOLOGY

1. Appealing to a wider public: 2. Though Mussolini had the support of the working class, he needed to appeal to other Italians, so he proposed more radical ideas that explored the people's fears, and hostilities. These ideas included: A) Italy had been stolen of its greatness by plutocratic nations, like Britain and France. * Throughout most of the 18th, 19th and 20th century, these powers expanded their empires becoming major world superpowers, while Italy was not able to take its fair share of the world. ** Italy had seen a mutilated victory following the end of WWI, especially due to the unjust concessions of the Treaty of Versailles. B) Italians were a superior race (as shown by its high birth rate). * The Slavs were an inferior race. ** He wished to double the population to 60 million in order to properly militarise Italy as a strong, independent power. Goal→ To expand Italy throughout the Mediterranean and subjugate non Italian speaking people.

Fears of civil war

1. As King, Victor Emmanuel was Commander in Chief of the Royal Army. 2. He was unsure whether the army would be strong enough to defeat the Fascists (all the evidence suggests that the army could easily have crushed Mussolini's Blackshirts, but the King was not certain of this at the time) and he was also unsure whether the army would be willing to act. 3. The fascist movement was full of ex-soldiers. Several generals and senior officers were openly sympathetic to the Fascists; some, such as Emilio De Bono, were actually leaders in the movement.

The coming to power of the Fascists

1. At the beginning of 1922, Italy was in a state of permanent political instability. 2. Fascist violence was increasing in intensity. Parliamentary government could only function through patched-up coalition government by political parties who were incapable of united action. 3. The government headed by Ivanoe Bonomi since July 1921 depended on an alliance between the anti-clerical Radical Party and the PPI (Partito Popolare Italiano - Popolari - or Italian Popular Party), a party specifically representing Catholic interests. 4. In February 1922, the PPI withdrew its support and Bonomi was forced to resign. This was the fourth government collapse since 1919 and it was difficult for anyone to form a government capable of maintaining a majority in parliament. After weeks of discussions, King Victor Emmanuel III appointed as prime minister an experienced politician widely regarded as a nonentity, Luigi Facta.

Fascist aggression, 1935-40

1. At the beginning of 1935, France and Britain viewed Mussolini as a European statesman and a potential ally. 2. By May 1939, however, Mussolini was allied to Hitler and Italy was one of the Axis powers alongside Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan. 3. In the eyes of Britain and France, Mussolini had turned into a fascist dictator. 4. This process was not sudden; between 1936 and 1939 there were still opportunities for Italy to rebuild relations with Britain and France. 5. Step by step, however, Mussolini moved closer to Nazi Germany: the invasion of Abyssinia (the name used for Ethiopia in the 1930s), intervention in Spain, acceptance of the Nazi annexations of Austria and parts of Czechoslovakia in 1938, and finally the Pact of Steel in May 1939. 6. When the European war began in September 1939, Mussolini held back, fearful of involving Italy in a real war. It might still have been just possible for Mussolini to avoid Hitler's clutches and for Italy to rebuild relations with Britain and France. Mussolini did not make this choice. 7. In the end, the consequences of siding with Germany proved disastrous for Mussolini and Italy.

Hitler's Consolidation & Maintenance of Power: From democracy to dictatorship (January-March 1933) - Use of Legal methods (6)

1. Attempts of Nazification through public institutions - The purge of the civil service (April 1933): 2. Through the Law for the Re-establishment of the Civil Service of April 1933, the Nazis guaranteed a way of cleansing the Civil Service, and avoiding the difficulties of Weimar. 3. The Law allowed: A) Non Aryans to be dismissed. B) Officials whose political activities could threaten the state were dismissed. C) Those of Jewish descent were removed from education, the judiciary and diplomacy. 4. This was an opportunity to: A) Award loyal Nazis that had been in the Party for a long time (since Sept. 1930). B) Attract the "March Violets"; those that recently joined the Party (since March 1933). Ensuring that the Nazi party / rule was in line with the Nazi doctrine. Allowing people that were loyal to the party to be celebrated and encouraging others to join the party.

The consequences of the invasion of Abyssinia (2)

1. British and French policy towards Mussolini was very uncertain and ambiguous, both during and after the war. 2. On the one hand, there was a desire to support the League of Nations and to block fascist aggression. 3. There was no question of doing this militarily, but there was pressure to punish Italy by introducing economic sanctions. 4. After much diplomatic haggling, sanctions were imposed. There were numerous public statements condemning Italy and demanding respect for Ethiopian independence. 5. On the other hand, British and French policymakers did not want to drive Mussolini into the arms of Hitler. They still genuinely hoped to keep alive the Stresa Front. They were not completely against Mussolini gaining an empire in Africa, as long as he did not cause too much trouble in doing so. This weakened their response. 6. Oil, for example, was excluded from the economic sanctions, and oil was the one item that might have forced Mussolini to take serious notice of the sanctions. The confused British and French position resulted in the Hoare-Laval Pact in December 1935. This Pact aimed at a compromise agreement, giving large parts of Ethiopia to Italy but preserving the independence of a smaller Ethiopia.

What happened to the government by the 1920s (also in regard to the PCI)?

1. By 1921, trade union membership reached 2 million. The government came under attack from conservative nationalists on the right, demanding a crackdown against the 'socialist threat'. 2. The government also faced challenges from the three new political forces that were emerging in 1919: A) The extreme left-wing socialists who broke away to form the communist PCI (Italian Communist Party) in January 1921. B) The Catholic activists who responded to the Pope's decision to permit Catholics to take part in politics and formed the PPI, or Popolari, led by a Sicilian priest, Don Luigi Sturzo. C) The new fascist movement, the Fasci di Combattimento, formed in March 1919 and led by Benito Mussolini. Rising support for these new parties took votes away from the centrist liberal parties that supported the government. 3. The position of the government was further weakened by the impact on public opinion of the post-war peace settlement. Italy made some substantial gains, including the German-speaking southern Tyrol, Trieste, Istria and Slav-speaking areas in Dalmatia, but this was not enough to satisfy Italian nationalists who insisted that Italy should have received more reward for the great sacrifices in the war. 4. The nationalists claimed Italy should also have received the sea port of Fiume (Rijeka in Croatia) and a share of the former German colonies in Africa. 5. Nationalist anger was not only directed at Britain and France for 'mutilating Italy's victory, they bitterly attacked their own liberal government for being 'too weak'. 6. The nationalist campaign culminated in the occupation of Fiume by 2,000 Italian volunteers (arditi), led by the flamboyant nationalist poet, Gabriele D'Annunzio in September 1919. 7. The occupation of Fiume was humiliating and damaging for the Italian government, who agreed with D'Annunzio about Fiume but were under international pressure to take action against the illegal occupation. 8. In November 1920, Italy and Yugoslavia agreed the Treaty of Rapallo to settle the status of Fiume and, in December, the Italian government finally forced D'Annunzio and his amateur army to pull out of the city.

The invasion of Albania

1. By 1939, Albania was already under virtually complete Italian control. 2. Italy had exclusive rights for mining operations, oil exploration and fishing in the Adriatic. 3. Italians controlled Albania's banks. 4. The ruler of Albania, King Zog, depended on Italian 'loans' (there was no chance he could ever repay them) to carry on the business of government and administration. 5. Italians held many key posts in the army, the civil service and the government. 6. From 1938, Mussolini and Ciano began to make practical preparations for the complete annexation of Albania. 7. In April 1939, Mussolini launched the invasion of Albania. One key motive for this was the idea that taking over Albania would 'compensate' Italy for the loss of influence over Austria after Hitler's Anschluss in March 1938. 8. There were also economic motives. Fascist leaders, especially Ciano, convinced themselves that Albania was a potentially rich country, ripe for economic exploitation and for settling 2 million Italians there. In reality, Albania was already costing Italy far more money than any supposed profits that were gained. 9. Italy was concerned to keep a monopoly influence in Albania and moved quickly to block attempts by King Zog to encourage foreign investment from Germany and Japan - but the drive to annex Albania was really about empire and prestige, not economics. 10. The military operations of the Italian forces were bungled and badly led (an Italian diplomat claimed sarcastically that, 'if the Albanians had possessed a reasonably efficient Fire Brigade, they could have driven us back into the sea)' but it was a one-sided war. 11. Italy took complete control of Albania. King Zog went into exile and Victor Emmanuel became King of Albania as well as Italy. 12. Mussolini's propaganda machine presented it as a great triumph, but the invasion of Albania actually showed how unprepared the Italian armed forces were for a major conflict.

Who made up the fascist movement?

1. By the beginning of 1922, the fascist movement had swelled to about 240,000 members. The majority of them were from the lower middle classes in the North, where the movement had originated in 1919. 2. During 1920 and 1921, however, the fascist movement had gained many new recruits from central Italy and the rural South. These men were generally young, restless and attracted to violence. 3. People joined the fascist movement for a variety of motives. There were monarchists and republicans; there were Catholics and fanatical anti-Catholics. Many were more concerned with local issues than naţional ones. Many were students - it is estimated that more than 10% of all university students joined the Fascists in the early 1920s. Even more were ex-soldiers, who fitted easily into the militaristic, street-fighting style of the paramilitary fascist squadre d'azione. 4. There was little unity or coherence of ideas and it was difficult for Mussolini to control the disparate groups. Local fascist leaders, the ras, such as Dino Grandi in Bologna and Italo Balbo in Ferrara, had great power and influence in their regions, rather like medieval barons.

Solving the Roman question

1. By the end of 1923, collaboration between Mussolini's regime and the Church was well advanced, but there were still serious differences. 2. Fascist radicals continued to inflict violence on Catholics as well as on Socialists. 3. When Fascists talked about establishing a 'totalitarian' state, it inevitably aroused fear and opposition from the Church. The formation of the ONB in 1925 led to clashes between fascist youth organisations and those of Azione Cattolica. 4. The PPI, although badly weakened, continued to exist, with strong support in country areas. The 'Roman question' had not been solved. 5. By 1926, Mussolini was in a stronger position and ready to seek a solution to the 'Roman question'. He forced the PPI to dissolve itself and made membership of it illegal. In August 1926, he opened formal negotiations with the papacy.

2. Threats to Liberalism

1. Catholicism: Though the Church had maintained its hostile position towards Liberal Italy in the 1890s, following the rise of Socialism, the Church removed the ban on Catholic voting in the general elections as an attempt to fight the Socialist danger (common enemy). 2. The Pope still opposed the creation of a Catholic Party, but some Catholics were allowed to put themselves as candidates. 3. With Catholics being active in national politics, the Liberal regime faced a challenge.

Use of propaganda (2)

1. Charisma and oratory: 2. Together with propaganda, Hitler's self promotion derived greatly from his charisma and oratory. 3. He was a masterful public speaker, with some claiming that he had a hypnotic attraction to audiences, which made his speeches very powerful. 4. Hitler was also very charismatic and adored by the German population, who viewed him as the great, infallible "messiah", who soon would be called the Fuhrer. 5. Radio allowed Hitler's speeches to be broadcasted across all of Germany, even across the countryside.

Rise of Mussolini (2) - EVENTS

1. Consolidating the fascis (Squadrismo): 2. Mussolini gradually consolidated the small fasci groups under the Fascist banner, which were, thus far, the only way of keeping order. 3. Even though the National Bloc failed in 1921, Mussolini's party's rallies were growing in support, often seeing tens of thousands in support. 4. The party membership soared to 320,000 of which 7% were armed Blackshirts (7% means 22,000 armed men on the streets that would follow all of Mussolini's orders) = became a national movement. First traces of an authoritarian statem fighting for Fascism, coercing and applying force. 5. The party changed its name to the National Fascist Party (PNF), dropped the word "Revolutionary" and changed it with "National" = he dropped the socialist aspects of the partys' ideology entirely.

Stage 2: Early years of Weimar (1919-1923) (Weakness of the Weimar Constitution 3)

1. Continuity of traditional institutions from the Wilhelmine Era: 2. In light of achieving stability for the new constitution, old institutions of Imperial Germany were not reformed, allowing conservatives to exert great influence. 3. Many of the structures of the Weimar Republic were still operated by judges, army officers (etc.) that had been in power since Kaiser Wilhem 4. The synchronicity of asynchronous (Fredric Jameson, Ernst Bloch, Siegfried Kracauer) → Weimar was made up of a mix of 'change and continuity' where many pre-standing features of Imperial Germany were still present, but new Republican-democratic elements were happening at the same time. E.g→ the economic prosperity of 1923, happened parallelly to the economic instability. (republic and imperial germany working together - an example of changing continuity & synchronicity of the asynchronous - was the civil service = Civil servants were powerful in government, especially when ministers of different coalitions were changing. This was majorly possible as a result of the continuity of conservative, anti-Democratic values of Imperial Germany. An example of synchronicity of the asynchronous = changing continuity. Another example is = The judiciary The branch was made by appointed judges, under the Kaiser. Though Article 54 guaranteed the independence of judges, most of the men were anti-Democratic and conservative. The Judiciary was very harsh towards left wing opposition and very lenient to right-wing. The leaders of the Spartacus Revolt were killed. The leaders of the Kapp Putsch received a mild sentence.)

Stage 1: Post-war scenario (1918-1919) (Weakness of the Political system)

1. Creation of the Weimar Republic: 2. With the fall of Kaiser Wilhem II, a new democratic government, the Weimar Republic was created and took control of Germany. 3. The Weimar Republic was mainly led by the SPD and was essentially a "revolution from above" as the government came to power due to the politicians rather than the people. 4. → Historian Peter Gay wrote that the fall of the Weimar Republic occurred as Germans were not familiar with democracy and were used to an authoritarian state. Did not know how to operate in a democratic system, which required collaborative action in government. Had always been under an authoritarian state. Many looked for a single authoritarian leader to lead them out of this period of uncertainty. A) Nations like the USA and France had seen a revolution from below as it was the people's efforts that led to democracy, whereas in Germany, democracy was imposed. B) Germans desired more stability and security (following the events of the war), meaning that democratic institutions were very weak and lacked public support. Weakness of the Political system

Stage 3: The Golden Age (1924-1929) - Economic Factors Successes

1. Dawes Plan (1924) & Young Plan (1929) 2. The Dawes Plan was developed a loan system to help Germany pay the wartime reparations & reach economic recovery: A) The U.S would lend money to Germany, who used the money to build up the German economy from the hyperinflation crisis of 1924. B) Germany would use the money and increased tax revenues to pay reparations for France. C) France would use the money from reparations to pay for the U.S loans that were borrowed during wartime. 3. This was a key element in reestablishing German finance. 4. Later in 1929, the Young Plan extended the time for reparations to be paid to 58 years and it reduced reparations to $29 billion (much better than the 6.6 billion pounds, which would have taken Germany until the 1980s to be paid off).

Rape of Nanjing

1. December 1937-January 1938 2. The mass killing and ravaging of Chinese citizens and capitulated soldiers by soldiers of the Japanese Imperial Army after its seizure of Nanjing (the capital of the Nationalist Chinese from 1928 to 1937), China, on December 13, 1937, during the Sino-Japanese War that preceded World War II. 3. The number of Chinese killed in the massacre has been subject to much debate, with most estimates ranging from 100,000 to more than 300,000. 4. Matsui Iwane, commanding general of the Japanese Central China Front Army, ordered the destruction of Nanjing. Over the next several weeks, Japanese soldiers carried out Matsui's orders, perpetrating numerous mass executions and tens of thousands of rapes. The army looted and burned the surrounding towns and the city, destroying more than a third of the buildings. 5. In 1940 the Japanese made Nanjing the capital of their Chinese puppet government headed by Wang Ching-wei (Wang Jingwei). Shortly after the end of World War II, Matsui and Tani Hisao, a lieutenant general who had personally participated in acts of murder and rape, were found guilty of war crimes by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East and were executed.

Mussolini's consolidation/maintenance of power: Use of Violence (2)

1. Destruction of democracy (Jul.1925) 2. In July, protests in the press and on the streets escalated. This led Mussolini to: A) Enforce press censorship B) Ban political meetings for opposition parties. 3. Yet, protests continued, and radical Fascists, the Ras called on Mussolini to take dictatorial action, otherwise they would refuse to support him, and replace him with another PNF member. 4. In January 1925, Mussolini made a powerful speech in the Chamber of Deputies declaring that he would increase his personal power and take decisive action against the opposition. 5. This was easily done as he had the support of the King, parliament and blackshirts. 6. Many historians deem this moment as the start of Mussolini's dictatorship, whereas others deem the Rule by Decree of 1926 as the starting point. 7. Still in January he implemented measures make Italy a Fascist state, and suppress opposition: A) Ordered a committee to reform the constitution. Banned opposition political parties. Banned free trade unions. B) Press censorship was tightened. C) A secret police was created (OVRA). D) Special kangaroo courts were set up to try political crimes. E) Fascist officials replaced Mayors. Use of violence and repression

What was true of the "coup from above" that removed Mussolini?

1. Dino Grandi and other members of the Fascist Grand Council used a meeting as an opportunity to introduce a resolution claiming "no confidence" in Mussolini and reinstating Parliament and the King as the government 2. The Grand Council had assumed that Fascism would carry on without Mussolini, but news of his arrest sparked a violent reaction against the whole regime 3. The coup prompted Hitler to occupy Italy and re-install Mussolini as dictator, as well as to arrest the King and Marshal Badoglio, who had been made prime minister

What happened during the post-war political crisis?

1. During the post-war political crisis, Victor Emmanuel became disillusioned with the ruling political class. 2. In the summer of 1922, unrest in Italy, especially the general strike called by the Socialists, presented the King with two difficult choices: who would be the best prime minister to bring a return to stability? What was the best way to deal with Mussolini and the rise of the Fascists? 3. In the end, the King decided that there was one solution to both of these problems - make Mussolini prime minister. This was, however, only a last-minute decision, not one he planned in advance.

1922: the ideology of power -

1. During the rise to power, many strands of ideology were discarded, or at least quietly hidden, as Mussolini attempted to reassure influential sections of society and to bring the wilder elements of the fascist movement under more disciplined control. 2. Fascism no longer spoke in terms of Republicanism and overthrowing the monarchy, because the King would have an essential role if Mussolini wished to come to power by legal means. 3. The anti-capitalist ideology was watered down in order to gain acceptance for Mussolini from big business. 4. The anti-Christian ideology was played down as the fascists began to stress how much it was on the same side as the Catholic Church in the fight against the 'Bolshevik threat' and 'godless socialism'. 5. It is, of course, very difficult to judge precisely how much the ideology really changed and how much it was temporarily covered up for tactical reasons. 6. Mussolini himself later regretted some of his tactical decisions - in 1943 and 1944, in the days of the Salo Republic, he tried to return to some of the revolutionary ideals of early Fascism, admitting that he had been mistaken in the 1920s and 1930s by not being radical enough. 7. Another difficulty of interpretation is the vague and unstructured nature of fascist ideology, which can often seem confused and contradictory. 8. Mussolini founded the ideals of Fascism in Italy but fascist movements emerged all over Europe between 1919 and 1945, notably Hitler and Nazism in Germany, the Falange in Franco's Spain and Oswald Mosley's British Union of Fascists. 9. There was something that could be called the common ideals of international Fascism, even though these ideals were nothing like as organised and uniform as the common ideals of international Communism.

Stage 3: The Golden Age (1924-1929) - Economic Factors Successes (3)

1. Economic growth: 2. Government spending in social services, particularly unemployment, allowed for workers to be paid undue salaries. 3. The workforce was the highest paid in the world, and it increased in size as women joined it (very progressive for women at that time). This also resulted in a middle class boom. 4. Germany's GDP was 25% higher in 1928 than it was in 1925. 5. Higher quality of life, better to live in Germany overall.

3. Mussolini's Rise to Power I (Long-term Weaknesses of Liberal Italy)

1. Economic weaknesses: Italy was predominantly agriculture, with 68% of the population being peasants, taking the role of farm labourers that depended on land (extreme poverty -- ate what they grew). 2. Industry was underdeveloped, with most enterprises being small, craftsmanship based. 3. The lack of natural resources and raw materials made it difficult for heavy industry (ground work for a strong and robust manufacturing power), mainly coal and iron, to develop. 4. The main (but few) industrial development was centred around military purposes, in iron, steel and shipbuilding industries. 5. The main transportation links, railways, were concentrated in the north. --> development of mass inequality. Cultivation of rich north and poor south. Manufacturing and industry was poor in south.

Emperor Hirohito aka Emperor Shōwa

1. Emperor of Japan from 1926 until he died in 1989 2. Eldest son of Crown Prince Yoshihito 3. His father was chronically ill, died and thus Hirohito succeeded him as emperor He was given the title "Showa" which means "Enlightened Peace" (honorary title). He became formally known as Showa Tenno 4. Japan's longest-reigning emperor 5. Announced Japan's surrender to the Allied Forces in 1945 6. His role in Japan's expansionism has remained disputed 7. Hirohito was succeeded by Akihito, his son

Stage 4: Decline (1930-1933): Political Factors

1. End of the accountable government (March 1930): 2. With Hindenburg in power, the accountable government was replaced by a process of rule through Article 48, and a series of governmental cabinets. 3. Decision making was left to a select few and the appointment to Chancellor was determined by the circle of interests of those unsympathetic to democracy. 4. This culminated to Hitler's appointment as Chancellor in 1933. In the face of crisis and states of national emergency the president would always use article 48 to effectively step in and resolve that crisis and during this time it was no different hindenburg saw the opportunity brought about by the wall street crash to excessively use article 48 and effectively rule germany in a authoritarian manner by imposing his wishes and beliefs upon the political system and completely overriding the democratic institutions that were still in place in germany at that time and this marks the end of the accountable government because in essence hindenburg was already ruling in an authoritarian manner and not making use of the democratic institutions such as the right side to achieve decision making in germany in fact at this point decision making was in the hands of a select few as hindenburg only ruled by his personal appear and by his select government cabinets as well and it is important to highlight that these government cabinets were not very fond of democracy uh in the first place with many of them being hindenburg's allies who were also conservative nationalists and still at this point uh very pro-kaiser which meant that they were very pro the end the old traditions of germany which completely went against the new republic that had been established and so as you would expect at this point a government that was very unsympathetic to democracy uh was cultivated and was in power with german in germany which made it very easy for hitler to rise in january of 1933 however we will see that between this point and hitler's rise in january a lot will go on a lot of power struggles and a lot of changes in the chancellorship which only worsened the political instability of germany at that time which is something i wanted to keep in mind because when we discuss hitler's maintenance of power and his policies this period of political instability uh and uncertainty was something that really did allow hitler to implement such uh authoritarian and uh and nazi policies in germany that allowed him to take such a grip in germany uh between uh 1933 and his death in 45.

Using the sources and your own knowledge, discuss the view that the ineffectual response of the League of Nations was the main factor in encouraging Japanese expansion in China. OWN KNOWLEDGE ASPECT OF Q:

1. Evidence of the ineffectual nature of League actions could include further details about the time it took the League of Nations to finally present the Lytton Report to Japan in 1933. 2. The League was ineffective in its attempts to impose sanctions on Japan, and their inability is emphasised by the lengthy debates, discussions and disagreements that took place in the League between September 1931 and January 1933. 3. Other contributory factors could include details about the impact of the Great Depression, Japanese militarism and further acts of aggression, such as the invasion of Shanghai. The League did not have a standing army and could not take immediate military action. 4. There was also political instability in China due to the Guomindang/Chinese Communist Party civil war and Jiang Jieshi's deliberate policy of nonresistance to the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. 5. There was also a lack of support for China by the western powers - particularly the US, which feared for its own interests in the area.

Hitler's Consolidation & Maintenance of Power: From democracy to dictatorship (January-March 1933) - Failure of the opposition

1. Failure of the left: 2. The left was unable to form a united opposition to combat Hitler and the rise of Nazism. 3. The SPD and KPD (KPD = communist party of Germany) were in great disagreement as the KPD referred to SPD members as "social fascists", thus making it impossible for a united front to be formed. 4. Meant that Nazis were operating in a system with little governmental opposition. The left were too busy with themselves to stop the Nazis.

The March on Rome

1. Fascist Combat Groups organized into private army ("blackshirts") = Began to attack Socialist-controlled cities = "Fire Columns" burnt Socialists' homes = Italy devolving into chaos 2. Mussolini began to plan to march on Rome = March began on October 28, 1922 = 40,000 men in three columns = Probably would have lost against the loyal army in Rome = Mussolini hiding by the Swiss boder, ready to flee

Ideology and the links to Ancient Rome

1. Fascist ideology looked both forwards and backwards. One key element in Fascism was the artistic, cultural and highly patriotic movement called 'Futurism', which had a strong influence on fascist ideology in the early stages of the movement. 2. In the 1920s and early 1930s, several public buildings, especially railway stations and the planned new towns built during the Battle for Land, were built in accordance with futurist principles. 3. The influence of Futurism mostly faded away in the 1920s. 4. Futurism was based on the excitement and modernity of the 'new city'. Mussolini, however, turned away from modernism and idealised the virtues of 'ruralism' and peasant values in preference to the 'wicked city'. 5. Fascist propaganda was much more enthused by linking Fascist Italy to the past. Fascism endlessly linked itself to the glories of Ancient Rome. Symbols such as the fasces provided Mussolini with the opportunity to make himself appear as the descendant of Roman emperors. 6. The fascist organisation for very young boys and girls, the Children of the She Wolf, was named after the legend of Romulus and Remus, the founders of the city of Rome. Giving fascist officials the title of 'podesta' made Fascism seem both new and different but also old, in tune with the greatness of the past. 7. Fascist architecture, in the new towns created by the Battle for Land and in big public construction projects like the autostrade, was sometimes consciously designed to echo Ancient Rome. 8. The city of Rome itself provided an ideal setting for the cult of Romanita Roman-ness") with its imposing ruins such as the Capitol and the Colosseum. 9. State funding was poured into archaeological projects such as the tomb of the Roman Emperor Augustus and Rome's ancient sea port, Ostia. 10. The regime's efforts to promote Romanita reached a peak in the late 1930s, but the links to Ancient Rome were already a central theme of propaganda from the early years of the regime.

How were youth targeted by Fascist propaganda?

1. Fascist posters were used to decorate classrooms and featured in textbooks 2. Propaganda glorified fascism for youth and portrayed young people as "future soldiers" of fascism 3. From 1921 there was a magazine called "Giovinezza" that was dedicated to glarmorizing and "selling" fascism to youth

Short-term causes of rise of fascism (6)

1. Fear of Communism: 2. The PSI grew significantly following the war→ 3. Over 1 million industrial workers joined a general strike in 1920. 4. Communists pledged allegiance to the Comintern and Lenin, and sought to establish a proletarian dictatorship. 5. This idea was very attractive to workers, especially in a period of uncertainty. 6. This also triggered a rise in anti-communist ideas, which paved the way for the Fascists.

Fascists in Italy

1. Feared communist revolution A) Socialists began to strike B) Frequent street battles broke out between Fascists and Socialists 2. Learned the power of violence A) Gabriele D'Annunzio occupied Fiume B) Held power for 15 months C) Driven out by Italian navy in 1920 D) Mussolini saw power of Arditi and that a brave man could make himself dictator

Japan and the Treaty of Versailles (1919)

1. Following the Victory of the Russo-Japanese War (1905) and participation in WW1, Japan rose as an important player in the world stage. 2. In order to solidify this power, Japanese delegation at Versailles proposed to add language about racial equality. (Japanese Immigrants would be treated like White European Immigrants) 3. Many got behind this proposal, but Australia pushed back, eventually convincing Britain to push back too, and also receiving Woodrow Wilson's support. 4. Japanese migration to the US had vastly increased in the late 19th century, as the US had passed the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), prohibiting Chinese laborers from immigrating to America. Contractors brought Japanese migrants in order to fill this gap. (Anti-Japanese Sentiment grew) 5. Wilson came up with the idea of shutting down the proposal without openly saying he opposed it, being through a unanimity ruling. (Top priorities were creating LON and singing the treaty) Shandong problem: 21 demands - China was forced to acknowledge Japanese control of former German Holdings - In order to appease Japan, Wilson supported Japan's demand to keep these holdings 6. US and Japanese ties hardened; the rejection of the proposal left members of the Japanese Delegation bitter.

Mussolini's March on Rome

1. From 1922, until the fall of Mussolini, the anniversary of the March on Rome was commemorated in every corner of Italy as a day of national celebration. What was being commemorated was the legend of how the massed marching columns of Blackshirts (a reference to the black uniform worn by the fascist squads) converged on Rome from all over Italy, sweeping aside the old political system by fascist discipline, military strength and the popular will of the people. 2. The legend was simple, heroic and decisive. The truth was messy, not very heroic and sometimes farcical. 3. The Fascist Party congress, due to start on 24 October, was to be the launch-pad for Mussolini's bid for power. 4. On 16 October, the fascist leaders made their plans for the March on Rome to take place on 28 October, just after the PNF congress. 5. The march looked (and was meant to look) like a military coup d'état - four columns of squadristi who would start from different fascist strongholds and march towards Rome, gathering size and strength as they progressed across Italy. It was a direct challenge to the power of the State, but it was a staged theatrical performance based on bluff and blackmail, not on force of arms.

Prince Fumimaro Konoe of the Fujiwara Clan

1. Full name: Konoe Fumimaro - born October 12, 1891, Tokyo, Japan and died December 16, 1945 2. Fumimaro was the political leader and prime minister of Japan (1937-39 & 1940-41). During his first term as Prime Minister, he allowed the Japanese Army to act upon opportunity when the war with China started in 1937. 3. He also introduced the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere - Japan's attempt to form an economic and military bloc consisting of nations within East and Southeast Asia against Western colonization and manipulation. 4. During his second term, he tried avoiding war with the United States - this, however, became inevitable. 5. Fumimaro tried to negotiate for peace whilst Japan was still in the position of doing so, however, he failed and thus committed suicide in December of 1945, by swallowing potassium cyanide.

Gabriele D'Annunzio

1. Gabriele D'Annunzio (1863-1938) D'Annunzio was a poet, novelist and journalist from a very wealthy background. 2. He became famous as a fighter pilot in the First World War, especially for his daring 'Flight over Vienna'. 3. He was a fanatical nationalist. During 1919-20, D'Annunzio led 2,000 volunteers in the occupation of the port of Fiume, which was disputed between Italy and Yugoslavia. 4. D'Annunzio is often regarded as a forerunner of Mussolini and influenced the style and ideology of the fascist movement, though he had no active role in the regime. Mussolini gave him a lavish State funeral in 1938.

Mussolini's consolidation/maintenance of power: Use of Persuasion/ Charismatic leadership (2)

1. Gained the support of big businesses: 2. Mussolini promised the confidrustia (employer's organisation) that: - Tax evasion would not be investigated by the government. (allowing big businesses to steal and launder money = that money could have gone to health care, etc.) - Price and rent controls would be abolished (allowing businesses to sell properties at extremely high prices = bad for the common people). Use of Persuasion/ Charismatic leadership

Mussolini's consolidation/maintenance of power: Use of Persuasion/ Charismatic leadership

1. Gained the support of the Church (1923): 2. In order to secure the Church's support, which was a very powerful body (which is why he had to get on the good side of the church to gain prominence) in Italian society, Mussolini offered to: - Help the struggling Catholic bank. - Make religious education compulsory. - Ban contraception Use of Persuasion/ Charismatic leadership

Stage 3: The Golden Age (1924-1929) - Failures: Political Factors

1. Government Coalitions: 2. (Although more moderate government presentation was going on at the time) Weak coalitions made it difficult for the government to deal with economic and political issues, as parties would disagree on policies and the measures to be taken. 3. This was only solved by the Enabling Act, which was used by Streseman and future chancellors to step in and intervene in case of disagreement in the Reichstag that prevented issues from being properly solved. 4. Moderate parties only meant that parties were democratically centred, but did not mean they were in line with the same policies. For example, the Zentrum was on the right (catholic party), but the SPD (which was on the left was a very socialist party) = difficult to have common aggreement which led to many disputes and no political agreements.

Stage 4: Decline (1930-1933): Support for Nazism

1. Growth in support for extremism in germany which essentially meant that all of the individual groups in germany the conservatives the nationalists even the left and the elites were looking at more extreme forms of government to result in some form of economic instability at the time according to historian kobe for example the elites of germany by 1929 had made it their primary goal to oust the right side from power and establish an authoritarian state that could effectively control the economy and bring it to stability so they could prosper once again as businesses to these elites it was more prosperous for an authoritarian government to take place in germany so they could effectively take hold of the economy and stabilize it. 2. The failure of Weimar to deal with the socio-economic issues led to anti-republican groups rising against the parliamentary system. 3. → Historian Kolb pointed out that Industrialists aimed to establish an authoritarian state, depriving the Reichstag of power.

Key profiles

1. Guido Buffarini Guidi (1895-1945) Buffarini was an ex-soldier who joined the PNF in 1921. In the early 1920s, he was a leader in the MVSN (Blackshirt militia) and he held various government posts in the 1930s. On 25 July 1943, he was one of the few to vote in favour of Mussolini at the Fascist Grand Council. As a reward, he was given the post of Minister of the Interior under the Salo Republic, but was dismissed early in 1945 due to allegations of corruption. He was captured by partisans in April 1945 and sentenced to death by a military tribunal. 2. Alessandro Pavolino (1903-45) Pavolino was a journalist and fascist politician. He was leader of a fascist squad in the March on Rome in 1922 and was a youth leader in the 1920s. From 1929 to 1934, he was the local leader of the PNF in Florence. In 1943, he was made head of the re-formed Republican Fascist Party of the Salo Republic (PFR) and stayed in that post until April 1945, when he was captured and executed alongside Mussolini and Clara Petacci.

Which is true of Mussolini?

1. He was a journalist before getting into politics 2. He began his political life as a socialist, but moved away from this because of his fanatical nationalism 3. His fascist group had little ideological unity, made up of monarchists, radical left-wingers and anti-Catholics

Which is true of the government Mussolini set up as Prime Minister in 1922?

1. He was dependent on compromise and negotiation, especially with the army 2. He was able to play off the fear of violent revolution into the obtaining of emergency powers for 12 months 3. He was able to appoint Fascists to key positions of authority to consolidate power

WWI (1)

1. Hesitation to joining the conflict: 2. High disagreement within the country, and even Liberals, on whether Italy should join the war. Most Italians were against Italy joining the war. 3. Italy had recently renewed the agreement with the Triple Alliance (if it was joining the conference it would be on the side of Germany and against the Big Three -- not a reason to go to war). 4. Yet, Italy was politically and socially weak, militarily and economically unstable, and vulnerable to the British Navy.

Summary and significance of the oil and trade embargo on Japan

1. Historiography: "American reaction to the Tripartite Pact was ... unexpectedly strong" - Kenneth B. Pyle 2. In January 1939 "a moral embargo" was placed on planes and aviation parts sales, and in February 1939 credit to Japan was stopped. In July of the same year a long-standing trade agreement with Japan was suspended. A year later a partial trade embargo on aviation and motor fuel and high-grade melting scrap was put in place. Throughout 1940 and 1941, as Japan advanced, the USA gave millions of dollars of aid to China. Simultaneously, the USA also put economic pressure on Japan. In July 1941, when Japan moved south rather than moving north to attack the Soviets, the USA responded by freezing all Japanese assets. It then imposed a trade embargo in November which included oil. Britain and the Netherlands also imposed a total trade embargo. As Japan was totally dependent on imported oil from the USA, this created a crisis for the Japanese government who now believed that the Western powers were attempting to encircle Japan and destroy its "rightful place " in the world. 3. If its oil reserves ran out, Japan would be unable to continue the war in China. Japan could not risk this happening. There followed negotiations and a diplomatic mission to the USA. However, agreement stalled over the fact that the USA insisted that Japan withdraw from China. Japan may have agreed to a withdrawal from southern Indo-China, but could not agree to removing its forces from China as this would be unacceptable to the military and the Japanese people . In order to get the resources they needed the Japanese decided that a war of conquest was necessary.

2. Mussolini's Rise to Power I (Long-term Weaknesses of Liberal Italy)

1. Hostility from the Church: The Catholic Church was powerful in Italian society, with the majority of Italians identifying as Catholics. 2. The creation of Italy had seized the Papal States and Rome from the Church, which the Church resented. 3. The Pope refused to recognize Italy as a nation and instructed all loyal Catholics to boycott the elections by banning Catholic participation in the political system. 4. Though this was lifted in 1895, there still remained hostility between the Church and Liberal Italy, even beyond WWI.

Historiography: Was Hitler a Planner, or an Opportunist, in foreign affairs? Why did Hitler take Germany towards war?

1. Hugh Trevor-Roper Believed that Hitler was Intentionalist ("Strong Dictator"): Hitler wanted to have wars for ideological reasons. 2. AJP Taylor Believed that Hitler was Functionalist ("Weak Dictator"): Hitler needed to have focused wars of conquest to prevent the German state and economy from collapsing.

Historiography: Was Hitler a Planner, or an Opportunist, in foreign affairs? How did Hitler take Germany towards war?

1. Hugh Trevor-Roper Believed that Hitler was a Strategist - Proactive: He had a very coherent strategy for achieving his objectives, step-by-step. 2. AJP Taylor Believed that Hitler was an Opportunist - Reactive: Hitler simply took advantages of situations as they occurred.

Historiography: Was Hitler a Planner, or an Opportunist, in foreign affairs? Key Quotes

1. Hugh Trevor-Roper: "To the end, Hitler maintained the purity of his war aims" 2. AJP Taylor: "Far from wanting war, a general war was the last thing Hitler wanted"

Stage 2: Early years of Weimar (1919-1923) (Economic Issues 2)

1. Hyperinflation (1923) 2. As a result of the French occupation of the Ruhr, Germany saw hyperinflation as a result of excessive money printing (due to Ebert having to pay for workers' wages in return). 3. This was worsened by the loss of confidence in the Reichsmark and in the government's ability to fix the issue. -- The Reichsmark would be burned for heat in the winter. There are even stories of bags being stolen and the money inside the bags left behind, because the bags were more valuable than the money. 4. This would provide the basis for the growth of anti-republican groups and support for totalitarianism and authoritarianism which would culminate in the rise of the NSDP.

1st Mussolini P1

1. Ideology certainly influenced the foreign policy of Germany and Italy, however, it was not the sole factor in increasing tensions in the build-up to the War (as a theater of WW2) although the nature was similar. For example, they both supported General Franco's Fascist forces and opposed the Left during the Spanish Civil War. When looking at the Nazi—Soviet Pact of August 1939, this showed ideology was not a significant factor for Hitler. Italy and Germany were also based on pragmatism as Hitler recognised Italian control of Abyssinia to gain Mussolini's support for the German annexation of Austria. The Anglo—Italian agreement in April 1938 demonstrated Mussolini's lack of concern for ideology. Additionally, as seen with the role of opportunism, Hitler allied with Mussolini only to prevent him from joining Great Britain and France. In a similar way, Italy found in an alliance with Germany protection for its continental territory and an opportunity to expand in Africa and the Mediterranean. 2. Source I states Fascist and Nazi foreign policies shared ideological principles. However, it also mentions the existence of common enemies as a factor influencing their foreign policies. 3. Source J represents the significance of force in Italian and German foreign policies. It is consistent with the importance given to it by Fascist and Nazi ideologies. 4. Source K argues Germany and Italy clashed on essential issues. It argues they had been drawn together because they had common enemies. It claims that the Germans did not respect the Italians. 5. Source L states Germany and Italy had a significant ideological affinity. It also mentions the role of other factors, such as strategy, in shaping their foreign policies. It claims their territorial ambitions were not incompatible.

The instruments of propaganda: Rallies and mass activities

1. Image was also a vital part of mass rallies and sporting events. 2. Mussolini had a propaganda flair for theatrical live performance. 3. The militaristic marching formations, the carefully designed uniforms of the various youth organisations, the emphasis on sporting activities all carried the same messages of order, discipline, togetherness and action. 4. The lone individual was small and insignificant, but the individual submerged in the mass was part of something massively powerful. 5. Some of the most visible and effective instruments of propaganda were the fascist organisations such as the ONB (Opera Nazionale Balilla), the OND (Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro) and the Massaie Rurali (Rural Housewives). 6. People took part in the activities run by these organisations for many different motives. 7. The focus on group participation enabled propaganda messages to be transmitted very effectively because the propaganda was not always blatant and it was associated with activities that were popular and enjoyable, even for those who were not fascist believers.

When was the secret police formally established?

1. In 1927, the secret police was formally established - the OVRA (Organisation for Vigilance and Repression against Anti-Fascism). 2. Previously, repression had been carried out by the fascist militia, the MVSN. Now it was brought under the control of the Ministry of the Interior and became much more systematic. 3. Political prisoners were sent to special camps on remote Mediterranean islands. The OVRA was quite small, especially in its early years, and the number of political prisoners was only about 4,000 at any one time; but the existence of the secret police and its network of informers was a powerful deterrent to anti Fascists. Many chose to go into exile. 4. By 1927, Mussolini's consolidation of power was well advanced. He had transformed the political system of Italy into virtually a one-party State. He had suppressed, or otherwise neutralised, the main sources of potential opposition. He had proved his ability to dominate the fascist movement and he had survived the one really dangerous crisis of his regime over the murder of Matteotti. He had begun to establish the Corporate State. He had gained popularity through propaganda, economic recovery and foreign successes. 5. The process of consolidation was not fully complete, however. It was not until 1929 that Mussolini was finally able to neutralise the enormous influence of the Catholic Church by the Lateran Pacts with the papacy. It was not until the late 1930s that the fascist regime was really radicalised.

The King

1. In his reign of 46 years, King Victor Emmanuel III proved to be an unremarkable ruler who achieved little. 2. On three occasions, his actions did have a significant political impact on Italy. 3. The first was when he backed Italy's entry into the First World War in 1915, even though public opinion was against it. 4. The second was when he appointed Mussolini prime minister on 30 October 1922. 5. The third was when he dismissed Mussolini on 25 July 1943. 6. Otherwise, Victor Emmanuel's reign was mostly noteworthy for the actions he did not take to curb Mussolini. 7. Victor Emmanuel was a very small man physically, not much more than five feet tall. 8. Many Italians, including members of the royal family, thought that his political stature was very small, too. 9. In many ways, he lived up to the advice his father Umberto I had given him while he was still a Crown Prince: 'Remember: To be a king all you need to know is how to sign your name, how to read a newspaper and how to sit on a horse.'

The process of establishing a fascist dictatorship went through several distinct phases:

1. In the first phase, from March 1919 to the end of 1921, the fascist movement grew from a small group of violent misfits to a powerful force in national politics. 2. In the second phase, from December 1921 to October 1922, Mussolini exploited the crisis conditions in Italy and the weakness of the political system so effectively that the ruling elites were panicked into handing him power as the legally appointed prime minister. 3. In the third phase, from October 1922 to 1925, Mussolini consolidated his political power by changing the constitution and suppressing the anti-fascist opposition. 4. In the final phase, from 1925 to 1929, Mussolini completed the process of neutralising potential rivals and began to put in place the structures of a permanent dictatorship. At times, Mussolini found himself in danger of being toppled from power, or so constrained by other politicians that he would have had no freedom of action. That he survived these dangers and eventually established a secure dictatorship was due to many factors, including charismatic leadership, compromises with untrustworthy allies, extensive violence and intimidation, skilful use of propaganda and a lot of low political cunning.

The dream of empire

1. In the years after unification, Italy's hopes of becoming a Great Power were not fulfilled. 2. Efforts at colonial expansion had only limited success. 3. Italy managed to gain territory in North Africa with the seizure of Libya in 1911-12, but this did not really compensate for the humiliating defeat of Italian forces by native armies at Adowa, in Ethiopia, in 1896. 4. During the Age of Imperialism, Italy was always overshadowed by the military and economic power of Britain, France and Germany. 5. The sense of frustrated Nationalism and the need to assert national pride was behind the decision to enter the First World War in 1915. 6. The eventual victory by 1918 was seen by Italians as a great national achievement won by huge sacrifices. 7. There were hopes of Italy being recognised as an equal partner by Britain, France and the United States. 8. There were unrealistic expectations that Italy would gain even more from the peace settlement than had been promised in the secret clauses of the Treaty of London that had tempted Italy into war in 1915.

The 1924 elections: The Acerbo Law

1. In theory, Italy was still a constitutional monarchy and a functioning democracy in 1923. To gain the legitimacy and the freedom of action he wanted, Mussolini had to gain an overall majority in the next elections; and to do this he had to change the existing electoral system - which he could only do with the agreement of other parties. 2. One of Mussolini's most significant political achievements was to break free from the constraints of coalition government, and so gain real political power, through the Acerbo Law passed in July 1923. 3. The arguments Mussolini used to get the Acerbo Law through were similar to the ones he had used a few months earlier to obtain the right to rule by decree: Italy needed the stability only a strong government could provide; the situation of one weak coalition after another collapsing within a few months had to be ended. 4. The Acerbo Law (named after Giacomo Acerbo, the lawyer who framed it) offered a simple solution. The party gaining the most votes, provided it gained a minimum of 25%, would receive 2/3 of the seats. This plan was neatly designed to suit Mussolini's needs. The PNF was not capable of winning more than 50%, the usual requirement to gain a majority, but it was capable of winning 25%. With two-thirds of the seats, the PNF would be all but impossible to defeat. 5. The dangers of Italy becoming a virtual one-party State if the Acerbo Law was passed should have been obvious, but it 1924 elections sailed through easily. 6. There was a considerable amount of intimidation by fascist Blackshirts during the voting in the Chamber, but the real reason the Law was passed by such a large vote in favour is that the deputies believed it was necessary. 7. The fact that both Giolitti and Salandra voted in favour was reassuring. Many deputies were also taken in by Mussolini's promises to return to 'normality' as soon as the political crisis settled down.

Mussolini's consolidation/maintenance of power: Use of Persuasion/ Charismatic leadership (3)

1. Increased parliamentary strength (1923) --> persuade more ppl to get more votes: 2. With his rule by decree coming to an end (had an expiration date of 1 year), Mussolini needed to increase his parliamentary strength in order to hold a majority in parliament and pass his desired policies. 2. To do this, he persuaded nationalists to join the Fascist Party (easily done, because they shared a lot of interests = secured a lot of votes for his causes). 3. This increased his political support and number of votes in parliament, which would be pivotal for his next move: The Acerbo Law Use of Persuasion/ Charismatic leadership

Use of propaganda (3)

1. Indoctrination: 2. Propaganda achieved mass indoctrination as Goebbles made use of various mediums of communication (meaning that ideology was consumed in many different contemporary ways -- daily life) to propagate the Nazi ideology. 3. Theater, art, film, literature were all endowed with Nazi indoctrination, though Gobbles' favorite was radio. Goebbles believed that propaganda should be modern and done in a modern way, which was why the radio, a recently popular technology, was very attractive. 4. The radio allowed Hitler's speeches to be broadcasted nationwide, and ensured that propaganda reached even the most remote parts of Germany. 5. Still, propaganda was amply done through the use of posters, and advertisements that promoted the Fuhrerprinzip and the notion that the party was omniscient, and omnipotent. People felt like they were constantly surveilled by the party.

Weimar problems 1919-23 [ILRIM]

1. Ineffective Constitution 2. Left-wing Rebellions 3. Right-wing terrorism 4. Invasion-Inflation: the crisis of 1923 5. Munich Putsch

Social Policies - Policies towards Workers (2)

1. Integrating Workers in the Volksgemeinschaft 2. To ensure this, the DAF created 2 subsection organisations: A) Beauty of Labour→ ensured that facilities, meals and workplaces were to good standards (had good uniforms, clean workspaces), the Nazis also wished to achieve beautification --> ensuring that workers felt like they were working in a good environment that stimulated them into doing their best work and integrating the workers into the workspace. In turn lift up their moral and increase output of the workers. B) 'Strength Through Joy' (KdF) → Incentivised workers by providing them with subsidised leisure facilities (theatres, sports fascilities, spas, etc.), such as theatre visits, sports, etc. This was the carrot in the carrot and stick approach utilized by the Nazis, to incite high levels of production. Opposingly, workers lost their freedom as organising leisure activities allowed the state to ensure that workers had no-time for anti-state activities and could be indoctrinated. 3. → Head of the DAF, Robert Ley, stated that the KdF contributed towards the "sense of solidarity required by the Volksgemeinschaft." This makes a lot of sense, because the purpose of the KDF was also to make sure that the workers are always constantly around their workmates and on their colleagues, so this sense of community could be built around individuals but also on society as a whole. 4. Council of Trusts: an organisation that represented workers when they were facing disputes in discussions with 'plant leaders' (their boss) = a subunit of the KDF. It was designed to further encourage the idea of a community in the workplace between employers and employees→ The opposite of class struggle.

War and the fall of Mussolini, 1940-45 Mussolini's war, 1940-43:

1. Involvement in the Second World War was disastrous for Mussolini and for Italy. Italian forces suffered a string of military defeats. 2. The Italian economy came under massive strain. Italy's war effort was increasingly dominated by Germany and public opinion turned against the war. 3. In July 1943, allied armies landed in Sicily. On 25 July, King Victor Emmanuel III suddenly removed Mussolini from power but the war did not end. 4. Italy became the battleground for two parallel wars, one fought by Germans and Italians against the allies, the other fought by Italians against Italians in a bitter civil war. 5. All these disasters stemmed from the fatal decision to enter Hitler's war in June 1940 - a decision made by Mussolini only when French armies were close to final defeat and there seemed to be no danger of a long war.

Summary and significance of US "isolationism"

1. Isolationist sentiment was bolstered by American losses in WW1 and the economic devastation of the Great Depression. Politicians advocated for a lack of involvement in European and Asian conflicts 2. Former president Woodrow Wilson's failure to foster peace through international cooperation and American leadership on the global stage also contributed to these attitudes 3. Congress passed a series of Neutrality Acts in the late 1930s, banning citizens from trading with nations that were at war, loaning their money, or traveling on their ships, in an attempt to prevent future involvement in conflicts 4. Isolationists, like Charles Lindbergh and Father Charles Coughlin, argued that the best strategy for the United States was to build up their defenses and allow their military power and the barriers of the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean to protect them 5. However, they advocated for military action if other nations directly attacked the US or meddled in its affairs 6. America's relation with Japan was tense during this period. It provided 66% of Japan's oil and 90% of its scrap metal, while President FDR wanted to prevent a showdown between the two nations 7. The US debate over isolationism ended after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941. The day afterwards, Congress declared war on Japan, while Germany and Italy responded by declaring war on the United States

Policies to consolidate power to 1927

1. It has been said that Mussolini followed a 'twin-track strategy' to consolidate power: on the one track using violence and intimidation, or the threat of it, to suppress political opponents, while, on the other track, appearing as a moderate in order to reassure the old elites and to make political deals with them. This is, in many ways, a valid interpretation but there were actually more than two tracks. 2. Mussolini's position was strengthened by economic success. He was fortunate to come to power just as the underlying economic situation was beginning to improve. From 1922, there was a spurt of economic growth and a revival of international trade. Fascism had little to do with this economic recovery. Mussolini appointed Alberto De Stefani as Finance Minister and allowed him to follow traditional liberal economic policies based on free trade and support for industry. From 1925, Mussolini introduced more openly fascist policies, especially his 'economic battles', which were only partially successful in economic terms but did a lot to boost his popularity. 3. Mussolini also benefited from foreign policy successes. He had promised to rescue Italians from the shame and humiliation they thought they had suffered because previous governments had been too weak to stand up to the Great Powers. Between 1923 and 1925, Mussolini achieved a string of foreign policy successes, especially the acquisition of Fiume in January 1924.

There were several factors influencing the Church in favour of an agreement:

1. It was clear by 1926 that Mussolini's regime would last and so the Church wanted to protect its position in society and not risk remaining outside the State. 2. A formal agreement with Mussolini might bring an end to continuing violence from fascist extremists against Azione Cattolica. 3. The Church was in agreement with Fascism on some ideological issues such as the need for social order and respect for authority. 4. Fascist policies in relation to women and family, such as the Battle for Births and hostility to divorce, contraception and abortion, fitted in with Catholic beliefs. 5. It was obvious that Mussolini wanted an agreement and so it was thought that he could be persuaded to make important concessions. The negotiations were helped along by various goodwill gestures. After Mussolini survived an assassination attempt in 1926, the Pope was the first to deliver a message of congratulations and thanksgiving. In his Christmas message of December 1926, Pius XI declared that 'Mussolini is the man sent by Providence'. Even so, it took nearly three years of negotiations to conclude an agreement. In 1928, the talks were broken off for a time because of attempts to close down Catholic youth groups.

What was true of the Institute for the Reconstruction of Industry (IRI)?

1. It was created as part of the government's effort to save industries threatened by the Great Depression 2. Although firms controlled by the IRI remained technically part of the private sector they were virtually State-owned and State-run 3. Businesses that benefited the most from the IRI's interventions were larger firms as opposed to small business

The political system: Italy

1. Italian unification was a long and complicated process from 1848 to 1870, involving many different groups with different aims. 2. Before unification, Italy consisted of several disparate states and regions. Even after unification was completed, there were deep differences between republicans and monarchists, between revolutionaries and moderates, between Catholics and anti-clerical Liberals, between northerners and southerners. 3. The Liberal Italy that emerged by 1870 did not satisfy the hopes and expectations of all Italians. Democratic and republican idealists felt that their ideals had been betrayed and that the process of unification had been hijacked by the north-western kingdom of Piedmont, led by the cunning and manipulative Count Cavour. 4. The new Italy was dominated by the northern elites - the educated middle-class professionals and the prosperous business interests of cities such as Turin and Milan, People in the South had little loyalty to the new political system, Political power after 1870 was almost permanently in the hands of the narrow liberal oligarchy that dominated governments on behalf of the northern elites. 5. This system has been described as 'managed democracy'- an outwardly democratic system that was actually manipulated by a powerful minority. In the 'Crispi era', until 1893, power was in the hands of Francesco Crispi and his political allies. From 1903, the key political leader was Giovanni Giolitti, a protégé of Crispi, who continued to operate the same

Which was true of Italy with respect to WWI and its aftermath?

1. Italy entered the war confident of gaining prestige and territory in a short conflict 2. At the end of the war, Italy was faced with huge debts and high inflation 3. There were unrealistic expectations that Italy would gain even more in the 1919 treaty than it was promised in the secret agreements of 1915

Pearl Harbor (1941)

1. Japan attacked Pearl Harbor mainly because of *economic concerns*. The economic embargo placed on Japan as a result of expansion into Indo-China cut off key supplies. Japan was prepared to launch a naval attack regardless of whether talks succeeded or failed. 2. The attack on Pearl Harbor did incur huge losses for the USA with 90% of the mid-Pacific air and sea power either destroyed or badly damaged. However, the Japanese had not destroyed the US aircraft carrier capability and this would later prove fatal mistake for Japan. 3. The US government was outraged by the attack on Pearl Harbor = President Roosevelt described as "dastardly", it was seen as deceitful & treacherous. 4. Japan's surprise attack on Pearl Harbor would drive the United States out of isolation and into World War II, a conflict that would end with Japan's surrender after the devastating nuclear bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. At first, however, the Pearl Harbor attack looked like a success for Japan (Admiral Yamamoto needed time → which is what they got from the attack, but he was still pessimistic, as now they woke a sleeping tiger = the US). 4.Simultaneously launch a massive and far-reaching attack, creating a defensive ring of islands surrounding the Japanese homeland, gaining natural resources and creating an Asian "Co-prosperity Sphere" which Japan would benevolently rule.

What did "Plan Orange" cause Japan to do?

1. Japan quickly began to invest in its army and navy--devoting 24% of its GNP in 1905--and did so independently of European or American aid. 2. Great industrial empires called Zaibatsu, such as Mitsubishi, manufactured warships and arms in the Japanese home islands. 3. By the start of the First World War, Japan had the fourth largest navy in the world, and an army of over 700,000 men. 4. As a participant in WWI, Japan declared war on Germany and quickly and efficiently conquered its Chinese port city of Tsingtao, along with its island colonies (eg. Marshall, Palau, Caroline, and Marianas islands).

Events in Japanese Expansion

1. Japanese invasion of Manchuria and northern China (1931) 2. Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1941) 3. Three Power/Tripartite Pact (Sept. 1940); the outbreak of Second World War 4. Pearl Harbor (Sunday morning, December 7, 1941)

Use of propaganda (1)

1. Joseph Goebbles 2. Joseph Goebbles was Hitler's Minister of Popular Enlightment and Propaganda, responsible for promoting the Nazi ideology. 3. Gobbles was very skillful and used radio, film, torchlight processions, mass meetings and mass propaganda as a way to convey the idea of "Hitler over Germany", and promoting Hitler's infallibility. Not only posters and standard means of propaganda, but new, innovative means, contemporary means, such as the radio to enlighten the masses of the Nazi party and ideas. = Promoting the Nazi party as the only party to lead Germany to its prosperity. For instance he idea of Volksgemeinschaft and Führerprinzip (Hitler over germany) were cultivated through propaganda. 4. Goebbels was the orchestrator behind all of this.

The crisis of the economy

1. Liberal Italy experienced significant economic growth, but this was very patchy and was not on the same scale as other expanding economies like Britain and Germany. 2. The Italian economy was also notable for its 'dualism' - the virtually complete economic separation between north and south. 3. In the 'northern triangle' between Milan, Turin and Genoa, there was rapid industrialisation and economic development. 4. Big agricultural producers in the Po valley adopted modern farming techniques. 5. There was a boom in railway construction and shipping. 6. New heavy industries emerged in the years before 1915, producing iron and steel, glass, electric power, chemicals and motor cars. 7. Southern Italy, however, remained desperately poor. 8. In the years between 1890 and 1914, 3 million emigrants left Italy for the Americas.

The importance of image

1. Like other totalitarian regimes, Fascist Italy based much of its propaganda on imagery and visual impact. 2. Of Il Duce - in uniform, in a racing car, piloting an aeroplane, sitting at his desk, stripped to the waist working in the fields. 3. The most powerful images of Fascist Italy were live events staged as spectacle. Mussolini perfected what 4. A. J. P. Taylor called 'the Technique of the Balcony'. 5. A Mussolini speech was not just something to be listened to, but an elaborate theatrical production. 6. Below Mussolini was the cast of thousands, the cheering crowds. 7. High on his balcony was Mussolini, alone and above, representing the will of the people but separate and superior. 8. It was not necessary to hear the actual words (many of those in the crowd had little idea of what he was actually saying) - mass participation in a spectacular event made a deep impression anyway.

What more about Facta and the government situation by 1922?

1. Luigi Facta did not have the force of personality or the political strength to carry an effective government and his coalition soon broke up. 2. In July 1922, the King dismissed him but could not find anyone else able to form a government; on 1 August he re-appointed Facta. 3. By then, social Section 1 unrest and political violence were running out of control. Fascist Party membership had reached 300,000. Fascist leaders had seized control in one city after another; in May 1922 they forcibly removed the elected communist town council in Bologna. In the countryside, local landlords were financing the Fascists to intimidate their rebellious labourers. The government and the police did little to interfere.

Japanese annexation of Korea (continued)

1. March 1, 1919: Nationwide anti-japanese rallies were held. The former emperor, Kojong (symbol of independence) had died and mourners gathered in the capital, Seoul. 2. A korean declaration of independence was read on March 1st and it was estimated that around 2 million people took part. (The first March movement) It was a peaceful demonstration but it was met with brutality. 47,000 arrested 10,500 indicted 7,500 killed 16,000 wounded

Rise of Mussolini (4) - EVENTS

1. March to Rome (1922): 2. In 1922, the Italian King Vittorio Emanuel turned to a liberal politician, Luigi Facta, to become PM and form a new government. 3. Hence, the Fascists voiced their discontent, as they wanted Mussolini to be PM. 4. Later, on October 24th, during a rally in Naples in, Mussolini addressed 60,0000 Italians and changed his viewpoint by criticising democracy and claiming support for the monarchy, as he proposed that Italy could only thrive under an united, strong leadership. 5. Parallel to this support, however, Mussolini threatened to take the nation by violence and the Italian government by force, and demanded that at least 6 government positions be given to the Fascists. 6. Hence, on October 28th, 30,000 Fascists marched 150 miles to Rome, spreading panic throughout the nation. 7. Yet, PM Facta knew that the army could easily suppress the Fascists, yet when he requested permission for the king to stop the Fascists by using the army, the king refused (for unknown reasons). 8. Facta thought this was outrageous and resigned, as the King was allowing the Fascists to carry out an activity that was undermining the new authority / new government's prestige in the country. 9. Mussolini joined the Fascists right at the end of the march, and marched into Rome where the king called on Mussolini to become PM.

Stage 3: The Golden Age (1924-1929) - Economic Factors Successes (2)

1. Modernisation of German industry: 2. German factories started following the American system of mass production, and Fordism, which allowed Germany to move to mass production of goods and lead to economic growth. 3. Better Quality of Life

Stage 3: The Golden Age (1924-1929) - Political factors Successes -- Examples of how stable Germany truly was during the Golden Age:

1. More moderate representation - The more moderate parties like the SPD gained more votes in the Reichstag elections (allowing for more moderate and democratic ideas in government). More extreme parties like the KPD and NSDAP lost support. 2. Cessation of violent uprisings - Unlike the early 1920s, the Golden Era did not see violent political uprisings or Putsch attempts 3. Seeming support for the Republic - The greatest paramilitary group of the time, the Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold was made of 3 million men and is committed to defending parliamentary democracy. This suggested that a great number of people were willing to fight for the Republic (supporting these government policies).

Mussolini regarded Matteotti as:

1. Mussolini did not just regard Matteotti as a nuisance, he saw him as a dangerous threat. 2. On 1 June, Mussolini wrote an unsigned letter, published in Il Popolo d'Italia, denouncing Matteotti's 'monstrously of the fascist militia, the MVSN. The leader of the Cheka was Amerigo Dumini. The Cheka took its name from the secret police of the Bolshevik regime in Russia, set up by Lenin in 1921. Aventine Secession: the name given to the boycott of parliament by the liberal and democratic opposition parties in 1924. This action was modelled on the practice in the Ancient Roman Republic of 'going to the Aventine Hill', hence the name Aventine Secession. 3. Later, Mussolini calmed down and made a conciliatory speech in parliament, hoping to win over the Socialists. He won a vote of confidence by 361 votes to 107 and seemed to have re-established secure political control. 4. Three days later, however, Mussolini found himself deep in trouble. While walking from his home to the parliament building, Matteotti was seized by a gang of armed men, shoved into a car and driven away at high speed. The Fascists were immediately suspected but there was no sign of Matteotti until two months later, when his body was found dumped on the roadside on the outskirts of Rome. 5. The abduction and presumed murder of Matteotti caused a storm of protest, both inside and outside Italy. Mussolini was badly shaken by the universal denunciation of his regime. Nobody doubted that the abduction had been carried out by fascist thugs. There were eyewitness accounts to prove that the number plates of the car belonged to Amerigo Dumini, leader of the fascist 'punishment squad', the so-called Cheka. It was clear that the abduction of Matteotti was a fascist crime. The key issue was whether it had been done on Mussolini's orders. It was known that Dumini reported to Cesare Rossi, in Mussolini's press office. Claims that the squad had acted on its own initiative were not very convincing. 6. Mussolini was extremely vulnerable in the summer of 1924. He had not yet consolidated his power. There were still opposition parties, independent newspapers and a king who had the constitutional authority to throw Mussolini out of office. His political allies in the fascist list refused to have anything to do with him, leaving him very isolated. If Mussolini's opponents organised a concerted political campaign against him, it would be very difficult for him to survive - but the opposition took no such action. Mussolini was saved by the Aventine Secession.

The April 1924 election

1. Mussolini fought the election of April 1924 at the head of the listone (National List), allying the Fascists with conservative and liberal allies. 2. Many politicians were tempted to join the fascist list, even though they disliked and distrusted Mussolini, because they knew they would be on the winning side. 3. The Fascists duly gained 375 seats out of 535. 4. Mussolini's victory was not, however, as easy or as complete as it looked. 5. The victories of fascist candidates had been accompanied by widespread intimidation and fraud. 6. This was almost certainly unnecessary, as Mussolini had achieved widespread popularity by 1924 and the Fascists would have won anyway but the election campaign was marked by blatant irregularities. 7. In spite of all this, the voting for the Socialists and Communists held up well and they gained more than 2 million votes. 8. The decisive election victory in April 1924 seemed to have made Mussolini completely secure. 9. In reality, it plunged him into a crisis that almost toppled him from power. The violent and illegal actions carried out by Fascists in the election campaign led directly to the Matteotti Affair.

The old elites

1. Mussolini had already gone a long way towards reassuring the old elites before he came to power. He had moved away from the anti-Catholic and anti-monarchist ideology that characterised the early fascist movement in 1919. 2. He had tried hard to convince the ruling elites that the PNF was a disciplined, organised party, firmly under his control. This process continued after he became prime minister as he set about consolidating his power. 3. The most important groupings Mussolini had to win over or neutralise included conservative and nationalist political leaders, the armed forces, the large landowners, big industrialists, the Catholic Church and the monarchy. 4. The political establishment had been willing to compromise with Mussolini for some time before October 1922. Actually, they wanted to manipulate him, using fascist political strength for their own purposes. Mussolini knew this and outmanoeuvred them. Once in power, he kept their support. 5. Giolitti and Salandra, for example, both voted in favour of Mussolini's temporary powers to rule by decree. The nationalist politicians liked Mussolini's anti-Communism and also his promises in foreign policy.

Which was a reason for the Church to dislike Mussolini?

1. Mussolini had been fiercely atheist and anti-clerical, attacking the "evil influence" of the papacy in Italy 2. Between 1919 and 1922, the new Catholic Party, the PPI, had been in direct competition with the Fascists 3. Mussolini's attempt to indoctrinate youth into Fascism was in direct opposition to the Church's own efforts to indoctrinate youth

Which is true of the connection between Italian Fascism and Ancient Rome?

1. Mussolini preferred to draw upon the past, rejecting "Futurism" 2. Mussolini used Roman symbols to make it appear as if he was the descendant of Roman emperors 3. Construction projects were designed to emulate ancient Rome

What was the significance of the "March on Rome?"

1. Mussolini used the march to demand that he be given control of the government, refusing an offer of power-sharing in favour of full authority 2. The march resulted in a legal handover of power to Mussolini at the permission of the King 3. If the government gave the army the order to crush the Fascist marchers, and if the order was obeyed, the marchers most certainly would have been crushed

The instruments of propaganda: Radio and cinema

1. Mussolini was in many respects a brilliant propagandist, but his regime took a surprisingly long time to maximise the use of propaganda techniques. 2. It was only in the 1930s that a ministry of propaganda was set up, named the Ministry of Popular Culture, generally known as 'minculpop'. 3. Film propaganda was not fully exploited until the 1930s. 4. There was no coordinated propaganda machine in Fascist Italy comparable to that controlled by Dr Josef Goebbels, Minister of Propaganda and Public Enlightenment, in Nazi Germany from 1933. 5. Mussolini's regime did exploit the new mass media, though it never matched the brilliant use of film propaganda by Nazi Germany or Soviet Russia. 6. One reason for this was that technical developments, especially the arrival of talking pictures and the mass production of cheap radio sets, made things possible in the 1930s that could not have been done earlier. 7. Another reason was that Mussolini's success in consolidating his regime in the 1920s was based on the block of consensus' in Italian society. 8. It was only later that Fascism really aimed to make Italy a totalitarian state. 9. 'Brainwashing' the people was less vital in the 1920s. 10. Radio was exploited to an extent, especially communal listening to broadcasts of Mussolini's speeches, but radio ownership was very limited outside the cities. 11. Cinema became a major part of popular culture in Italy, but until the end of the 1920s the films people watched were silent films and most of them were American-made anyway. 12. There was very limited use of film as propaganda until the 1930s.

Other political movements

1. Mussolini's chief political enemies were the parties of the left and the Catholics. 2. The PSI (Partito Socialista Italiano or Italian Socialist Party) had lost a lot of its political force during 1921 and 1922. 3. The party was weakened in January 1921 when the Communists broke away to form a separate party. 4. The PSI also suffered badly from fascist violence. 5. According to figures produced by the PSI, fascist attacks killed 3,000 socialists between 1920 and October 1922. Fascist attacks had forced many elected socialist officials out of their posts. The general strike in August 1922 was a fiasco, partly because of fascist violence, but also because so few workers joined it. The rise of Catholic and fascist trade unions after 1919 also took members away from the socialist unions. 6. The Socialists were divided and demoralised. The Communists formed a separate party after splitting with the PSI early in 1921 - the PCI (Partito Communista Italiano or Italian Communist Party). 7. The PCI gained considerable support in the main industrial centres such as Turin. They also succeeded in gaining control of local government in a number of smaller towns and cities. This made them a target for the fascist squads, who forcibly removed many elected officials from office. 8. Another factor weakening the PSI was the rise of the Catholic PPI. Before 1919, the Pope's ban on political activity by Catholics prevented the development of any Catholic party. 9. Pope Benedict XIV lifted this ban and the PPI emerged under the leadership of a populist Sicilian priest, Don Luigi Sturzo. 10. The PPI rapidly gained support from Catholics, both working class and middle class. This took support away from the PSI, and from the liberal and democratic parties. 11. The liberal parties had been split by the rise of Mussolini. Many were content to support the new fascist-led government because it promised to provide the stability the middle classes wanted. 12. Some liberals stuck to their democratic principles and opposed Mussolini, but were too few to be effective. 13. To consolidate his power, Mussolini had to somehow get round the need to compromise with the other political parties. His emergency powers were only supposed to last 12 months. To gain permanent power, Mussolini needed to win an overall majority in the next elections. Until then, he had to manage the opposition parties by a mixture of threats and compromises.

Italian involvement in the Spanish Civil War

1. Mussolini's decision to support the nationalist rebellion against the legal government of the Spanish Republic was partly based on ideology. He was supporting a fellow Fascist against the dangers of Communism. 2. There were also considerations of prestige - Mussolini was anxious, as always, to be seen as a decisive man of action and he wanted to prove the martial spirit of the new Italy. He was also keen to match anything that Hitler's Germany did to help Franco and did not want to be left behind.

Mussolini's efforts to control fascist extremism:

1. Mussolini's efforts to control fascist extremism only partially succeeded. He was able to reorganise the movement into the PNF (Partito Nationale Fascista or National Fascist Party) in 1921, but he had to call off his truce with the Socialists, the so-called Pact of Pacification, and leave fascist local leaders free to use violent methods in their own areas. 2. In the summer of 1922, fascist violence enhanced Mussolini's chances of coming to power. The decision of the reformist Socialists to call a general strike on 31 July gave an ideal excuse for fascist squads to attack strikers in several cities across Italy. 3. On 3 August, Fascists stormed into Milan, fought running battles against socialist supporters in the streets and burned down the building of the socialist newspaper, Avanti. They then attacked the town hall and took over running the trains to break the strike by the transport workers. Fascist actions made the government appear weak and ineffective in dealing with the 'socialist threat'. Mussolini looked strong and decisive by comparison. 4. The idea of using the strength of the Fascists to support the government, rather than trying to suppress the Fascists by using the army, became more attractive. 5. In the autumn of 1922, the way was open for Mussolini to launch his bid for power. The stage was set for the March on Rome.

The use of propaganda to support domestic and foreign policies

1. Mussolinianism became the basis of fascist policies in the early 1920s, both at home and abroad. 2. There was a powerful propaganda element in the presentation of domestic policies and also in the policies themselves. 3. This was not only a matter of using propaganda to win acceptance for Mussolini's policies; it was often the other way round. 4. Some of Mussolini's policies, especially in foreign affairs, were designed at least as much to boost Mussolini's prestige as to pursue important foreign policy objectives. 5. Propaganda was a key component, for example, in Mussolini's economic battles', which were launched personally by Mussolini through big, set-piece speeches that maximised the impact of campaigns such as the Battle for the Lira and the Battle for Births. 6. These speeches hammered home the ideological messages of national pride, preparation for war and the greatness of Mussolini as leader. 7. They were not only statements of economic policy, they were propaganda spectaculars used to reinforce 'Mussolinianism'. 8. In foreign policy, Mussolini was desperate to make an immediate impact on public opinion. 9. He wanted to demonstrate the fact that he was the man to restore national pride after the sense of humiliation that hung over Italy after the First World War. 10. This is why he intervened so forcefully in the Corfu incident in 1923, causing a major international fuss over a relatively trivial dispute. 11. In 1925, Mussolini extracted the maximum propaganda value out of his role as a mediator alongside Britain when the Locarno Treaties were signed. 12. Mussolini gained respect abroad during the 1920s and exploited this to increase his popularity at home. 13. His early foreign policy successes did not involve any serious risks or military commitments, thus providing a cheap and easy route to greater prestige in the eyes of Italians. 14. Many different instruments of propaganda were used to 'brainwash' Italians into believing in Mussolini's achievements: radio and cinema, posters and school books, rallies and mass activities and, most of all, newspapers.

3. Threats to Liberalism

1. Nationalism: Often members of the middle class, the nationalists were few, but found supporters in the media. 2. They greatly criticised Liberal politicians for being power hungry, and not caring about the Italian nation. 3. They condemned the regime for not making Italy as strong as Britain or France. 4. They sought further military spending, a more aggressive foreign policy, and an Italian Empire in Africa. 5. These were the ones who would call for Italy's entry in WWI, and who would later influence the rise of Fascism.

The instruments of propaganda: Newspapers

1. Newspapers provided the regime with its main instrument of propaganda in the 1920s. 2. In his early career, Mussolini was above all a brilliant journalist. 3. Many of the leading figures in the PNF also had experience as journalists. 4. From the start, the regime exercised strict controls over the press. 5. Money was poured in to support fascist newspapers and journals, such as Il Popolo d'Italia and Critica Fascista. 6. There was censorship and harassment of non-fascist newspapers, some of which were virtually taken over by the regime. 7. Corriere della Sera, formerly a liberal democratic paper, steadily became more and more a mouthpiece for the government. 8. There was also a lot of 'auto-censorship', the process by which editors and journalists tried to guess what the regime would and would not approve of and so censored themselves. 9. The press was never completely coordinated, for example, Osservatore Romano, the Catholic Church newspaper, had a big readership and did not always follow the fascist line - but there was never any direct criticism or dissent. 10. Mussolini was able to rely on the newspapers to report events and policies in exactly the way he wanted. 11. There were also a number of publications controlled by the Fascist Party. 12. It took some time for Mussolini to establish control over the PNF but, by the late 1920s, most of the radicals in the movement and most of the personalities big enough to challenge Mussolini had been sidelined. 13. The PNF was increasingly run by nonentities and almost all propaganda put out by the PNF fitted in with 'Mussolinianism'.

Summary and significance of the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

1. On August 6th, 1945, the first atom bomb (little boy) was dropped on Hiroshima by the US. 2. The explosion caused the death of approximately 80,000 civilians, and the radiation would later cause the death of tens of thousands more. 3. On August 9th, a second bomb (fat boy) was dropped on Nagasaki 4. The second explosion killed approximately 40,000 people 5. The bombings caused emperor Hirohito to announce Japan's unconditional surrender On August 15th. 6. The formal surrender agreement was signed on September 2nd, aboard the U.S. battleship Missouri, anchored in Tokyo bay. (very embarrassing for the Japanese to sign a surrender agreement on a U.S. battleship in their country) 7. Marked the end of the race to the atom bomb 8. The bombings sparked a debate that goes on to this day on whether the bombings were justified, with many claiming the US commited a war crime.

Stage 3: The Golden Age (1924-1929) - Economic/ Political factors Successes

1. Passing of an Enabling Act (1923): 2. This allowed for the Chancellor to pass laws without parliament approval, which meant that the chancellor had much more power to deal with economic issues and political uprisings. 3. Though a radical measure, this did allow for the stabilisation of national affairs. 4. This however, would set a dangerous precedent for Weimar politics of giving the Chancellor too much power, as Hitler used this power to become Chancellor in 1933 and eventually dictator by August in 1934.

Imperial Rule Assistance Association

1. Political grouping (semi-party) founded by Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe which existed from 1940 to 1945. 2. Coalition of several factions which supported Japanese militarism. It was created to drive militarism, overcoming democracy as an obstacle to it. 3. Their ultimate goal was to establish a one-party state in Japan 4. The party was formally dissolved in 1945 and thousands of government leaders were purged.

4. Mussolini's Rise to Power I (Long-term Weaknesses of Liberal Italy)

1. Political weaknesses: The political system was very confusing, with no defined political parties or no two-party systems. 2. The lack of parties meant that politicians were organised into factions, and shared positions between them when in power. 3. This promoted the politics of transformismo, where political rivals would put their differences aside to form temporary, and often fragile coalitions (running for government). Trying to put through different agendas = inefficient. 4. The urban and rural population did not have the power to vote, meaning that politicians were from a narrow social class: wealthy/middle class. Their similar backgrounds also contributed to a lack of diverging opinions. 5. E.g→ This reflected a great political instability, evidenced by how Italy had 29 Prime Ministers between 1870 and 1922. 6. → Some historians, such as Galasso, have pointed out that these ever-changing governments indicated that Liberal politics was about the pursuit of power, rather than the good of the nation.

Stage 2: Early years of Weimar (1919-1923) (Political Instability)

1. Post-War German conditions: 2. The conditions in which the new Constitution was created completely undermined its credibility. 3. In a time of great political uncertainty the democratic advancements it proposed were not experienced by Germany. 4. → Historian Ruth Henig stated that: 'There could not have been a worse time for the inauguration of a new democratic republic'. (the Weimar Republic, pg. 15)

Social Policies (2) - Policies towards Women (2)

1. Pro-natalist policies 2. As an attempt to increase the population of the Reich, Hitler implemented measures such as A) Marriage loans: 1000 Reichsmarks paid at 1%, to which the value decreased by ¼ per child. 1. To receive the loan, however, women had to give up employment. The goal was to discourage women from working, so unemployed men could take the jobs. 2. It is estimated that 42% of couples received the loan by 1939. --> A large amount of people, but it failed to increase the birth rate in Germany (main reason = the cost/financing the child -- value of the loan was not worth it -- too large financial burden) 3. Loans did not significantly increase the birth rates→ 2+ kids: Harms > benefits B) Monetary incentives: 1. Income-tax reductions for married couples, and higher taxes for singles, or couples who had no children (families would not have to worry about these taxes). 2. Child support & provision of facilities like birth clinics which helped to reduce fares. C) Mother's Cross award 1. Depending on the number of children, mothers would receive medals. E.g→ 8+ was gold. 2. These benefits, however, were only appropriate if children were of Aryan blood and not "asocials". E.g→ Child born with a disease or handicap. 3. Opposingly, the government also provided decensentives by denying women control of their body, E.g→ banned contraception, and criminally convicting women who broke these laws.

Stage 2: Early years of Weimar (1919-1923) (Weakness of the Weimar Constitution)

1. Proportional Representation (Article 17): 2. Smaller, often anti-Republican parties, could gain more seats in the Reichstag = equal amount of representation / seats. 3. Proportional representation led to unstable coalitions between parties with different goals/aims, making the government weak and short-lived. 4. As polarisation increased in the 1920s, it became harder for moderate parties to form stable coalitions and stay in power. 5. This was initially considered to be a strength of the Constitution, as it provided the population with secrete universal suffrage but proved to be a weakness. Weakness of the Weimar Constitution

WWI (2)

1. Reasons for war: 2. The secret Treaty of London (1915) with Britain and France guaranteed that if Italy joined the war it would receive: A) Italian irredenta B) Territorial (Turkey) and colonial gains C) Financial gains 3. Hence, Italy joined the side of the Entente powers.

Meiji Restoration

1. Referred to at the time as the Honorable Restoration 2. Political event that restored practical imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji 3. Restored practical abilities and consolidated the political system under the Emperor of Japan 4. During the Restoration, Japan rapidly industrialized and adopted Western ideas and production methods (with the purpose of becoming a power to reckon with), when previously, during the Edo period, it had been almost completely closed off. 5. One of the results of this was the focus on the navy and military, as it was believed that naval warfare was of utmost importance and that efforts should be more focused in this area

Stage 3: The Golden Age (1924-1929) - Failures: Economic Factors

1. Reliance on US loans: 2. The growing German economy was highly reliant on U.S loans, which meant that if the American economy collapsed, as it did in 1929, so would the German economy. 3. While the Weimar Republic portrayed The Dawes (1924) and Young Plan (1929) as the salvation of the German economy at that time, the Dawes and Young Plan were seen by Nationalist groups as a sign of the Republic's continued weakness. 4. It was perceived as pandering to Allies and ToV Diktat.

Annexation of Korea

1. Result of the Russo-Japanese War, which resulted in the Japan-Korea Treaty of 1905, where Korea officially became a protectorate of Japan 2. Official annexation happened in 1910, with the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty, however the legality of it is disputed as the Emperor of Korea did not sign the treaty, but was rather signed by the Prime Minister of Korea 3. All rights of sovereignty over Korea were given to the Emperor of Japan 4. This annexation was recognized by countries in the West such as Britain (through the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902), and the United States 5. Korea was considered an important economic resource for Japan, as well as a military one (100,000 Korean men served in the Imperial Japanese Army) 6. Commerce and transportation routes were established, however this was only to the benefit of the Japanese, as the Koreans were prohibited from using these services 7. Land was taken from Korean farmers and sold cheaply to Japanese people, as there was no legal "claim" to the land 8. Children were used as "comfort women" at the frontlines, forced to provide sex to any Japanese soldiers demanding it 9. Korea would remain under Japanese rule until 1945

Social Policies (2) - Policies towards Women

1. Role of Women 2. The Nazis split the hitler youth into boys and girls -- as they were believed to have different duties in Nazi Germany. 3. Supposedly, Hitler did not necessarily see women as inferior but he sought to "rescue" them from the degeneracy of women's dignity and honour, which had occurred under Weimar's Western democratic-liberal policies. 4. He sought to restore the traditional role of women as mothers and family oriented. He also believed that women bore the nation's future. 5. Hitler attempted to limit female participation in society to "Children, Kitchen, Church." 6. Hitler believed that men and women should work in partnership to serve the nation. 7. Hence, Hitler also believed that women bore the nation's future, and so proposed numerous pro-natalist policies to supply the Reich (with new Aryans, soldiers, and workers), given that Germany had a declining and low birth rate. 8. Nazi anti-feminism (that women would not participate in the workforce and attend higher education) was also shared by groups such as traditionalists, and the Church. 9. Hitler capitalized on this, creating what critics claimed to be a reactionary policy based on male supremacy, in spite of the Nazis claiming the contrary.

Mussolini's consolidation/maintenance of power: Use of legal methods (5)

1. Rule by decree II (January 1926) 2. Having a majority in parliament, Mussolini once again passed the Rule by Decree, although this time he had the power to permanently pass laws without consulting parliament. 3. This effectively gave him dictatorial power: A) By November 1926, opposition political parties were dissolved. B) In 1928 universal suffrage was terminated and the King lost power to appoint the PM. Use of legal methods

Rise of Mussolini (5) - EVENTS

1. Securing power: 2. Though Mussolini obtained the role of PM, he needed to safely consolidate his power in order to not fall like previous PMs. 3. He did so through the extensive use of the paramilitary groups, which allowed him to become dictator.

What was true of the Italian resistance movement?

1. Several different opposition groups, including socialists, communists and Catholics, set aside their differences and worked together to resist both the Fascists and the Germans 2. Partisans were effective in engaging in "hit-and-run" attacks, as well as guerrilla warfare 3. Resistance fighters were more than just a nuisance, tying up large numbers of German soldiers and Fascist militia, blocking their movements and sometimes inflicting significant causalities

1. Liberal Italy's stability (Positive factor)

1. Significant economic growth: 2. Italy had increased its GDP from 61 billion lira in 1895 to 92 billion lira in 1915 due to the liberal government (uniting the country). 3. International trade had increased by 6x in 1913 (trading six times as much as in the past). 4. Social conditions improved (because of the better economic situation / economic growth). Taxes on food were reduced (could purchase more necessities), and the government increased spending on infrastructure, communications, and drinking water supplies.

Stage 1: Post-war scenario (1918-1919) (Impact of War)

1. Signing of Treaty of Versailles: 2. The termination of the War was followed by the Treaty of Versailles imposed by the Allies, in which Germany had to comply with multiple clauses. E.g: A) The War Guilt Clause B) £6.6 billion in reparations C) Demilitarisation of the Rhineland D) Reduction of the army to 100,000 men 3. Germans saw the treaty as a diktat as they believed it to be extremely harsh. 4. All of these clauses were detrimental to Germany, politically, economically and morally. --> ToV major contributing factor for extremist groups -- The Stab in the Back myth.

Establishment of the USSR and Stalin: Background information

1. Single Party State: Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 2. Time Period: 1924 - 1991 3. Ruling Party: Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) 4. Government Type: Socialist state, dictatorship, totalitarianism 5. Leader: Vladimir Lenin then Joseph Stalin (1924-1953)

1. Threats to Liberalism

1. Socialism: The industrialization of Northern Italy in the 1880s produced a sizable working class that was attracted to Socialism (rise of Socialism). A government reform in 1881 granted 2 million more Italians to vote, which could indicate a Socialist rise (insert socialism in political system). 2. Moderate Socialists only sought better working conditions, and more workers rights, whereas the more radical ones were committed to a Communist revolution. 3. The former group became the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) in 1895 (made clear that socialism was prominent), where the other was looked down at because it was seen as a "radical" group. 4. The PSI grew in popularity exponentially, having secured 200,000 votes in the 1905 elections, granting them 32 seats in the chamber of deputies. 5. They advocated for clauses such as universal manhood suffrage, women's rights, an 8 hour working day, and income taxes. 6. The Socialists still had little support in the early 1900s, but sparked fear in other groups, particularly the Catholic Church.

3. Liberal Italy's stability (Positive factor)

1. Stable political system: 2. According to Liberals, the political system was stabilised (this is highly debatable -- other historians think it was not), evidenced by the passing of universal male suffrage in 1912. 3. Giovanni Giolitti, the Prime Minister, remained in power for 11 years, between 1903-14, and managed to include moderate Socialists (and sometimes moderate Nationalists = he was able to build coalitions between polarizing groups) and Catholics in his government coalition. 4. → English historian, G.M Trevelyan, wrote before WWI that there was "Nothing is more remarkable than the stability of the Italian kingdom and the building is as safe as any in Europe. The foundations of human liberty and the foundations of social order exist there on a firm basis."

The collapse of the liberal oligarchy

1. Stopping Mussolini meant giving power to somebody else, but the King was not willing to give full backing to Luigi Facta, someone he regarded as merely a temporary stopgap. 2. He would have preferred Giolitti, but he was now 80 years old and had many political enemies. 3. The King therefore accepted Antonio Salandra's plan to lead a new government that would share power with Mussolini and other fascist ministers. 4. When Mussolini refused to accept the offer, Victor Emmanuel caved in and handed power to Mussolini rather than risk civil war. 5. The King's decision in October 1922 had long-lasting effects. It made it almost impossible for the liberal oligarchy to fight its way back to power, because this would depend on the King intervening and there was little possibility of Victor Emmanuel opting for confrontation with Mussolini. 6. In the years after 1922, Mussolini took over almost all aspects of the role of Head of State. The King did not turn against him for 20 years.

Economic Policies (2) - Tackling Unemployment

1. Tackling Unemployment 2. War production: (eventually the Four Year Plan), the need for military supplies meant that workers had to be hired in factories, reducing unemployment. 3. Public works projects: the construction of the Autobahn (employment that gave workers purpose - the believe that they were improving / strengthening the nation and contributing to society -- being a part of the society - Volksgemeinschaft. It was also useful in terms of transporting resources for war, etc.), houses, schools, hospitals, etc, provided employment, together with a sense of purpose as workers were producing useful infrastructure that would help the country. This overlapped with the goal of militarisation, as railways and motorways linked the East and West and would be used in war. 4. RAD, Youth Labour Service: A) Cheap & regimented labour. B) Initially voluntary but later compulsory for 19-25 males due to war (eg. laying brick, cleaning construction sites for extra income). C) Authoritarian control over recruits allowed for Party indoctrination. D) Many have described the RAD as a Semi-military group of Nazi youth in the nation -- encouraging militarism. 5. Conscription (1935): Provided "employment" for all 18-25 year-olds serving in the military, and allowed Hitler to "destroy the ToV".

Stage 4: Decline (1930-1933): Political Factors (3)

1. The "Baron's Cabinet" (May-December 1932) 2. With the fall of Bruning, Chancellor Franz von Papen was appointed, whose cabinet was known as the "Baron's cabinet' for containing many aristocrats. 3. Yet, though Von Papen was Chancellor, it was Schleicher, the Defence Minister, who had the most power 4. Yet, Von Papen also failed to deal with the economic issues and lacked parliamentary support. 5. In the elections of July 1932, the NSDAP became a majority with 38% of the votes, which led Hitler to claim the chancellorship, to which Hindenburg denied. 6. Von Papen failed to achieve a majority and so in September, Hindenburg dissolved the Reichstag, and called upon new elections.

Stage 4: Decline (1930-1933): Political Factors (2)

1. The "Hunger Chancellor" (March 1930- May 1932) 2. After the fall of the Muller cabinet in March 1930, President Hindenburg appointed a member of the Zentrum, Heinrich Bruning, a.k.a the "Hunger Chancellor", whose nickname was given due to his deflationary economic policies and contractionary fiscal policies. 3. Bruining greatly antagonised the left which was beneficial for the NSDAP's propaganda. 4. Bruning governed with the help of many emergency decrees until he was dismissed in 1932 for planning to implement agrarian policies that would not favour landowners. 5. Chancellor Bruning's failure resulted in a growth in support for extremist parties in the September 1930 elections. E.g→ NSDAP gained 107 seats.

Economic Policies (3)

1. The 'New Plan' (Schacht) (1934) 2. Halmar Schacht was Germany's Minister of Economics up to 1936, and his developed the New Plan for economic recovery: 3. Correcting the balance of trade: A) German imports outweighed exports, leading to a fall in foreign reserves and gold (harmful as currency is depreciating and has to resort to other sources of payment), and the accumulation of debt. B) Fiscalization of imports: The government had to approve all imports, as to ensure that there was not more money flowing out of the country than flowing into it (making sure the country isn't accumulating a lot of debt). C) Bilateral agreements: Especially with Balkan states, which were the main suppliers of German raw materials. The implementation of barter agreements eliminated the use of scarce foreign currency caused by the trade deficit and increased Germany's economic influence over the region (would be very significant in the time of war). D) Mefo Bills: acted as government bonds (essentially a form of debt insurance of government allowing the citizens to lend the government money and then the cititzens can get the money back after a while) that could be claimed with interest after 5 years. E) However, the bills were supplied by a dummy company→ Metallurgische Forschung, a heavy industry corporation. 4. The bills were very effective, because: A) Disguised government involvement in rearmament. B) Increased the expenditure on rearmament by delaying real payment. C) Aimed to increase public expenditure without causing inflation.

Economic Policies (4)

1. The Four Year Plan (Goering) (1936) 2. Germany prepared for war in 4 years: Prioritised German rearmament and self-sufficiency in food and industrial production (key industries during the war). 3. Göring employed many Government regulations: The government increased control over imports, labour, raw materials, and prices. It also created targets that the private sector had to meet. 4. Hitler's demand for an excessive rearmament marked the radicalization of the regime as it came at the cost of consumer goods, which became known as the "Guns vs. Butter" dispute. 5. → On the one hand, Historian Mason has argued that the rearmament program was hindered by having to supply both military and consumer goods, making Germany less prepared for war. 6. The government feared popular unrest and disapproval of the government if there was a great shortage of consumer goods. 7. The excessive rearmament was overheating the economy which culminated in issues like labour shortages and shortage of raw materials. 8. → Historian Overy argued that there were 2 distinguishable periods in the German economy: A) 1933-36: Public works and revival of consumer demands were prioritised. B) Post-1936: Rearmament was prioritised as Hitler steered the economy towards war. 9. Ultimately, the post-1936 period was not enough time for Germany to become the seizable war economy Hitler desired. 10. Overy has even argued that Germany failed to build a strong war economy capable of enduring long periods of war, which is why the Blitzkrieg (minimizing the amount of resources in the war and battles = quick advances in war and preventing a war of attrition = Blitzkrieg) tactics were created, so quick victories could be attained and a war of attrition could be avoided.

Mussolini's consolidation/maintenance of power: Use of legal methods (3)

1. The Acerbo Law (July 1923) 2. Mussolini proposed that the political party that had received the most votes should win ⅔ of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies. 3. This essentially made it impossible for the Fascist Party , and its allies to be voted out of parliament. 4. Mussolini argued that the law would prevent weak government coalitions, like the ones of Liberal Italy, by securing that the government would be supported by the majority of MPs, which would allow issues to be dealt with decisively. 5. The Acerbo Law was supported by the majority of parliament. 6. During the vote, however; armed Fascists were patrolling the Chamber of deputies. 7. Mussolini had already guaranteed the support of most liberals, nationalists, and the Church. This together with the slight fear brought about by the armed Fascists allowed the Law to be passed easily. 8. Truthly, however; many MPs were fond of the idea of a government that would continue to persecute the dangerous and revolutionary left, while preventing the formation of weak coalitions in government. Use of legal methods / coercion

Stage 4: Decline (1930-1933): Political Factors (4)

1. The Elections of November 1932: 2. In the November elections, the NSDAP lost 2 million votes but the KPD increased its support. 3. Von Papen encouraged Hindenburg to continue his rule by decree seeking stability. 4. Yet, Hindenburg lost confidence in Von Papen, and appointed Schleicher as Chancellor. 5. As a desperate attempt to stay in power, Schliecher attempted to form a coalition with various groups, including the left wing of the Nazi power, led by Strasser. 6. However, the coalition failed as Hitler found out about Strasser and alienated him in the NSDAP.

Hitler's Consolidation & Maintenance of Power: From democracy to dictatorship (January-March 1933) - Use of Legal methods (4)

1. The Enabling Act (March 1933): 2. The Enabling Act marked the end of democratic government as Hitler was given power to rule by decree for 4 years (give him the power needed to transform democratic Germany to Nazi Germany). This essentially gave him dictatorial power (allowed him to pass policies without the Reichstag). 3. Hitler needed a ⅔ majority to pass the bill, which he achieved by: A) His 52% majority in collaboration with the DNVP. B) Suppressing SPD members (-12%). C) Offering guarantees to the BVP & Zentrum to assure their support. E.g→ the protection of the Catholic Church, which was approved by the Pope, similar to the Lateran Agreements in Italy. 4. Hence, the bill passed as all deputies voted in favour, except SPD. 5. Hindenburg signed the bill, essentially transferring his constitutional power to Hitler. Was the Act political murder or suicide?

G. Carocci, Italian Fascism, 1972. Quoted in). Pollard, The Fascist Experience in Italy, 1998

1. The Fascist squads consisted of young men from the bourgeoisie and petty bourgeoisie of the countryside and of provincial towns. 2. Many were students, but some were socially humbler and there were working-class youngsters among them as well: a mixture of spoilt brats, misfits and hooligans. 3. Some of them were demobilised officers or else sons or younger brothers of demobilised officers. 4. They were all young, some very young, proud of their youth and of the war they had fought in, or merely dreamed about, and in their violence they employed methods used by the shock troops in the war. The life and dignity of others mattered little to them; indeed it might even seem right and credible to humiliate them.

Short-term causes of rise of fascism (4)

1. The Fiume Question (September 1919): 2. The former WWI general, Gabrielle d'Annunzio, seized Fiume and established his own (seemingly Fascist = very violent and nationalistic) regime for 15 months. 3. This exemplified to the Italian ppl how direct, violent, action was more effective than weak, unpopular political processes. 4. This made the government seem weak for being unable to deal with this situation.

Stage 2: Early years of Weimar (1919-1923) (Economic Issues)

1. The French Occupation of the Ruhr (January 1923): 2. In 1923, after Germany proved unable to pay the War reparations, France invaded the industrial region of the Ruhr to claim German factories and raw materials. 3. The Ruhr was a major industrial region for Germany, as it outputted many of the raw materials that Germany was already using to pay the reparations. 4. Ebert declared the situation a national emergency, and insisted German factory workers to passively resist by refusing to work. 5. The government promised to pay for workers' wages in return. 6. This however meant that the government had to print more money, contributing to high inflation. 7. In August, resistance by German workers succeeded as the French left the Ruhr, also due to pressure by Britain. 8. However, the encounter between the French and Germans often led to conflict between German civilians and French soldiers, leading to German deaths.

Mussolini's consolidation/maintenance of power: Use of legal methods (4)

1. The General Election (April 1924): 2. The Acerbo law was a "set up" to the elections of April 1924, as Mussolini hoped that the Fascists would receive the majority of votes, and thus be granted ⅔ of the Chamber of Deputies. 3. The Fascists increased their parliamentary representation to 374, most of it being a result of Mussolini's public popularity. A) He was adored nationwide, with his rallies seeing thousands showing up. B) He continuously propagated the Fascist ideology to increase party membership and his support base. 4. Yet, it was suspected that a significant proportion of the Fascist votes came from ballot-rigging and blackshirt intimidation. 5. Opposition was heavily suppressed, especially the Communists and Socialists, who were completely against Fascism; unlike the liberals & conservatives who were often lenient with Fascist policies. 6. Despite this, the Communist and Socialists still obtained significant votes→ E.g Milan did not show a Fascist majority. Use of legal methods/ coercion/ Charismatic leadership

Treatment of the Opposition: Repression of the Opposition

1. The Gestapo (July 1933): 2. In July 1933, Goering created the Gestapo which transformed the Prussian political police service into a Nazi secrete police and changed its headquarters to Berlin. Their purpose was to get rid of all opposition and achieve / secure ideological purity, which the Nazis admired = wanted to preserve "Volksgemeinschaft". 3. Though it was created by Goering, the Gestapo was a division of the SS, led by Himmler. 4. At one point the Gestapo was made up of 30,000 officers and relied on the aid of "cultural denunciation", in which the State endorsed the denouncing of enemies of the regime in return for praise and benefit - which meant it was very effective - cleansing the nation of the most undesirable elements eg. the notion of the "cultural denounciation" -- Gestapo relied on "good Aryans" to tell on their neighbors or acquaintances of disobeying Nazi rule, hiding Jews in their homes. 5. The purpose of the Gestapo was to induce an atmosphere of fear, as an attempt to discourage resistance, and it outright repressed opposition. 6. → Historians like Christoph Graf have pointed out that the Gestapo exposed the continuity between the Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany as many Gestapo officials had been members of the Prussian political police. =>A product of the Weimar Constitution helped Hitler, a dictator, stay in power. (SYNCHRONOSITY OF THE ANSYNCHRONOUS)

Social Policies - Policies towards Minorities (2)

1. The Holocaust (1941-1945) 2. The Holocaust was the final solution to the Jewish question, which was mainly orchestrated by men like Heinrich Himmler (head of the SS) and Adolf Eichman. 3. The matter of the Jewish Question referred to the Nazi dilemma of what ough to be done with the numerous Jews and minorities that had come under Nazi control. Before the euthanasia program ws established, the Nazis pondered on a variety of alternatives to deal with this question: E.g→There was a plan involving the mass deportation of Jews to Madagascar in 1940, so they could be excluded from the European population. However, with the development of war and the Allied naval predominance, the German navy could not transport the Jewish to Madagascar, as they would have to break through the Royal Navy, so this plan crumbled. 4. Hence, the Holocaust was decided as the policy to deal with the asocials, as it referred to the systematic elimination of asocials from Nazi teritory. 5. The Nazi approach to Jews were institutionalized and eliminationist: → Initially forcing emigration/Ghettos ('39/40) Logistical Problems once Germany expanded East due to great number of Jews. → Annihilation project (Wannsee Conference, January 1942) There are 2 different schools of thought on the Holocaust: 1. The Intentionalist school: Hitler followed his consistent aim of exterminating the Jewish population, as noted in Mein Kampf, where Hitler alluded to the destruction of "undesirables" from the Volksgemeinschaft. Notable Historians: Richard Overy (British), Karl Bracher (German), Lucy Dawidowicz (American) 2. The Structuralist/Functionalist school: = Believe that the Holocaust was a structural / administrative necessity, compared to an ideological pursuit, as seen by the Intentionalist point of view. The Holocaust was a result of the initiative by local Nazi officials in occupied Eastern territories, who attempted to solve the problem of managing a great Jewish quantity by simply systematically exterminating all of them. Notable Historians: Timothy Mason (British), Zygmunt Bauman (Polish), Timothy Snyder (American) 6. Nevertheless, by 1945, 6 million Jews had been killed in Nazi concentration camps, through means such as gas chambers. 7. The Holocaust was one of the major genocides in History. * Shoa refers to the persecution and murder of Jews in specific, whereas Holocaust refers to all asocials.

What was true of an event the shows the interrelationship of domestic and foreign policy on Italy?

1. The Italian economy, despite a rough start, had been doing relatively well in the 1930s; it was only after 1940 that it became badly overstretched due to Mussolini's unrealistic foreign ambitions 2. Mussolini and the Fascists lost support as a result of the alliance with Germany; many Italians resented the deployment of Italian troops to the Russian front and the relocation of Italian workers to German factories 3. Despite being free of the Fascist regime, the Italians in the "Kingdom of the South" between 1943 and 1945 were greatly affected by the Allied forces, and the provisional government there could only act in accordance with the Allie's wishes

Summary and significance of the Battle of Midway

1. The Japanese sought to ambush the Americans with airpower and crippling naval artillery in order to expand the defense ring of islands spanning far and wide around the home islands (an idea the Chinese have now taken up) and accordingly drafted up a very complex battle plan that failed miserably. It was thus that the way to the home islands was cleared as the Japanese carrier force - kido butai - had been destroyed essentially. 2. Factors in the Japanese defeat: a) "arsenal of democracy" (FDR) - dockyard capacity grew far beyond Japan's, as all they were conquering were ridiculously underdeveloped states and some trading posts b) The US carrier Yorktown was believed by the Japanese to be in repairs for many more months but boom: no. c) Fun fact: In the time it took the Japanese to build three mediocre carriers, the U.S. Navy commissioned more than two dozen fleet and light fleet carriers, and numerous escort carriers d) Such unexpecteds imploded the very complicated Japanese battle plan which wasn't working anyway, since: e) The Japanese battleships couldn't keep up with the carriers and so couldn't benefit from their recon capabilities and ended up essentially useless. f) A kido butai carrier was in a dockyard awaiting more planes and pilots, which had to be especially trained and couldn't be drafted together from carriers in states of disrepair since such was not the naval doctrine: 'carrier and air wing are one unit'. g) Parts of the Japanese naval code had also been cracked, allowing the Americans to know what's up.

It might seem surprising that Mussolini was able to obtain his right to rule by decree as easily as he did, but there were in fact several important factors running in his favour:

1. The King had his opportunity to block Mussolini in October 1922, but failed to act. After that, it was too late for him to make a stand against Mussolini, even if he wanted to. Without the King's backing, it was very difficult for other politicians to oppose Mussolini. 2. The sense of a power vacuum during the autumn of 1922 meant a lot of people wanted a 'strong government', even if they did not like Mussolini's methods. 3. The sense of growing impatience with the old 'establishment' led to a desire for generational change. 4. The fears of violence and civil war. The so-called 'Bolshevik threat' was not really likely to overthrow the social order, but many Italians genuinely believed that it was. They were even more afraid of violent revolution by the Fascists and believed it was essential to give Mussolini real political power because he was the only one who could keep the Fascists under control. Mussolini's position was not yet fully secure, however. He needed political respectability and legitimacy. He needed, as soon as possible, to win an election. He needed to show he could control the wilder elements in the fascist movement. It was essential for him to win support, or at least passive acceptance, from the ruling elites.

The royal family

1. The King's mother, Queen Margherita, had pro-fascist sympathies and was all in favour of a 'strong man' to save Italy from revolution. 2. Just before the March on Rome, Margherita publicly showed her approval of the fascist cause by inviting the Quadrumvirs to her palace. 3. The King's cousin, the Second Duke of Aosta, was even more pro-fascist than Queen Margherita. 4. Aosta was a handsome war hero, greatly admired by ex-soldiers, and his influence over the army was an important factor. 5. Even more important from Victor Emmanuel's point of view was that Aosta was after his job. 6. Aosta was eager to promote the idea that there was a better alternative king ready and waiting. 7. Victor Emmanuel, therefore, was reluctant to try to use force against the Fascists. He preferred the idea of 'taming' them by giving them a share of government.

The Concordat of 1929

1. The Lateran Pacts were finally signed in February 1929, providing official recognition of the Italian nation-state by the papacy (at last accepting the loss of the Papal States seized by Italy in 1870) in return for official recognition by the State of the Vatican City as a separate independent State. 2. The treaty also agreed massive financial compensation to the papacy for the loss of its territories when the Papal States were seized in 1870. 3. In addition to the treaty, a Concordat was signed recognising the dominant position of the Catholic Church in Italian society. 4. Catholicism became the only officially recognised religion. Religious education was made compulsory in secondary schools. Teachers and textbooks had to be approved by the Church. 5. The Church gained the right of censorship over books, newspapers and films. 6. Civil marriage was no longer sufficient, there had to be a religious ceremony. Divorce was outlawed. 7. Increased State financial support was given to priests and religious orders. 8. Azione Cattolica was recognised as a legal organisation - the only non-fascist organisation in Italy to be given such status. 9. It is easy to see why many Catholics rejoiced at the Lateran agreements. Mussolini had made significant concessions in order to secure the Lateran Pacts, but he also gained great rewards. 10. The great majority of Italians were Catholics and now it was possible for them to support the regime with the favour of the Church. Any anti-fascist activity by Catholics was virtually eliminated. 11. Mussolini had always known that Catholicism was too deeply rooted in Italian society for it to be crushed by direct attack. The Lateran Pacts meant his regime would be supported and approved by the vast network of priests. Both internally and abroad, Mussolini gained massive prestige. 12. He had achieved something no government in the 60 years of the united Italy had been able to do. It made him seem like a statesman and a man of peace. 13. Special elections were held in 1929 to act as a referendum on the Lateran Pacts before they were ratified in parliament. The results showed a massive majority in favour. It was an important step towards being recognised as the legitimate ruler of Italy. 14. The Lateran Pacts did not wipe away all the causes of conflict between Church and State. In 1931, Pius XI issued a papal encyclical denouncing the idea of a totalitarian state. Friction continued over fascist restrictions on Azione Cattolica. 15. In 1937 and 1938, the Church made coded criticisms of Italy's links with Germany and the imposition of new race laws. There was no formal breach, however, and the Church continued to support the regime over almost all its policies, including the war in Ethiopia from 1935. Exactly who got the most from the bargain remains an open question.

Stage 3: The Golden Age (1924-1929) - Foreign Affairs Successes -- Examples of how Streseman fixed the International Affairs (International Reconcilliation) of Germany:

1. The Locarno Pact (1925) - Germany and France accepted their western borders ( historically the french and german boarders had been heavily disputed with people frequently going from one nation to the other, like the alsace lorraine) and renounced the use of force. This was allowed for the Franco-German reconciliation. A major achievement for Germany, as it should the world it was making efforts to abandon its aggression. 2. Germany enters the LoN (1926) - Germany's acceptance into the LoN was a step towards international peace as it included Germany back into the discussions of international peace. After its post-WWI humiliation, this was a way towards international reconciliation. 3. Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) 15 nations signed the agreement to which they guaranteed not to use force in settling international disputes. Germany's involvement helped to convince other nations that Germans were committed to peace (and no more the aggressor as was the case in 1914). Also exposed Germany's power status once again, as it floated to the European power forefront in preserving peace.

Mussolini increased his control over the fascist movement as well as the State:

1. The Matteotti Affair had demonstrated the dangers of fascist radicalism running wild and the new national head of the PNF was Roberto Farinacci, the ras of Cremona, from the extreme radical wing of the fascist movement. 2. In the first half of 1925, Farinacci supervised a wave of violence against 'anti-fascist elements' such as Catholic Action, bankers, industrialists and 'unreliable' civil servants. 3. Mussolini did not allow Farinacci's dominance over the PNF to last long. 4. The Fascist Party Congress of 1925 turned out to be the last one. Farinacci was sacked in March 1926 and the PNF was gradually integrated into the State bureaucracy. 5. The Party Statute of October 1926 ended the election of party officials and weakened the power of the ras. This allowed Mussolini to gradually get rid of pro-Farinacci radicals. 6. By 1927, Mussolini had a much stronger grip on the PNF than before. Violence and intimidation were still important elements of Fascism after 1926, but the repression of opponents became more systematic as Mussolini moved to establish a police state. This process was helped along by a sudden rush of attempts to assassinate Mussolini. 7. Between November 1925 and October 1926, there were four such attempts (it has been estimated that the overall total during his rule was 13) and they were ideally timed to justify the introduction of new repressive police powers. The first assassination attempt, by the socialist deputy Zaniboni, helped Mussolini pass the Law on the Powers of the head of government at the end of 1925. After the three attempts in 1926, a new police law introduced powers to imprison people without trial for 'special crimes'. 8. In December 1926, the Law for the Defence of the State provided for the death penalty for attempts on the lives of members of the government or the royal family. The law also set up a new special tribunal for political trials.

Japanese invasion of Manchuria and northern China (1931)

1. The Mukden Incident --> The Kwantung Army blew up a railroad in Manchuria on 18 Sept. 1931 and blamed it on the Chinese, and the Japanese forced the Chinese to retreat from Mukden. Resulted in the army gaining confidence and increase their autonomy. 2. Manchuria was depicted by the Japanese diplomate (who became Foreign Minister in 1940) as a "lifeline" and "our only means of survival" as it provided security (buffer to Russia), markets (to help withstand impact of global depression), living space (as it is 4 times larger than Japan) and raw materials (eg. coal).

Rise of Mussolini (4) - IDEOLOGY

1. The Mythic Past: 2. Mussolini created the notion of a "mythic past" by establishing connections between modern Italy and the Roman Empire, in which he embraced tradition, and argued that by returning to its roots, Italy's greatness would be restored. He proposed ideas like: A) Embraces traditional gender values B) Folklore C) A return to "true" Italian traditions D) Further militarisation so Italy may achieve its goes foreignly and domestically E) The abandonment of capitalism, and incorporation of corporatism syndicalism (corporatism) to appeal to workers.

Hitler's Consolidation & Maintenance of Power: From democracy to dictatorship (January-March 1933) - Use of Legal methods (5)

1. The Nazification of Germany: 2. The Enabling Act preceded Nazi legislations that aimed to achieve Gleichschaltung, being the Nazification of Germany. In this process, anti-Nazi elements would be eliminated form the Reich. 3. Hence, Hitler began the process of cleansing institutions such as Churches, the military, labour movements and the civil service, which were to be brought under Nazi control.

Hitler's Consolidation & Maintenance of Power: From democracy to dictatorship (January-March 1933) - Use of force (3)

1. The Night of the Long Knives (June 1934): 2. The Night of the Long Knives was the purge of the SA on June 30th where numerous SA officials were murdered. Reasons included: A) The SA's leader, Ernst Rohm, had rivalries with leading Nazis such as Henirich Himmler, chief of the SS, and Goering. B) The rumour that Rhom planned a second revolution to redistribute wealth, which was threatening to Hitler's elite supporters. C) The fear that Rohm planned to amalgamate the SA and the armed forces under his control, antagonising the army against Hitler. D) It was discovered that Rhom was a homosexual, besides many SA officials, which Hitler saw as the degeneracy of the SA. 3. All of these reasons were seen as Rohm's betrayal, which infuriated Hitler. 4. Yet, the purge not only included SA members, but also members of the party that were considered threats, and enemies of the State. E.g→ previous Chancellor, Schleicher. 5. Over 400 people died in the Night of the Long Knives.

Rise of Mussolini (3) - EVENTS

1. The PNF (1921): 2. Mussolini changed his Fascist agenda to win power through the political process. 3. He focused on gaining support from the property-owning middle class (had very different ideologies to the working class): A) He dropped the wealth tax he had proposed in 1919. B) Argues for the freedom of the Church → some Historians argued that Mussolini cynically followed the money as he adopted a program that sought to defend businesses from trade unions and Socialism. C) Mussolini adapted his proposals to attract anyone who could finance his political ascent. D) This, however, had adverse effects in Mussolini's working class support base, as it triggered great growth in the Socialist Trade Unions from 250,000 in 1918 to 2 million in 1920. However these ideological inconsistencies allowed Mussolini to grow his fan base too, as it broadened his support base.

Hitler's Consolidation & Maintenance of Power: From democracy to dictatorship (January-March 1933) - Use of force

1. The Reichstag Fire (February 27th 1933) 2. A week before the elections, the Reichstag was set on fire, and Marinus Van de Lubbe, an affiliate of the KPD, was deemed responsible, tried and executed. 3. → Some historians, such as Ian Kershaw believe that it was the Nazis who started the fire as an attempt to villainize the KPD prior to the elections and thus encouraging people to vote for the NSDAP. 4. Regardless of who burnt the Reichstag, this event was very advantageous to Hitler, who managed to suppress the KPD, who were seemingly unprepared to defend themselves, and persuaded Hindenburg to pass the Reichstag Fire Decree.

Hitler's Consolidation & Maintenance of Power: From democracy to dictatorship (January-March 1933) - Use of Legal methods (2)

1. The Reichstag Fire Decree (February 28th 1933): 2. Hitler persuaded Hindenburg into passing this decree and establishing a state of emergency (HITLER USED THIS TO): A) Germans lost civil liberties. B) Legal means were utilised to repress the opposition. *) Opposition leaders, including KPD leaders, were imprisoned **) Anti-Nazi publications were suppressed. 3. Noticeably, the KPD was only banned immediately after the elections, and this was apolitical maneuver by Hitler who, allowed the KPD to run in order to dilute anti-Nazi votes shared with the SPD (hence they were much smaller = both parties would not be a major party in the Reichstag --> By doing this Hitler was securing that his opposition was much smaller in the Reichstag) and to prevent violent uprisings from leftist voters who would argue that Hitler was planning a dictatorship. 4. Hence, anti-Nazi parties were weakened.

. Using the sources and your own knowledge, discuss the significance of the creation of the Second United Front in China. OWN KNOWLEDGE ASPECT OF Q:

1. The Second United Front was significant as it was the first combined attempt by the GMD and the CCP to fight Japan. Neither Mao nor Jiang were in complete command of the CCP and GMD respectively and the creation of the Second United Front came about from the need to attempt to reconcile these internal power struggles. 2. With the conclusion of the Second United Front, Mao consolidated his position as leader of the CCP. Some observers have identified the creation of the Second United Front as being the turning point in the history of the CCP in China. 3. Following the Xian Incident and the formation of the Second United Front, Jiang was re-established as the leader of a unified GMD, which was recognized as being the national government of China. 4. Militarily, the joining of the forces in the Second United Front slowed the Japanese advance initially although not significantly enough to prevent Japan invading China in July 1937. 5. The GMD and the CCP retreated into the interior to Chongqing and Yenan, forcing Japan to waste significant resources in an attempt to defeat them.

Early 20th Century Problems

1. The South A) Extremely poor B) High unemployment C) Low literacy rates (20%) D) Short lifespans due to poor nutrition and disease E) Frequent riots 2. Political Problems A) Corrupt and inefficient government B) Narrow franchise and rigged elections C) Ministers often bribed members of parliament to approve projects D) Italians had little faith in the government 3. The Pope A) Pope was angry at loss of Papal States B) Ordered all Catholics not to vote nor join the government = Ban ended in 1905 = Already created a generation of politically ignorant people 4. Economic Problems A) Some successes eg. Fiat & Hydro-Electric Dams B) 50% of Italians were farmers = Not enough land = Struggles with landlords over wages, rents, conditions = Some provinces in virtual civil war 5. Economic Problems, cont. A) Cities grew = Slums (growth of urban poor) = Growth of Socialist and Anarchist parties = Frequent riots B) Large scale emigration = Millions moved to the U.S.

How was the South backward?

1. The South was a backward agricultural society, tightly controlled by the landowners of huge estates. There was little economic development. 2. The biggest single source of income for southern peasants was money sent home from relatives who had gone to the United States or Argentina. 3. In 1915, Italy entered the First World War in a mood of patriotic optimism, confident of gaining prestige and new territories through a short, victorious war. In reality, three years of war achieved much less than had been hoped and put massive strain on the Italian economy. 4. When the war ended in 1918, the country was faced with huge debts, by the dislocation of the pre-war economy and by high inflation. 5. There was extreme poverty in the South and violence and industrial unrest in the North. The post-war economic crisis put the government under pressure. 6. These pressures were intensified by the mood of dissatisfaction in Italy following the peace settlement.

In theory, the Stresa Front ought to have brought Italy and the Western democracies closer together, but this did not happen. There were several reasons for this:

1. The agreements made at Stresa were vaguely expressed and avoided specific commitments. None of the powers involved was willing to consider invading Germany, which meant that there was no effective way of stopping Hitler from carrying through his military expansion. Stresa was all protest and no action. 2. The three powers all had slightly different aims. They all shared concerns about the rise of Hitler but were not agreed about how to deal with it. Italy and France talked in terms of taking a hard line towards Germany; Britain preferred to leave open the possibility of negotiating agreements with the Germans. 3. Well before the Stresa meeting, Mussolini was already actively planning to launch a war against Abyssinia. This would be against the Covenant of the League of Nations and was bound to cause serious difficulties between Italy and Britain. Mussolini was careful to conceal many of his true intentions at Stresa and this was bound to weaken the agreement afterwards.

How did Mussolini cooperate/reassure different fractions of society?

1. The armed forces were also ready to cooperate with Mussolini. The army had been very divided in 1922, with many officers who were fascist sympathisers, or actually active fascist leaders such as General De Bono, but also many anti-fascist officers who regarded the squadre d'azione as a dangerous rabble. 2. These negative attitudes dwindled after Mussolini gained power and showed he could control his movement. Senior officers also liked Mussolini's promises to modernise and expand the armed forces. 3. The big landowners had mixed feelings about Fascism. They feared that the regime would encourage illegal land grabbing and the breaking up of the large estates, but they also made deals with fascist leaders to suppress trouble in agricultural districts, Mussolini moved quickly to reassure the landowners that they would be left alone. 4. Later policies such as ruralisation and the Battle for Grain provided further reassurance to landowners. 5. Reassuring the industrialists was more difficult. The revolutionary syndicalist wing of the PNF led by men such as Michele Bianchi and Edmondo Rossoni was very powerful. The fascist trade unions, or syndicates, had ambitious plans to take control of key industries and force employers to accept radical changes in industrial relations, When the fascist regime began talking about reorganising industry into 'corporations', the employers were really alarmed. Mussolini did much to win them over, however, by appointing Alberto De Stefani as Finance Minister and by restricting the bargaining rights of trade unions. 6. The Catholic Church was the most difficult of all. Mussolini had toned down his anti-Catholic attacks, but the Church was hostile to the new fascist regime over many issues, including youth groups and education. Mussolini tailored some of his social policies to suit the wishes of the Church, for example, promising to ban contraception and to introduce religious education into secondary schools. Relations with the papacy improved, but the divide between Church and State was still there. Mussolini avoided open confrontation, but it was not until 1929 that he finally achieved a complete reconciliation. Over and above all the other elites was the monarchy. Victor Emmanuel III had made Mussolini prime minister and it was the King who could dismiss him under the constitution.

Stage 2: Early years of Weimar (1919-1923) (Weakness of the Political system)

1. The army as an imperium in imperio: 2. President Friedrich Ebert (1919) signed a pact with the German military seeking military support to ensure the survival of the Republic. 3. Yet, the pact essentially allowed the military to act in its own interest, and its support for the government was conditional. 4. The army often chose when to step in: E.g→ A) The army was willing to intervene in the Spartacus Revolt (1919) as it was a Communist Putsch. B) The army did not intervene in the Kapp Putsch (1920), claiming that "Reichswerh does not fire on Reichswehr" as the revolt was led by old army soldiers (the Freikorps) who had been let off = (an own entity - separate from the government = a lack of full support of the army for the government prevented the government from supporting / protecting themselves). 5. Many military officers and generals were conservative and anti-Democratic, as they were fond of the Kaiser, or were linked to Prussian landowners. 6. The army continued to be very influential in the new Republic. Weakness of the Political system

What was true of "The Battle for Land?"

1. The associated propaganda campaign was designed to show the world that Fascism had galvanized Italy into coordinated action 2. The number of people who were resettled on reclaimed land was very small in comparison to original expectations 3. A thought behind it was to drain marshlands and rid Italy of malaria, thus improving Italy's health

What was true of "The Battle for the Lira?"

1. The campaign's aim was to strengthen the lira, which had been falling in value, and address fears that the currency could collapse 2. Mussolini's pegging of the lira to Quota Novanta (1 GBP = 90 Lira) actually valued the lira at a higher level than most businesses could cope with 3. Some sectors of industry, such as steel, chemicals and armaments, benefited as imports were cheaper

Mussolini's consolidation/maintenance of power: Use of legal methods (2)

1. The creation of the Grand Council of Fascism (December 1922) = the main decision making body in the government: 2. To consolidate his position and power, Mussolini created the Grand Council of Fascism in order to obtain control of the Fascist Party. 3. He gave himself the power to make all of the appointments of the Grand Council, allowing him to control Fascist policy = he chose the members of the Grand Council = tight-knit sphere of power. 4. Mussolini needed to centralise power to assert his position, as he had conflicting interests with the Ras, who were provincial Fascits leaders in Italy: 5. E.g→ Mussolini wanted a monolithic Fascist state led by the Duce (himself), whereas the Ras sought a more decentralised Fascist state. 6. Hence, Mussolini constantly attempted to diminish power from his enemies: 7. E.g2→ In January 1923 he further diminished the power of provincial Fascits leaders (Ras) by merging individual Fascist squads into a 30,000 men national militia. 8. The national militia was essentially his private army which he used to continue intimidating the opposition. Use of legal methods

Social Policies (1) - Policies towards the Youth

1. The education system: 2. Part of Hitler's goals of building a "Thousand Year Reich" involved the heavy indoctrination & Nazification of the youth, as a way to build a generation that would carry the views of the NSDAP. 2. Schools and universities were cleansed from teachers unsympathetic to Naizm, due to their Jewish background or lack of fitness. 3. All teachers were forced to join the National Socialist Teachers' League (NSLB) which aimed to: A) Ensure conformity in their presentation of the Nazi ideology to the youth. B) Keeping teachers under Party control. 4. EDUCATION SYSTEM: Students learned subjects like history (Germany's historical greatness -- focusing on degeneracy and loss of pride during the evil Weimar Republic - marked a very dark period in German history), biology, "Germanics" (propagate superiority of the German culture over others in Europe) and "Eugenics" which aimed to teach different aspect of Nazi qualities. E.g1→ History taught students the greatness of Germany's past and the "evil legacy of Weimar" → Historians Noakes and Pridham have highlighted that the teaching of history in Germany had always had a nationalist bias, with many teachers being taught those same ideas Hitler wished to carry out. E.g2 → The study of Eugenics instilled the idea of Aryan racial superiority. 5. The Nazis even propsed more elite education for selected future leaders: A) The Adolf Hitler Schools emphasised physical exercises, race purity & obedience (with the aim of creating military leaders). B) The Napolas focused on military discipline and leadership (with the aim of creating military strategic leaders).. C) The Order Castles was for the ruling elites and included similar subjects as the previous two but also included political studies, and indoctrination. These children would not only leaders of military but political leaders.

Use of propaganda (4)

1. The effects of propaganda: 2. Propaganda was very effective in achieving mass indoctrination as the constant and dynamic propagation of ideology occurred in parallel with the negative portrayals of any alternatives to Nazism. 3. Together with the atmosphere of fear, propaganda reinforced the notion of the Volksgemeinschaft (encouraged people to act towards the "collective good" and be "good Aryans" = Cultural Nazification = telling on neighbors that commiting a crime against the regime, eg. jew living in a neighbor's house, doing this because they feared of being punished for their crime as well), ruled by Hitler, and so allowed the repressive policies of the government to be amplified (eg. the Reichstag Fire -- those that opposed the Nazi party were scapegoated). 4. The widespread propaganda also encouraged the people to act towards the collective good and engage in activities such as denouncing enemies of the state (eg. Der Ewige Jude film -- portray the jew as an enemy). 5. Communists and the Jews were not the only minorities repressed by Nazi propaganda, but also homsexuals, disabled peoples, and Roma people, Blacks, etc.

Hitler's Consolidation & Maintenance of Power: From democracy to dictatorship (January-March 1933) - Use of Legal methods (8)

1. The establishment of a Single-Party State (July 1933): 2. The Single-Party State was established in July 1933 after all political parties were banned apart from the NSDAP. A) On July 5th, the BVP & Zentrum voluntarily dissolved due to the Concordat between the Nazis and the Church (signed on July 20th 1933). B) The DVP & DNVP also dissolved as the Nazis promised job security. C) The SPD was forced to exile, where they continued to oppose from as far as the SOPADE.

Which was true of Italian Fascist ideology?

1. The fascism of 1919 was anti-capitalist, anti-monarchist and anti-Christian 2. Facsist ideology can at times seem confusing and contradictory, not really having a common thread like the ideology of Communism 3. Mussolini played down the fascists' anti-monarchist stance as he needed the King's support to legally take power

Church and society

1. The gulf between Liberal Italy and the Catholic Church was deep and wide. 2. In the process of unification, French troops had occupied Rome and the papacy had been deprived of territorial control over the Papal States. 3. The ultra-conservative Pope, Pius IX, denounced the united Italian State as 'un-Christian'. 4. From 1870, the papacy refused to recognise the legitimacy of the State and insisted that true Catholics should not even vote in elections. 5. The political parties who dominated Liberal Italy believed in anti-clericalism. 6. There were frequent clashes between Church and State on education and other social issues. 7. This divide continued to exist until 1929. 8. The clash between Church and State deepened the social divisions in Italy, especially between urban and rural societies (and thus between north and south).

What were economic problem faced by Italy when Mussolini came to power?

1. The historic "dualism" between the richer north and poorer south 2. Inflation 3. A breakdown in industrial relations

Mussolini's consolidation/maintenance of power: Use of Violence

1. The murder of Giacomo Mateoti(June 1924) 2. On May 30th, Matteotti, a socialist, called for the election results to be declared invalid, as he claimed that the Fascists had rigged the elections. 3. On the 10th of June he was stabbed to death. 4. There were some allegations of Mussolini's involvement. 5. The event led to a mass public unrest with people demanding justice for Matteotti. 6. A few days later, in what became known as the Aventine Secession, 100 opposition MPs walked out of parliament, as a form of protest, including some of Mussolini's Liberal supporters, as they refused to collaborate with a brute like Mussolini. 7. The MPs also hoped that this would encourage the King to revoke Mussolini from the premiership. 8. Mussolini ordered the arrests of the Fascist suspects, but also increased the number of Blackshirts in the streets in order to end the opposition protests. Use of violence

What was the occupation of Fiume?

1. The occupation of Fiume was a disaster for the government and a boost to its enemies. 2. One prime minister, Vittorio Orlando, had to resign in 1919 after the reaction against the Treaty of Versailles. 3. His successor, Francesco Nitti, resigned in June 1920, mostly because of the Fiume affair. 4. This brought Giovanni Giolitti back as prime minister, but he was in a weaker position than ever before. 5. Gabriele D'Annunzio, meanwhile, had shown what might be achieved by violence and direct action. 6. In many ways, D'Annunzio opened the way for the rise of Benito Mussolini.

The Aventine Secession

1. The opposition parties made a serious miscalculation in June 1924. If they had exploited their position in parliament, they might have put Mussolini under such political pressure that the King would have been forced to intervene. Instead, the democratic Parties (mainly the Liberals and Reformist Socialists) decided on a grand gesture, walking out of parliament to show their disgust. The idea was to symbolise the moral purity of the opposition, leaving Mussolini to wallow in his own corruption. 2. In reality, it left Mussolini free to make speeches in the Chamber with no opposition present, only tame fascist supporters. It also allowed the King to ignore the opposition. All Mussolini had to do was wait until the storm of protest died down and then win a vote in parliament allowing the government to continue its policies of 'pacification'. This enabled Mussolini to get through the first stage of the Matteotti Affair in the summer of 1924, but he faced a serious problem in controlling the fascist militias. 4. Mussolini badly needed the support of fascist leaders like Balbo, but he also needed the support of the armed forces, the King and the conservative elites. If Mussolini could not keep the fascist squadre d'azione in check, the old political establishment might turn against him. 5. There was a danger of a split between the moderate and radical wings of the fascist movement. There was also a possibility that judges would begin a judicial inquiry into the murder of Matteotti. 6. By December 1924, Mussolini was facing a crisis at least as bad as the one in June. Mussolini had to act decisively to draw a line under the Matteotti Affair and prove that he was the man in charge. He did this by making a bold speech to parliament on 3 January. This could have gone badly wrong, but turned out to be a brilliant success. 7. In the speech, Mussolini claimed he had nothing to do with the murder of Matteotti and that the killers would be tried and punished. However, Mussolini also went on the attack. He blamed the democratic parties for 'running away'. He said he took full responsibility for Fascism: 'I now accept, alone, full political, moral and historical responsibility for all that has happened.' This was a clever step. 'All that has happened' did not mean just the murder of Matteotti, it meant the whole fascist rise to power since 1922.

What was true of "The Battle for Grain?"

1. The plan emphasized self-sufficiency and making Italy less dependent on imports 2. Propaganda associated with the campaign made grandiose claims about Italy proving to the world that it was a major power 3. Other valuable export crops (like fruits and vegetables) were neglected and there was a decline in animal farming

Which was true of the process of Italian Unification from 1848-1870?

1. The process was a long and complicated one 2. Before Unification, Italy was a collection of separate and disparate states 3. While the system was outwardly democratic, it was manipulated by a powerful minority

Mussolini's relationship with Nazi Germany

1. The relationship between Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany was shaped to a great extent by the key personalities of Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler. 2. Their personal relationship was marked by many contradictions. Mussolini admired and feared the strength of Nazi Germany, but he often had a negative attitude to Hitler. Mussolini's private comments about Hitler were often scathing: 'a gramophone record that knows only seven tunes'; 'a sexual degenerate' and so on. 3. On the other side, Hitler looked down on Italy and had no respect for Italian military or economic strength, but he was always well disposed towards Mussolini personally, and remained loyal to him right up until the end of the war. Hitler's ability to handle Mussolini, sometimes by flattery and sometimes by decisiveness and force of personality, was an important factor in shaping Mussolini's foreign policies. 4. The relationship lasted for more than 10 years and involved 15 crucial face-to-face meetings. 5. When Hitler came to power in January 1933, he was already an admirer of Mussolini. 6. Mussolini saw his rise to power as advantageous to Fascism and did not then see Germany as a threat. 7. When the two dictators met for the first time, in Venice in June 1934, Mussolini still regarded himself as the senior partner (because he had been in power 10 years longer) and was not particularly impressed by what he saw and heard of Hitler. 8. In July 1934, Hitler supported the Austrian Nazis in a failed attempt to seize power in Austria that led to the assassination of Dollfuss. Mussolini ostentatiously sent troops to 'protect' Austria. Hitler was furious. 9. Between 1934 and 1938, the issue of Austria was a constant source of friction between Mussolini and Germany. 10. Mussolini became increasingly worried about the rapid growth of Germany's economic and military power. Several leading Fascists in Italy were hostile to Germany, including Italo Balbo. 11. In 1935, Mussolini entered what was a virtually anti-Hitler alliance with Britain and France in the Stresa Front. 12. Other factors, however, combined to draw Mussolini and Hitler closer together. 13. The war in Ethiopia caused a breach between Italy and the British and French. 14. Intervention in Spain pushed Mussolini into the fascist camp. During 1936 and 1937, Italy became more dependent on the German economy. 15. Relations between Italy and Britain continued to be difficult, partly because of the bad personal relationship between Mussolini and the British Foreign Secretary, Anthony Eden. 16. Mussolini became more and more impressed with the dynamism of Nazi Germany. In September 1937, Mussolini made a high-profile State visit to Munich. The highlight was his speech to a mass open air rally, speaking in German, in the middle of a fierce thunderstorm. The propaganda presentation of the event made a great impression on Mussolini. 17. In November 1937, Mussolini signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, thus joining Germany and Japan, who had signed their pact in 1936, in what became known as the Axis. 18. Britain attempted to improve relations with Italy and Anglo-Italian talks were held in Rome in March 1938. Britain at last agreed to recognise Italian possession of Abyssinia - but the agreement was followed two days later by Hitler's annexation of Austria. Inwardly, Mussolini was furious. Mussolini was a realist, however. He had already recognised the fact that it was no longer possible to prevent Germany from annexing Austria. Outwardly, therefore, Mussolini put a brave face on it and told Hitler that Italy would not interfere, even though he knew the Anschluss was a clear defeat for what had been a key policy since 1930. Hitler was delighted and expressed his gratitude to Mussolini in effusive terms. 19. Another consequence of the Anschluss was that the Austrian economy was integrated with the Third Reich and this increased Italian economic dependence on Germany. The prospects of an Italian German alliance grew stronger. 20. In September 1938, Hitler began pressuring Czechoslovakia over the Sudetenland and there was growing international tension. 21. The British prime minister, Neville Chamberlain, made several visits to meet Hitler, attempting to prevent war by compromise over Hitler's demands. 22. Mussolini had no direct interest in Czechoslovakia, but he seized the opportunity to act the part of an international statesman and mediator. He proposed a Four Power Conference, to be held in Munich, to discuss the Italian 'peace plan'. 23. In reality, Mussolini did not have any peace plan - it was drawn up by the Germans and rubber-stamped by Mussolini. Nor was Mussolini acting as a neutral mediator - he was simply giving Hitler a useful cover for imposing his demands. 24. However, Mussolini succeeded in posing as a peacemaker and there was a huge surge in his popularity when he returned to Italy after Munich. 25. Mussolini was not yet fully committed to an alliance with Hitler but he had less freedom of action than he liked to suppose. After Munich, Italy moved closer towards Germany. 26. Count Galeazzo Ciano, Mussolini's son in-law, who had been appointed Foreign Minister in 1936, had originally been opposed to close links with Germany. During 1938, he began to change his mind about this. 27. Hitler and his Foreign Minister, Joachim von Ribbentrop, worked persistently to persuade Ciano in favour of an alliance. 28. In May 1939, Italy signed the Pact of Steel with Germany.

What was true of the strikes by workers that began in Turin in 1943

1. The strikes showed that people were losing faith in Mussolini and Fascism 2. Workers were careful not to push too far, engaging in brief "sit-down" strikes that did not completely shut down factories or production 3. Workers were not directly protesting Mussolini, but rather were demands for more food, better conditions and the end of the war

The consequences of the invasion of Abyssinia (3)

1. There were two fatal weaknesses in the Hoare-Laval Pact: first, Mussolini would never have accepted it because he was already fixed on winning a military victory; second, there was a storm of public and political protest against the Pact's 'appeasement' of Mussolini. 2. The Hoare-Laval Pact was sunk without trace. Hoare resigned and was replaced as Foreign Secretary by Anthony Eden. 3. Laval also lost power when a new Popular Front government was formed in 1936. 4. British and French policy continued to be half-hearted and contradictory, even after the war ended. 5. They refused to grant recognition to the AOI until 1938. 6. Some efforts were made to improve relations with Italy and to breathe life into the corpse of the Stresa Front but they did not get very far, partly because of Anthony Eden, who had a very hostile attitude to Mussolini and made it clear he did not think he would ever be a reliable ally. 7. Mussolini occasionally gave indications that he would like better relations with Britain and France, but he could see the way things were going as early as June 1936. 8. From the summer of 1936, therefore, Mussolini's relationship with Britain and France was already damaged. Things were then made much worse by the consequences of Italian intervention in the Spanish Civil War.

Economic Policies (5) - The Economy under Albert Speer (1942-45): FAILURES

1. Though the economy was more organised, Germany was not able to withstand the Allies' attacks. 2. It is interesting to notice how, during the Blitzkrieg, the economy was not doing well, but the military made gains, whereas under Speer, the opposite occurred. 3. This shows the self-destructiveness of the Nazi economy, as the period of disorganization proved irreversible. UNABLE TO PRESERVE SHORT-TERM SUCCESSES AND STRETCH THEM OUT TO THE LONGER PERIOD OF THE WAR.

Economic Policies (5) - The Economy under Albert Speer (1942-45): SUCCESSES

1. Under Speer, the economy effectively functioned and became much more organised. War time production goals were being met. 2. → Overy stated that Speer was a figure of authority that allowed the economy to become more efficient. 3. He even pointed out that the increase in German production showcased the ineffectiveness of Allied bombing. GERMANY WAS STILL ABLE TO DRAG OUT WAR UNTIL ITS LAST BREATH.

Which of the following was part of the Lateran Pacts or the "Concordat" of 1929?

1. Vatican City would become a sovereign state, independent of Italy 2. Compensation was given to the Papacy over the loss of territory when Papal states were seized in 1870 3. Religious education was made compulsory in secondary schools

Stage 4: Decline (1930-1933): Economic factors

1. Wallstreet Crash (1929): 2. In 1929, with the crash of the stock market, as Germany's economy was greatly dependent on the U.S, Germany was greatly affected --> many people pushed into unemployment. 3. This was worsened by how Streseman died in 1929 making the government unstable. There was no longer this centralized figure representing prosperity that the german people could turn to stressman was someone who really did pass credibility for germans and someone who the german people looked up to as being the one who had created all of this economic and political stability and prosperity in germany which meant that his death also was a great period of uncertainty not only because the german people feared the economic crisis which they feared could potentially lead to a neither another hyperinflation crisis but because this very centralized and very strong figure was no longer there to aid the german people 4. The crash sent Germany into a depression and unemployment increased from 3 million in 1929 to 6 million by 1933. 5. Hence, people lost faith in the ability of Weimar to govern, and so they turned to other alternatives to govern.

Social Policies (2) - Policies towards Women (3)

1. Women in the workplace 2. Initially, laws restricted the number of women that could work in the civil service or attend higher education. 3. Nazi propaganda was used to discourage women to work and encourage them to fufill the Party set goals. 4. Yet, By 1937, rearmament programmes had led to labour shortages, to which women were sought to work. While in 1933 there were 5 million employed women, by 1939 there were 7.14 million. 5. This was achieved through propaganda and monetary incentives: E.g→ Propaganda attempted to convey to women that joining the workforce was honourable and they should attend higher education to become skilled workers and serve the Reich. E.g→ Monetary incentives were adapted: For example, working women were now qualified to receive marriage loans. 6. Still, despite returning to the workplace, women did not have the same social status as men: A) → Women mainly took on roles in education and health industries yet Hitler refused to allow them to work in certain industries like the judiciary, as he believed women were emotion driven and intellectually inferior. B) → Women had a secondary role in politics, merely conducting male-dominated policies. C) → Historian Geary pointed out that this was an instance in which ideological purity (women gave into their domestic roles) had to give in to economic necessity. 7. Although, the government created institutions to promote Nazi values amongst women: 1. German Women's Enterprise (DSW) 2. Reich Mother's Service (RMD) 3. National Socialist womanhood (NSF)

Social Policies (2) - Policies towards the Youth

1. Youth groups 2. Nazi youth movements had existed in the 1920s but were intensified in 1933, with the creation of the Hitler Youth (HJ) and the League of German Maidens (BDM) 2. Hitler Youth (boys group)→ Militaristic activities, sports, and physical activities. 3. League of German Maidens→ Domestic, "women like" chores and activities. The model nazi for men and women was very different. Girls and boys had very different activities under their leagues. 4. Hitler believed that schools were not enough to create the tough, athletic, and obedient new Germans that would carry the ideology into the future, which is why the Youth groups were created. 5. Noticeably, Hitler's goals for the youth excluded intellectualism and academic excellence as he believed these had led to the cultural degeneracy of Germany. 6. → Historians Sax and Kuntz have said that, under Nazism, children "were duller and stupider, though healthier, individuals." 7. Hitler also ensured to ban other youth movements and absorb their members (apart from Catholic movements which were protected by the Concordat), essentially banning all other Youth groups, making sure that the children participating in these groups would consume Nazi ideology 24/7. 8. To see how effective this was, by 1935 nearly 60% of the 10-18 year olds had joined, though the movements were only compulsory in 1939. 9. Children would spend the whole day at the movements being indoctrinated, practising sports, militarism, etc. 10. Children's homes were like bed and breakfast services as that was the only time they returned home. 11. Children enjoyed the movements which played into the NSDAP's goal of monopolising young life and obtaining it fully under Party control. 12. The Youth Movements aimed to: A) Liberate them from the "evils" of democracy, Marxism and Jews. B) Restore German pride and honour. C) Revise 1919 "Diktat". Incite a nationalistic feeling within the youth -- wanting them to realize that they had been "stolen" of their victory during the signing of the ToV. Almost like the Nazi party is insinuating that the Youth groups were a service to society, saving them from these evils of society.

Which groups did Mussolini have to "win over" after his power grab in 1922?

1. conservative and national political leaders 2. the armed forces 3. large land-owners

Italo Balbo's diary, 16 May 1922. Quoted ind. Whittam, Fascist Italy, 1995

16 May, 1922: In the morning of 12 May 63 000 people are at the gates of Ferrara. At 10 am precisely, I rapidly review the columns and put myself at their head. The whole city greets our progress. The windows are full. The discipline of our poor peasants with their ragged clothes is splendid. The spectators are visibly moved and applaud. The castle is blockaded. At a given signal, while I pass the gateway, the crowd roars; roars that shake the glass of the surrounding buildings: Down with the government! Long live Italy!

Purges Targeting the Civilian Population

1930-1933 The First Purge industrial saboteurs (wreckers) - perceived as treason against the developing State kulaks - wealthy peasants → deported to Siberia, their land was confiscated and given to the Collective, which was disastrous for the level and quality of agricultural production "unenthusiastic" party members members of the organized military - seen by Stalin as a threat to his power, in 1927, he orders the execution of eight generals, including Red Army commander-in-chief Marshal Tukhachevsky, denouncing them as Trotskyites and Counter-revolutionaries. 1934-1938 The Great Purge or Yezhovshchina (after the head of the NKVD) mainly targeted members of the Communist Party perceived to be Trotskyites and Counter-revolutionaries Serghei Kirov, the head of the Moscow Soviet and Stalin's apparent successor is murdered tacitly in 1934. 1938 - Bukharin, Tomsky, and other former members of the Politburo are arrested, tortured, and subjected to Show Trials. focused on eliminating all „potentially dangerous" elements of society → people were presumed guilty by suspicion → neighbors and family members were encouraged to denounce one another. After being arrested, these elements were subjected to torture, lost their jobs, and were sent to Siberia. 1938-1939 purge of all admirals, many naval officers, and half of the Red Army's officers

The most sinister on this list of 25, however, was this one:

4. None but those of German blood...may be members of the German nation. No Jew, therefore, may be a member of the German nation - There are many theories intended to explain Hitler's hatred of the Jews, including his poverty in Vienna and the general wealth of the Jews as a social class. - Many Jews were prominent in the banking industry, and hence had a reputation for being greedy (= more of a target given the economical conditions).

Lytton Report (1933)

>Japan had special interests in Manchuria, but the use of force by the army and its takeover of Manchuria was unjustified >Japan should give up territory and withdraw its forces >Manchukuo was not and independent state and should not be recognized as such >Manchuria should become independent but under Chinese sovereignty These recommendations ignored the fact that Japan was not willing to compromise, and were seen as hypocritical, as the British and French had claimed their territories by force.

Fascist Italy: Locarno TreatiesFascist Italy

A series of agreements negotiated between Germany, France, Great Britain, Belgium and Italy. Negotiated on October 16th 1925 in Locarno, Switzerland, and signed on December 1st in London. Mutually guarantee peace in Western Europe. Secure and preserve borders: France, Belgium and Germany Ensured Permanent demilitarization of the Rhineland Promise from France to protect Czechoslovakia, Poland and Belgium if Germany ever invaded. If an argument ever began, they would take to the LON (Began negotiations to allow Germany to join LON. Joined in 1926) Mussolini wanted to present himself as a force for moderation. He had played a key part in the meetings, yet failed to get the Italian border with Austria included in the Treaties. They "ushered" in a new period of cooperation and hope for future peace ("Locarno Spirit").

Fascist Italy: Involvement in Croatia

After 1920, Italy gained Istria and Zadar, a fraction of what was promised in the Pact of London who brought Italy into the war. After the disappointing terms Italy had received after WW1, they came into constant clashes with the new state of Yugoslavia, formed upon the end of the war. Italy's ambitions was to unite the Italian peoples living on the coasts of Dalmatia into their new post-war state, with the Yugoslavs wanting to do the same. Refusing to accept the borders imposed by the Allies in Paris, and with Italians already occupying Carniola and Dalmatia (modern day Croatia and Slovenia) after the Villa Giusti Armistice, started small-scale skirmishes with the Serbian Army. Last Italian aggression in the inter-war period in Croatia was the Annexation of Fiume, where the Italians in 1924 marched into the large Yugoslav port city of Fiume (Rijeka) and annexed it after the Treaty of Rome signed between the two countries.

Stalin's Rise to Power (Positions)

After Lenin's death in 1924, lots of different factors played into one in promoting Stalin's claims as the new, emerging leader. As Lenin did not leave any clear instructions as to what the form of government should look like after him, this made it ideal for Stalin to assert his control over the party. Especially, as his previous positions in both the government and party had now been proven favorable, these included: Liaison Officer between the Politburo and Orgburo (1919): Stalin was in a unique position to monitor both the Party's policy and the Party's personnel. Head of the Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate (1919): Stalin oversaw the work of all government departments. General Secretary of the Communist Party (1922): Stalin recorded and conveyed Party policy. This enabled him to build up certain information about members of the party, and hence he knew everything about everyone and all that happened.

Fascist Italy: Annexation of Albania

After not being granted the port city of Vlore in Albania (which controls the entrance of the Adriatic Sea) as promised by the Pact of London, Italian policy started focusing on a slow integration process of Albania After 1924, Italy attempted to subjugate Albania economically and politically through the Treaties of Tirana, which granted Italy access over the Albanian mineral resources, forced the Albanians to take Italian loans,forced Albania to enter into a defensive alliance, and started training and controlling the Royal Albanian Army. King Zog's strong resistance against the increasing Italian influence, and Hitler's Invasion of Czechoslovakia, prompted Mussolini to send an ultimatum to Tirana demanding Italian annexation. Although Victor Emmanuel III didn't agree with his PM's aggressive action, Albania came into a personal union with the Italian crown on June 3, 1939. The international reaction was one of passive aggresive sanctions and protests by the League of Nations. Within the Pact of Steel, Italy hoped to demonstrate to Nazi Germany that they were serious in their territorial ambitions, the same way Germany was.

A closer look: Kefalonia, September 1943

After the German conquest of Greece in May 1941, the country was divided up into zones of occupation. Italian forces occupied most of the Greek islands, including Kefalonia, where there was a garrison of 12,000 troops of the Acqui Division. In the summer of 1943, the Germans deployed military units alongside the Italians, because they feared Italy might be about to make a separate peace with the allies. When the Badoglio government publicly announced the armistice on 8 September 1943, the situation on Kefalonia became very tense. The Italian commander, General Gandin, faced a choice between joining with the Germans, surrendering to them, or fighting against them. Most of Gandin's troops wanted to resist German demands to hand over their weapons. On 15 September, the Germans gave Gandin an ultimatum to disarm. When the ultimatum expired, the Germans resorted to force. There were several days of fighting, decided by the Germans' superior air power. The Italians surrendered on 22 September. Even before this, the Germans had begun mass killings of Italian soldiers. General Gandin and his officers were shot for "treason'. The massacre continued for a week. About 5,000 soldiers were shot. In a separate incident, 3,000 Italian soldiers who were being shipped to POW camps died when their ship sank after hitting a mine in the Adriatic. There were similar, smaller massacres on the islands of Corfu and Kos. The story of the massacre on Kefalonia forms the historical background to an excellent novel, Captain Corelli's Mandolin, by Louis De Bernières. In 1999, the book was made into a feature film starring Nicholas Cage in the lead role.

Fascist Italy: Occupation of Fiume

After the Treaty of London in 1915, Fiume, was assigned to Yugoslavia, although the Italians claimed the territory for themselves. Italians claimed at the Paris Peace Conference on the principle of self-determination. Ignoring the suburb of Susak, in Rijeka which had 11,000 Yugoslavs and 1,500 Italians, they claimed that the rest of Fiume had 22,488 Italians against 13,351 Yugoslavs and certain others. On the 12th of September 1919, the Italian nationalist poet Gabriele D'Annunzio brought together a small army of men from Trieste, and marched into Fiume, naming himself "Commandant" in the process. Due to the Italian pressure put on the Yugoslav government, a new Italo-Yugoslav treaty was signed in Rome on Jan. 27, 1924, recognized Fiume itself as Italian while Susak became Yugoslav.

Treaty of Kanagawa

An 1854 agreement between the United States and Japan, which opened two Japanese ports to U.S. ships and allowed the United States to set up an embassy in Japan.

(a) Explain why Mussolini signed the Pact of Steel in 1939.

An effective answer to this question would explain a range of reasons, both short and long term, not just as a list but with some comment and differentiation - perhaps analysing Mussolini's very ambivalent attitudes towards Germany, or the ways in which he was influenced by others in the fascist regime.

Locarno, 1925

Another prestige success for Mussolini was his role as mediator, signing the Locarno Treaties in 1925. The borders between France and Germany had been imposed on Germany by diktat in 1919. By the mid-1920s, relations between the two countries were much improved and diplomatic negotiations took place at Locarno, a lake resort in the Italian-speaking part of Switzerland, aiming to reach a voluntary agreement, recognising the borders between Germany, France and Belgium as permanent. Mussolini and the British Foreign Secretary, Austen Chamberlain, were present to act as mediators. Mussolini, of course, claimed that his role at Locarno was vital for international peace. He was happy for his supporters to make the suggestion that the Duce should be awarded a Nobel Peace Prize. In reality, his role was little more than symbolic. The real architects of Locarno were the Foreign Ministers of France and Germany, Aristide Briand and Gustav Stresemann. Reality, however, was not the issue for Mussolini in 1925; it was all about prestige and strutting impressively about on the international stage. By 1925, Mussolini's prestige had grown considerably. His foreign successes, though not very substantial, increased his popularity within Italy and gained him respect from other European countries, especially France and Britain. Austen Chamberlain, for example, was quite impressed by Mussolini at Locarno and met him on several later occasions. This was all useful to Mussolini in gaining an image of importance and respectability. In June 1933, Mussolini scored another apparent triumph by bringing Britain, France, Germany and Italy together in the Four Power Pact (sometimes called the Pact of Rome). Mussolini wanted the Pact to demonstrate his importance. He also wanted to by-pass the League of Nations in favour of direct agreements between the main European powers. The Four Power Pact never had any practical results. Hitler had only reluctantly signed the Pact and there was still an obvious danger that he would try to break free from the restrictions placed on Germany by Versailles. This raised fears for the continuation of the Locarno agreements, which was a vital issue for France. It also raised fears for the continued independence of Austria, which was a vital issue for Mussolini.

Anthony Eden

Anthony Eden (1897-1977) became Britain's Foreign Minister in October 1936, after the resignation of Sir Samuel Hoare. Eden disliked Mussolini (who did not like him, either) and negotiations between the two were often difficult. Eden resigned in February 1938, partly because he was opposed to his prime minister, Neville Chamberlain, over how to deal with Mussolini. Eden came back as Foreign Minister of Churchill's wartime government from 1940 to 1945. He was later prime minister from 1955 to 1957, when he was forced to resign after the failed intervention at Suez.

Antonio Salandra

Antonio Salandra (1853-1931) was a conservative politician who was Italy's prime minister from 1914 to 1916 and was an important part of the political elite in post-war Italy. Salandra enthusiastically supported Italian intervention in the First World War but his views became more conservative and nationalist after the war. In 1922, he supported the idea of bringing Mussolini into the government; though later changed his mind and tried to oppose Fascism.

International response to Italian aggression (1935-1936)

Appeasement followed for many reasons by Britain and France: 1. public opinion; 2. demands of dictators seen as justified; 3. lack of an alternative; 4. economic pressures; 5. global commitments; 6. defense priorities; 7. impact of Neville Chamberlain On October 7 1935, the League of Nations found that Italy was the aggressor in Abyssinia, but sanctions were very limited and ineffective. Britain also wanted to revive the Stresa Front. The French and British signed the Hoare-Laval Pact, but it was shot down by popular opinion. The League of Nations was exposed as a sham

Emperor Showa / Hirohito (1926-1947)

As a part of the attempt to make the occupation of Japan non-vindictive, this man was allowed to retain his position as Emperor and was never question nor implicated of war crimes. While the US did established a parliamentary democracy in which he had no real power, women were given the right to vote, and the military was to be contained to a very small level for defensive purposes only, he was the figurative head of state, much like the Queen of England today. The Emperor still had such a role today.

A world power? Fascist foreign policy, 1923-35

At the time he came to power, Mussolini's attitude towards foreign affairs was not yet grandiose or aggressive. He actually announced that he did not want an ideological foreign policy and that he was more concerned with protecting Italy's interests than being adventurous. (In his early career, Mussolini had been a Socialist and a pacifist.) Mussolini was already thinking of extending Italian influence across the Adriatic to Dalmatia and Albania, but he did not make much fuss about the Treaty of Versailles and the 'Mutilated Victory'. That became a main theme of fascist foreign policy only gradually. It took time for Mussolini to build up his authority. At first, he had to operate within the constraints of the traditional diplomacy of the foreign affairs department and its old-style Foreign Minister, Salvatore Contarini. In 1926, Mussolini took over the post himself, with Dino Grandi as his second-in-command.

The Treaty of St. Germain: Austria

Austro-Hungarian dissolution: - The Allies finalised the Treaty of Saint-Germain, which dissolved the Austro-Hungarian Empire and reallocated much of its territory. - The kingdoms of Austria and Hungary were separated and established as independent nations, while three new nation-states were formed: Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.

Aventine Secession:

Aventine Secession: the name given to the boycott of parliament by the liberal and democratic opposition parties in 1924. This action was modelled on the practice in the Ancient Roman Republic of 'going to the Aventine Hill', hence the name Aventine Secession.

Azione Cattolica (Catholic Action)

Azione Cattolica (Catholic Action) was the chief lay organisation for Catholics in Italy. Azione Cattolica comprised many different organisations, including youth groups, containing hundreds of thousands of members. It was well financed and well organised. There were frequent rivalries with fascist organisations and considerable friction between Mussolini's regime and the Catholic authorities. These clashes were reduced by the Concordat of 1929, but never completely eliminated.

How many people died in the Holocaust (between 1942 and 1945)?

Between 1942 and 1945 approximately four and half million people were killed in the extermination camps. Throughout the entire period of Nazi rule, over six million Jews were killed, along with approximately four million other "non-desirables."

Economic Policies (6)

Blitzkrieg (1939-41) The Economy under Albert Speer (1942-45) 1. With the death of Fritz Todt, Albert Speer replaced him as the Minister of armaments and war production. 2. Spear restructured the economy, and mobilised to a total war. 3. Production increased massively. E.g→ 3x more weapons in 1944 than 1941. 4. However, at this point Germany was already at war with the USA. 5. Germany's industries were being bombed by Allies.

Mussolini's capture and death

By April 1945, the Third Reich was facing its final defeat and the German occupation of Italy was coming to an end. Long before this, Mussolini had become only a pale shadow of the charismatic dictator he had once been. Even dictators grow old. By 1945, Benito Mussolini was 61 years old. It was 22 years since the March on Rome. In that time, Mussolini had aged and lost much of his energy and freshness. So had many of his loyal fascist supporters. When Mussolini made his increasingly rare speeches on the radio, he was not able to exercise the same magnetic power as in the early days. The Italy he ruled over was shrinking - so was Mussolini himself. On 9 April, the allies launched their final offensive on the Italian front. (A few days later, American and Soviet forces met in the heart of Germany at Torgau on-the-Elbe.) It was time for Mussolini to give up and leave. Sometimes he was fatalistic, convinced he would be captured and killed. The Germans expected him to commit suicide. Sometimes Mussolini expressed hopes of somehow escaping to the North, perhaps to Switzerland. On 25 April, Mussolini set off in the direction of Lake Como, in a long convoy of motor vehicles. He tried to persuade Clara Petacci to stay behind but she insisted on coming with him. There was no real plan and it is not certain exactly where Mussolini was hoping to get to. He eventually joined a convoy of German military trucks on its way north. By chance, the convoy was stopped by a small group of partisans. They quickly saw through Mussolini's disguise as a drunken German soldier. Mussolini was arrested, taken down to the lakeside village of Dongo. The next day, 28 April, the local partisan leader, Valerio, ordered the immediate execution of Mussolini, together with Clara Petacci and some of the other fascist leaders who had been caught, including Alessandro Pavolino. The bodies were then taken to Milan, where they were placed on public view, hung upside down at a petrol station in a small city square.

Mussolini's ambitions in the Balkans

By the late 1920s, Mussolini had grown much more confident and assertive in foreign policy. He was now ready to pursue his extensive ambitions in the Balkans. These ambitions were likely to lead to conflict with Yugoslavia, Greece and Albania: 1. After acquiring Fiume, Mussolini hoped to extend his influence in Yugoslavia. He began giving secret aid to separatist groups within Yugoslavia, hoping one day that the break-up of the country would allow Italy to take control of Croatia and the whole Adriatic coast (something which he eventually achieved, if only temporarily, in the Second World War). 2. Mussolini's ambitions were bound to cause tension with Greece, especially over the Mediterranean islands. The Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 confirmed Italian possession of the Dodecanese Islands. Italy aimed to make these Greek-speaking islands thoroughly 'italianised'. Mussolini also dreamed of using the Dodecanese as a springboard for seizing other important islands from Greece, especially Kos and Crete. Italian influence over Albania (which had a disputed border with Greece) also caused tension. 3. Italy had already gained economic influence in Albania before the First World War; Mussolini set out to turn this influence into Italian dominance. Albania was increasingly dependent on military and economic assistance and Italy also exerted strong cultural influence, especially over the Catholic regions of Albania - there was strong pressure to make Italian a compulsory language in Catholic Albanian schools. By 1935, Albania was virtually an Italian protectorate.

A closer look: The Kingdom of the South

By the time of the armistice on 8 September, most of Italy south of Rome had been liberated and so came under the control of the provisional government established by King Victor Emmanuel III after the dismissal of Mussolini. Its first leader, Marshal Badoglio, was seen as too closely associated with the fascist regime; in 1944, the King replaced him with Ivanoe Bonomi, an old-style Liberal who was not tainted by Fascism. The Bonomi government had little real authority, however, because it was the allies who had ultimate control over the situation, especially in terms of the economy. The slow progress of the war meant that ordinary Italians continued to live in terrible conditions and were still affected by bombing raids. For many people, smuggling and the black market were the only means of survival. There was a lot of corruption. This was made worse by the decision of the American secret service (the OSS) to use Italian-American criminal elements to link up with the Mafia in Italy. One of the few achievements of Mussolini's rule had been to suppress the Mafia in Italy - now the Mafia was back in business through official American backing, Naples was liberated in October 1943. Rome was liberated much later, in June 1944. Although there was a lot of pro allied enthusiasm at first, economic conditions got worse and many ordinary people regarded the allied troops as just another Cross-reference army of occupation. The retreating Germans inflicted a lot of damage and committed many atrocities. They also carried away with them a Ivanoe Bonomi is profiled in lot of machinery and industrial goods. There was no quick relief from stable post-war Italy.

Chinese Communist 🎉Party🎉 (CCP)

CCP grew directly from the May 4th movement, leaders believing that China needed a social revolution and saw Soviet Russia as a model. The new revolution was headed by two conflicting parties: the CCP and the Chinese Nationalist Party (KMP) Li Dazhao (librarian of the Peking University) and Chen Duxiu were the CCP's founders. In March 1920, word of Soviet Russia's revolutionary forgien policy reached China and it was implied in the first Karakhan Manifesto, promised to return the Russian owned Chinese Eastern railway in Manchuria to China without compensation. This was later denied by the Soviet government, however this still left a favorable impression of the Soviet government's forgien policy amongst Chinese patriots.

According to the propaganda myths, however, Il Duce was more than human. Mussolini had to be presented as the charismatic leader-figure for 40 million Italians. Mussolini had to be a cult.

Central to the task of welding the nation into a homogenous whole was the cult of the Duce. Mussolini promoted himself with vainglorious abandon. His picture was everywhere and when he so forgot himself as to shake hands, the newspapers faked the photograph and showed him giving the Roman salute. Sculptures of the Leader also proliferated, among them equestrian statues whose eyes lit up at night, flashing green, white and red. Streets and squares were named after him and the Fascists even christened Mont Blanc, 'Monte Mussolini'. Slogans proliferated an: 'Mussolini is always right' and 'We shall go straight ahead' (famously displayed outside Naples on a hairpin bend). Cinema audiences had to stand when the Duce appeared on film. P. Brandon, The Dark Valley, 2000

Cesare Maria De Vecchi

Cesare Maria De Vecchi (1884-1969) was on the monarchist wing of the PNF. His power base was Turin. In 1922, he was one of the Quadrumvirs, leading the March on Rome. In 1929, Mussolini chose him to be ambassador to the papacy. From 1935, De Vecchi was Minister of Education. In July 1943, De Vecchi voted against Mussolini in the Fascist Grand Council. As a result, the Salo Republic sentenced him to death in 1944 but the Catholic Church helped him to escape to Argentina. He returned to Italy after the war and was a founder of the neo fascist MSI (Italian Social Movement).

German challenges to post-war settlements (1933-1938)

Challenges to Treaty of Versailles and withdrawal from Disarmament Conference, rearmament, and remilitarization of the Rhineland; undermining collective security with the Non-Aggression Pact with Poland (1934)

Who was Pu Yi?

China's last emperor: In 1932, after the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, the puppet state of Manchukuo was established by Japan and he was chosen to become "Emperor" of the new state.

Why did civilian deaths continue to rise after WWI ended?

Civilian deaths were also growing in number as the war ended, due to: - The Spanish Influenza outbreak of 1918 - 1920 which killed more than 25 million people worldwide. - The Russian Revolution and civil war in Russia also led to famine and approximately 7 million deaths. - In Germany, the economy was destroyed, and hyperinflation (money lost all its value) spiraled out of control. Additionally, the Blockade of Germany by Britain continued after the Armistice was signed, and the elderly and young died of starvation in large numbers while the politicians debated the terms of the peace treaty.

Key profile

Clara Petacci Clara Petacci (often known as Claretta) was the last and most loyal of Benito Mussolini's many mistresses. She was the daughter of a prominent doctor in Rome and was of a much higher social class than Mussolini's wife Dona Rachele, who was extremely jealous of Petacci during the time of the Salo Republic. In 1945, Clara refused the chance to escape from Italy and stayed with Mussolini until they were captured and executed near Lake Como.

Stalin's Reforms

Collectivisation: a policy of forced consolidation of individual peasant households into collective farms called "kolkhozes" as carried out by the Soviet government in the late 1920's - early 1930's. Dekulakization: the Soviet campaign of political repressions, including arrests, deportations, or executions of millions of kulaks and their families in the 1929-1932 period of the first five-year plan.

Which are groups that are "losers" in the aftermath of the war, between 1945 and 1947?

Communists Fascists The monarchy

Germany and the Great Depression (unemployment statistic):

Companies all over Germany went bankrupt, unable to repay their loans or ruined by doing so. Workers were fired, and unemployment rates sky-rocketed:

Count Galeazzo Ciano

Count Galeazzo Ciano (1903-44) was a rich playboy, married to Mussolini's daughter, Edda. He was Mussolini's Foreign Minister from 1936. Ciano supported the 1939 Pact of Steel with Germany, but became more and more anti-German after Italy's entry into the war in 1940. At the Fascist Grand Council meeting in July 1943, he voted with the majority against Mussolini. This led to his execution for treason in January 1944, after the Germans handed him over to the Salo Republic. (Edda never spoke to her father again.) After his death, Ciano's diaries became an important source for historians.

Coup d'état

Coup d'état: overturning a government and seizing power by the use of force.

Who was David Lloyd George and what was his "agenda" at the Paris Peace Conference?

David Lloyd George was the Prime Minister of England, and his principal aims were to: - Take control of Germany's navy, assuring British supremacy on the seas (after the Navy Race--Dreadnoughts). - To take away Germany's overseas colonies and receive reparations in the form of cash payments. - To leave Germany strong enough (with enough military power) to act as a buffer between Communist Russia and the rest of Europe, because hated communism.

The Fascist Grand Council

Despite its imposing title, the Fascist Grand Council mostly existed to rubber-stamp Mussolini's decisions. Its members were mostly hand picked by Mussolini who rarely, if ever, challenged him. Mussolini had not bothered to call a meeting of the Fascist Grand Council since the beginning of the war. The reason why he called a meeting of the Fascist Grand Council for 24 July was his belief that he could reinforce his authority by bullying the fascist leaders into declaring their support. By calling the meeting, however, Mussolini placed a constitutional weapon in the hands of his opponents. One of the key personalities ready to use this weapon was Dino Grandi, once very powerful in the fascist movement but virtually sidelined since 1939 (Source 2). Grandi started plotting with another discontented Fascist, Giuseppe Bottai, and Mussolini's son-in-law, Ciano. They worked on the undecided members of the Council to gain acceptance of Grandi's resolution that the Council had no confidence in Mussolini: 'The Grand Council announces the immediate restoration of all State functions, giving back to the King, the Grand Council, the Government, Parliament and the Corporations all the tasks and responsibilities laid down by our constitutional laws.' When the Grand Council met on Saturday 24 July, many of the rebels were afraid of what Mussolini might do; several members went armed with pistols, one took a hand grenade. However, Mussolini seemed taken by surprise and had not taken any extra precautions, even though rumours had been flying around Rome for 48 hours beforehand. After a blustering speech by Mussolini and tense discussions around the table, Grandi's resolution was passed by 19 votes to 7. One of those who voted against Mussolini was his son-in-law, Galeazzo Ciano. Mussolini was slow to recognise the danger he was in. He seemed to assume that the resolution was all hot air and that things would carry on as usual.

Propaganda and the cult of the leader

Dictators are human. Even Hitler and Stalin were human. The following pen-picture of Mussolini by the travelling American journalist, John Gunther, is useful because it was written in 1936, before Mussolini became a hate figure in the western democracies: J. Gunther, Inside Europe, 1938: The things Mussolini hates most are Hitler, aristocrats, money, cats and old age. He detests old people, especially old women. He dislikes references to the fact that he is a grandfather; and when, on July 29, 1933, he reached the age of fifty, the Italian press was not allowed to mention it. The things Mussolini loves most are the city of Rome (he has assiduously fostered the 'cult of Rome'), his daughter Edda, peasants, books, aeroplanes and speed.

Diktat

Diktat: the idea of the Treaty of Versailles as a 'dictated peace', imposed upon the Germans without any negotiations.

Dino Grandi

Dino Grandi (1895-1968) was ras of Bologna and a leading figure on the radical and violent wing of the fascist movement from 1919. He was elected to parliament in 1921 and later held several government posts, including Foreign Minister from 1929 and Ambassador to Great Britain from 1932 to 1939. Grandi opposed Mussolini over entering the war in 1940 and over his management of the war effort. In July 1943, Grandi proposed the motion to the Fascist Grand Council that led to Mussolini's dismissal. He was sentenced to death by the Salo Republic, but had already escaped to safety in Spain.

How many parties were there in Germany after the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm that wanted to gain power?

Due to the economic and social instability, there was a question of whether the German parties should move more to the left or to the right to cope with post-war changes, there were three major parties that vied for power, each hoping to seize control of the crumbling state. All three groups were Socialists, and wanted to improve conditions for workers, and give all Germans the right to vote, but each had their own ideas about how best to change Germany: - The Social Democratic Party was led by Friedrich Ebert. It was by far the biggest part and wanted to reform government through Parliament. - The Independent Socialists - The Spartacists took their name from a Roman Gladiator who led a rebellion of slaves against their masters. Led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg - they wanted to overthrow the government by revolution, setting up soviets (councils of workers) to make reforms. Considerably radicals that wanted to model a new government similar to Russia.

Economic sanctions

Economic sanctions: a form of diplomatic blackmail. By cutting off imports of vital goods and raw materials, sanctions are intended to force a change in policy and behaviour by the country being targeted by sanctions. The idea of sanctions was popular in the 1930s as a way of taking action but avoiding war.

Emilio De Bono

Emilio De Bono (1866-1944) was an army general who became a committed Fascist after the war. He was one of the Quadrumvirs who organised and led the March on Rome and later was commander of the fascist militia. In 1935, De Bono was Supreme Commander of the invasion of Ethiopia and promoted Marshal of the army - but was sacked soon afterwards for being too cautious. In July 1943, De Bono was one of the 17 members of the Fascist Grand Council who voted against Mussolini. Because of this, the Salo Republic executed him for 'treason' in January 1944.

Emperor Haile Selassie

Emperor Haile Selassie (1892-1975) Haile Selassie was Emperor of Abyssinia from 1930 to 1974. He became famous for his appearance at the League of Nations in 1936, appealing for international action to defend his country against Italian aggression and to uphold the principle of collective security. Haile Selassie was in exile in England from 1935, during the period of Italian rule under the AOI. In 1941, he returned to Addis Ababa after the Italian occupiers were expelled by British forces.

Emperor Taisho / Yoshihito (1912-1926)

Emperor of Japan (1912-26). His given name was Yoshihito. The son of Mutsuhito, the Meiji emperor, he succeeded to the throne in 1912, but because of illness he played little part in governing the nation. His reign was characterized by democratization, friendly relations with the West, and economic growth. In 1921 Taishō was declared mentally incompetent and his son Hirohito was made regent.

Emperor Hirohito (Japan)

Emperor of Japan from 1926 until his death in 1989; his reign saw the war on China, Japan's imperialist actions in the Pacific and Asia, and the war against the Allies; upon Japan's surrender, he was allowed to remain on the throne to provide his people with a sense of political continuity but never faced charges or trials for the crimes against humanity that occurred in conquered areas; saw his country become the 2nd most powerful economy in the world after American post-war occupation ended

Emperor Meiji (1867-1912)

Emperor of Japan who modernized Japan in the 1860s by studying and adopting Western armies, government forms and industries. As a result, Japan became a strong power and was never colonized. Feat and leap was painful and highly disruptive (had terrible consequences for Asian colonies of Japan), but it worked. As a result when Japan went to war with China - Japan had a huge victory.

When did Hitler gain legitimate power to make laws without the permission of the Reichstag?

Enabling Act

Engelbert Dollfuss

Engelbert Dollfuss (1892-1934) was a Catholic conservative politician who became Chancellor of Austria in 1932 at a time of political and economic crisis. In March 1933, Dollfuss suspended parliament and made himself dictator. He was threatened by the rise of the Austrian Nazis, backed by Hitler. In August 1933, Dollfuss banned the Austrian Nazi Party and established close links with Mussolini to defend Austrian independence. In February 1934, government forces defeated the Socialists in a brief civil war in Austria. On 25 July 1934, the Nazis launched a coup d'état. Dollfuss was murdered but the coup failed.

Field Marshal Albert Kesselring (1885-1960)

Field Marshal Albert Kesselring (1885-1960) Kesselring was Commander in Chief South from November 1941, in overall control of German forces in North Africa and Italy. He started his army career in 1904, fought in the First World War and was chief of staff of the Luftwaffe from 1936. As Commander in Chief South, Kesselring was responsible for quickly seizing Rome after the armistice of 8 September 1943 and for masterminding the long and stubborn defensive operations that delayed the advancing allied armies in Italy throughout 1943 and 1944. After the war, Kesselring was sentenced to death for war crimes but was later released.

What increased by the end of WWI and why?

Fighting worldwide had increased nationalism in Japan, in African colonies such as Kenya and in Southeast Asia (e.g. Vietnam). Other radical-communist parties also gained stability worldwide, because people want safety.

What is the famous poem by Martin Niemöller on ethics & the bystander effect in Nazi Germany?

First they came for the Socialists, and I did not speak out, Because I was not a Socialist. Then they came for the Trade Unionists, and I did not speak out, Because I was not a Trade Unionist. Then they came for the Jews, and I did not speak out, Because I was not a Jew. Then they came for me -- and there was no one left to speak for me.

Washington Conference of 1921

Five-Power Treaty Navy tonnage limits for some ship classes —> return in 1927 and '30 to close loopholes Four-Power Treaty Consultation about East Asia in future crises before action —> replaced Anglo-Japanese Treaty of 1902 Nine-Power Treaty Respecting territorial integrity of China (but recognized Japanese dominance in Manchuria)

Political instability in China

Following the Opium Wars, European powers gained extraordinary economic, military, and legal privileges in China with the backing of "gunboat diplomacy" Japan also believed that its security depended on having a dominant influence in China The agreements reached between the Western powers and China following the Opium Wars came to be known as the "unequal treaties" because in practice they gave foreigners privileged status and extracted concessions from the Chinese.

From 1919 to 1922, how many times did the Italian government collapse?

Four times

What was the Maginot Line?

France had put vast sums of money and faith into the construction of the Maginot Line: a string of heavily-armed concrete forts along the French/German border which would prevent German invasion. This was a strategical product from military officers studying WWI and looking at way that it could have prevented German invasion into France, however it was not creative, not considering the technical advancements. After-all, a Luftangriff would have made this useless.

Francisco Franco Bahamonde

Francisco Franco Bahamonde (1892-1975) made his reputation fighting Spain's colonial wars in Morocco. In July 1936, he led a coup d'état against the Spanish Republic and led the nationalist forces to victory in the Civil War by 1939, partly because of the help he received from Hitler's Germany and Mussolini's Italy. In 1940, Franco resisted Hitler's requests to join in the Second World War and kept Spain neutral - though he did allow the Spanish Blue Division to fight on the Eastern Front. Franco was widely hated in the West, but his authoritarian regime remained in power until his death in 1975.

Freikorps

Free Corps, the paramilitary units composed of ex-soldiers which sprang up throughout Germany after 1918. This group of former soldiers helped the nationalist right to deal with the communist threat in the immediate aftermath of the First World War.

The Weimar Republic - Epic features:

Free, universal, and democratic elections A multiplicity of freedoms No wantonly aggressive or oppressive Kaiser A vibrant cultural renaissance A slow but steady economic recuperation Innovations! Such as the world's first police forensics unit Awesome Social Democrats who improved Germany's standing in the world and responsibly led the country An increase in top income tax rate from 4% to 60% The maximum 48 hour work week Other social programs The Rentenmark

Mussolini in Il Popolo d'Italia, August 1921. Quoted in D. Sassoon, Mussolini and the Rise of Fascism, 2007

From May 1921, when he made his electoral pact with Giolitti, Mussolini tried to make the movement more disciplined and more respectable in the eyes of the elites and the middle classes, but this often caused resentment from local fascist leaders who wanted to be let loose. If Mussolini seemed too revolutionary, he would alienate the politicians and influential social groups he wanted to win over; if he did not sound revolutionary enough, he would infuriate the impatient and violent elements on the radical wing of Fascism, who dreamed of actually seizing power in the streets. Mussolini was not opposed to violence, but he wanted to be able to turn fascist violence on and off, like a tap, in order to frighten the old elites into giving him power legally. It is necessary to form a party, well-organised and disciplined, so that it is able, when required, to transform itself into an army capable of using power defensively as well as offensively. This party must have a mind, that is, a programme. Theoretical assumptions must be reviewed, changed and, if necessary, abandoned.

What happened in 1937?

Further, in 1937, an able politician who also shared the radicals' ambitions, Prince Fujiwara Konoye, was elected as Prime Minister.

Who was Georges Clemenceau and what was his "agenda" at the Paris Peace Conference?

Georges Clemenceau, nicknamed "The Tiger," was the President of France. France for one also had the upper-hand at the Paris Peace Conference, because it hosted it. The president arrived with a punitive attitude and many desires: - To weaken Germany's military to such a degree that it would never again be able to wage war against France. - To regain the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. - To receive reparations for its losses in the war, in the form of Germany's overseas colonies as well as cash. - To fix the blame for the war solidly on Germany's shoulders.

Events in German and Italian Expansion

German challenges to post-war settlements (1933-1938); Italian expansion into: Abyssinia (1935-1936) and Albania; entry into WWII; German expansion (1938-1939); Pact of Steel; Nazi-Soviet Pact; outbreak of war

The Matteotti Affair and the repression of political opponents

Giacomo Matteotti was a young lawyer and leader of the Reformist Socialists in the Chamber of Deputies. He was a committed opponent; of Fascism and had recently visited Britain and Austria trying to raise awareness of the true nature of Mussolini's regime. Matteotti also had acquired inside information on fascist financial scandals, especially a secret agreement between Mussolini and American oil companies. Six weeks after the election, on 30 May, Matteotti launched a premeditated attack on the fascist violence, intimidation and ballot rigging that had taken place. Matteotti's speech caused a storm in parliament and made Mussolini furious.

Giovanni Giolitti

Giovanni Giolitti (1842-1928) was a dominant personality in the politics of Liberal Italy. Together with his rival, Antonio Salandra, Giolitti was later blamed for compromising with Mussolini and so failing to prevent the rise of Fascism. Giolitti was prime minister three times, but was always influential even when not actually in power. In 1921, Giolitti made an electoral pact with Mussolini that enabled the Fascists to participate in the parliamentary elections. The tactic failed and Giolitti resigned in 1921. He remained an influential figure in parliament during Mussolini's consolidation of power.

In September of 1923, elections brought a new government to power, led by:

Gustav Stresemann, an able politician.

What best describes Mussolini's approach to the economy?

He wanted to win acceptance from conservative business interests by moving cautiously

What did Emperor Hirohito do?

He was the head of state under the limitation of the Constitution of the Empire of Japan during Japan's imperial expansion in WWII. Japan desired living space for its growing population and Emperor Hirohito woke Japan's military forces to do so. The goal was to completely dominate the pacific during the 19th century.

What did Heinrich Himmler expand during the 1938s around the time of the week of terror?

Heinrich Himmler, the leader of the Schutzstaffel (SS), the secret police forces, also began expanding the Concentration Camp system at this time to accommodate the Jews.

Learning Outcomes:

His In this section, you have looked at Italy's role in the Second World War and at the political and economic impact of the war upon Italy. In 1940, Fascist Italy had the outward appearance of success and international importance. Fascist ideology held sway; Socialism, Liberalism and democracy were in retreat. You have seen how Mussolini's decision to join Hitler's war brought Italy to defeat and caused the collapse of the fascist regime in 1943; and how the continuation of the war until 1945 deepened the political divisions within Italy.

Economic Policies (1) - What were Hitler's economic aims:

Hiter had 3 primary goals, though no set economic plan: 1. Reduce unemployment (Wall Street Crash led to 3 million ppl unemployed in Germany, and by the time Hitler was chancellor the number increased to 6 million). 2. Create an economy strong enough that could support the policy of Lebensraum 3. Achieve autarky (self-sufficiency in the most important war industries, eg. metal, food, materials, resources), so Germany did not rely on other nations.

BACKGROUND TO PROPAGANDA FILM

Hitler and Goebbels believed that film was a vital tool for molding public opinion. The Nazis first established a film department in 1930 and Goebbels had taken a personal interest in the use of film to promote the Nazi philosophy and agenda. Soon after the Nazi takeover, Goebbels insisted in speeches that the role of the German cinema was to serve as the "vanguard of the Nazi military".[4] The Goebbels film appears to have been intended as a violently antisemitic version of the British film The Wandering Jew, which argued that Jews were victims of relentless persecution throughout history. Saul Friedländer suggests that Goebbels' intent was to counter three films: Jew Süss, The House of Rothschild, and The Wandering Jew. These three films, all released in 1933-34, showed that Jews were persecuted throughout history; the Goebbels films presented the opposite message.[5] In 1937, a special wing of the Propaganda Ministry put on an art exhibition in Munich titled Der ewige Jude. It followed this up with the publication of a book of the same title, consisting of 265 photographs, each with a derogatory caption asserting the degeneracy of the Jewish race.[6][7] In November 1938, Goebbels made a series of attacks against the Jews in the German media that were a factor which resulted in the pogrom known as Kristallnacht. Despite the emotional satisfaction afforded the Nazis by carrying out their antisemitism with direct violence, Kristallnacht was considered by Hitler to have been a political disaster both within Germany and internationally. Not only did the brutality indirectly caused by Goebbels evoke harsh criticism internationally, the mixed reaction in the German media showed a lack of broad-based support among Germans for antisemitism and violence.[8] Hitler expressed his frustration and anger at the mixed response from the German media and insisted that, instead of openly calling for violence against the Jews as Goebbels had in instigating the pogrom, Nazi propaganda should "elucidate events of foreign policy" in such a way that the German people themselves would call for violence against the Jews.[8][9] In response to Hitler's harsh reprimand, Goebbels launched a campaign to promote the antisemitic views of the Nazis to the German populace. He ordered each film studio to make an antisemitic film. In the case of The Eternal Jew, Goebbels conceived of a film that would communicate to the German people the same antisemitic message that had been the theme of the 1937 Munich exhibition. Hitler preferred films such as The Eternal Jew which presented the Nazi antisemitic agenda openly and directly; however Goebbels disliked the crudeness of such straightforward approaches, preferring the much more subtle approach of couching antisemitic messages in an engaging story with popular appeal. The film Jud Süß is an example of Goebbels' preferred approach.[10]

Who coined the term fake news?

Hitler coined the term Fake News, as in Lügenpresse for the printed press and the mass media at large, as a propaganda tactic to discredit the publications that offered a message counter to the Nazi agenda.

In which party was Hitler able to outline his objectives?

Hitler had many objectives, which he outlined in 1920 after he renamed the Party the National Socialist Deutsch Arbeits Partei, (or National Socialist German Workers' Party).

Consolidation of Power - Party Purges

Ideological split within the Politburo (The Central Committee) after Lenin's death: Leftists - argued for permanent and global revolution Leon Trotsky, Grigory Zinoviev, Leon Kamenev Rightists - argued that socialism should be well-established in one country (Russia) first Joseph Stalin, Andrei Rykov, Nikolai Bukharin, Mikhail Tomsky Trotsky's 1924 Lessons of October in response to Stalin's anti-Trotskyism was seen by many Leftists and Rightists as unfairly and unjustly accusatory - they galvanize behind Stalin and in 1925 vote to dismiss Trotsky (he can no longer use the Army to seize power). 1926-1927 - Stalin and the Rightists dismiss Zinoviev and Kamenev from the Politburo (then excluded from the Party). The original Rightists began to pose a threat for Stalin due to their status as original revolutionaries. During a disagreement on the interruption of the NEP, Stalin and the new Stalinist Politburo voted to eliminate them from the Politburo. They resign in 1929 - Stalin has total control over the Party through control of the Politburo → democratic centralism

Ideology

Ideology: the ideas, values and beliefs of a political movement, as opposed to its specific practical policies.

Il Duce is an Italian title, derived from the Latin word dux "leader", and a cognate of duke. National Fascist Party leader Benito Mussolini was identified by Fascists as Il Duce ("The Leader") of the movement since the birth of the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento in 1919.

Il Duce was the star of the show. It was Mussolini's face (or sometimes shirtless upper body) that was projected in the posters and photographs. It was Mussolini's voice that was heard in speeches at rallies or over the radio. It was Mussolini's amazing personal abilities that were drummed into the minds of school children by the propaganda. Mussolini was a statesman. He was an intellectual. He was a man of action. He was a man of the people. Mussolini knew everything. Mussolini could do anything. Mussolini was always right.

Causes of Expansion

Impact of fascism and Nazism on the foreign policies of Italy and Germany, impact of domestic issues on foreign policies of Italy and Germany, changing diplomatic alignments in Europe; end of collective security; appeasement

Key developments in fascist foreign policy

In 1922-23, most of Mussolini's grandiose aims were distant dreams; there was no prospect of achieving them straight away. He had to satisfy himself with small successes. --> CORFU

Mussolini and Austria

In 1929, Italy began providing arms and money to right-wing political groupings in Hungary and in Austria. In 1927, he made a treaty with Hungary, aligning both countries with opposition to the 'unfair' post war peace settlement. This policy continued through the early 1930s. In 1930, Mussolini signed the Friendship Treaty with Austria. Mussolini was already very sensitive to the need to protect Italy's northern borders, on the Brenner Pass with Austria. When the Catholic conservative politician, Engelbert Dollfuss, came to power in 1932, Mussolini hoped that a right wing government in Austria would come under his influence. Mussolini established close links with Dollfuss, who made numerous social visits to the Italian Riviera, where Dollfuss, Mussolini and their wives met in friendly and informal circumstances. Italy also poured substantial financial assistance into Austria - the salaries of Austrian government officials and civil servants almost entirely depended on aid from Italy. From January 1933, the situation in Austria was complicated by Hitler's rise to power in Germany. The Austrian Nazi Party became much stronger and received a lot of support from Germany. Dollfuss, therefore, faced dangerous opposition from two sides - from the Socialists on the left and from the Nazis on the right. During 1933, Mussolini and Dollfuss moved closer together. Italy increased its aid to the struggling Austrian economy. Mussolini pushed Dollfuss to increase his political authority over the Austrian parliament and to 'act decisively' against the socialist opposition. In September 1933, Dollfuss suspended parliament and made himself virtually dictator. This provoked violent opposition from the left. In February 1934, there was a brief but vicious civil war in Vienna as government forces battled against left-wing militias who had taken over working-class areas of the city. Mussolini also supported Dollfuss against the rising threat from the Austrian Nazis, who had grown stronger since Hitler came to power in Germany at the start of 1933. At that time, Mussolini was confident that Italy could prevent any German attempt to carry through Anschluss with Austria. The situation in Austria became very urgent for Mussolini in July 1934, when Austrian Nazis assassinated Dollfuss in Vienna during a failed attempt at a coup d'état. The coup failed mostly because it was uncoordinated and badly planned, but also because Mussolini seized the opportunity to make a show of Italian commitment to protect Austria by military force if necessary. Italy stationed an army of four divisions on the Austrian border at the Brenner Pass. The show of strength on the Brenner boosted Mussolini's prestige but gave a misleading impression of his power and influence in relation to Germany. In the summer of 1934, Hitler was still in the process of consolidating his position within Germany. Mussolini knew there was no practical possibility of German military intervention in Austria. In June 1934, at his first face-to-face meeting with Hitler, in Venice, Hitler had reassured Mussolini that he did not intend to force Anschluss with Austria. In 1934, Mussolini could still act like the 'senior partner' in Fascism, assuming a position of leadership. Over the next four years, however, Hitler became massively stronger, both politically and militarily. Mussolini's position as protector of Austria became less and less secure.

The 1932 Elections (history --> 1930)

In 1930, over 6 million Germans had voted for Hitler and the Nazi Party, bringing them very close to holding the highest number of seats in the Reichstag (Parliament).

When did the harassment of Jews increase heavily and how (by what symbol)?

In 1934, harassment increased, as all Jewish businesses were marked with a yellow Star of David (the symbol of Judaism) or the word "Juden." The Nazis began to require all Jews to wear an arm band (similar in concept to the Nazi one) with a Star of David on it, to identify them clearly in public as Jews. This adopted a system of institutional prejudice, with Jews being forbidden from sitting, eating, or playing in public with other Germans.

What laws were passed in 1935 by the Nazis that drastically changed the situation for Jews?

In 1935, the Nuremberg Laws were passed, legally taking away Jewish citizenship, and forbidding them from marrying any non-Jew. Removing their legal protections and property rights. Violence against Jews increased. Many shop owners refused to sell food or medicine to Jews, and hotels refused them service. Many Jews who could afford it began to emigrate in their thousands, seeking a safer place to live away from Hitler and the Nazis.

The Wal Wal incident

In December 1934, there was a brief military confrontation at Wal Wal oasis in which 150 Abyssinians and 50 Italians were killed. The Italians had established a fort at Wal Wal in 1930, several miles inside the Abyssinian border, and their presence there was disputed - Haile Selassie appealed for international arbitration. The firefight at Wal Wal inflamed tensions between Italy and Abyssinia and brought the two countries closer to war - which may well have been what Mussolini wanted anyway.

The Hoare-Laval Pact

In December 1935, the British Foreign Secretary, Samuel Hoare, met Pierre Laval, the French prime minister, for private talks in Paris. They agreed a pact aimed at tempting Mussolini to call off his war in Ethiopia in return for a favourable territorial settlement. There was a massive public reaction against their plan, especially in Britain. Hoare resigned and took all the blame but he had actually acted on behalf of the government as a whole.

When did the coup d'etat happen?

In February of 1936, a group of young military officers launched a full-scale putsch targeting so-called "moderates." They assassinated the finance minister--who had limited the military budget--at his home, and roamed Tokyo, targeting their enemies. While this coup d'état was suppressed, Japan's military clearly had lost faith in its government.

When did the Nazi's decide and begin mass-murdering the Jews?

In January, 1942, with most of Europe under their control, fifteen leading Nazis met at a secret conference at Wannsee. Their objective was to come up with what they called "the Final Solution to the Jewish problem." The answer, as described by Rudolf Höss (Deputy Nazi Party Leader) was as followed: "I was ordered to establish extermination facilities at Auschwitz in June 1941. At that time there were already in...Poland three other extermination camps: Belzec, Treblinka, and Wolzek." The purpose of these camps was now simple: kill as many Jews as possible as quickly as possible, and Germany's scientists turned their minds to it.

What was the catalyst/reason for Hitler to begin a week of terror against the Jewish people and ultimately cause Kristalnacht?

In November, 1938, a frustrated young Jewish man shot a Nazi official dead. Hitler was furious, and ordered Himmler and the SS to begin a week of terror against the Jewish people. This began on the 10th of November, 1938, nearly 10,000 Jewish shop owners had their windows smashed and shops looted on the Kristalnacht ("Night of Broken Glass."). Jewish homes and Synagogues were burned, thousands of Jews were arrested, and dozens of Jews were killed. As further punishment, the "Jewish people" were ordered to pay a fine of one Billion Marks and Jewish men and women were forced to get onto their knees and clean streets with scrubbing brushes. This was no longer discrimination, but started to become violent and brutal oppression of Jews.

When did Japan invade Manchuria and how was this significant to Western Powers?

In September of 1931, Japan became the first nation to flaunt its power in the face of the League of Nations and openly invaded Manchuria, seizing large deposits of coal and iron ore, as well as rich farmland and room for expansion off of the Japanese home islands.

War Communism in the USSR and the New Economic Policy

In order to begin establishing a Communist structure as well as continue supporting the Red Army in the Russian Civil War, War Communism began: Factories nationalized, under the command of the Supreme Council of National Economy (Vesenkha) All workers under government control, with military consequences and punishments Private trading is banned, all surplus food is to go to the government Encouragement of inflation, no more cost for rent, railway, postal charges Food is strictly rationed in the cities In the end, the Red Army emerged victorious, but wealth redistribution ultimately failed. In 1920, a huge famine took place, with 7 million people starving and 25 million people living below the sustenance level. March 1921, revolt of 10 000 sailors at Kronstadt, soon arrested and shot by Red Army and CHEKA. March 1921, Lenin abandoned War Communism and moves to the New Economic Policy (NEP) Peasants can sell surplus food for profit Peasants who increase economic production receive tax breaks Factories with less than 20 workers are given back to original owners People can use money again This shocked many Bolsheviks, who believed that this was a step back into Capitalism, Lenin responds: "taking one step backwards, they would later be able to take two steps forward." This works, and, by 1925, Russia is back to pre-war levels of production. In 1923, Russia becomes the USSR, composed of four socialist Republics: Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Caucasus, each with its own institutions. Lenin dies in 1924.

In reality,

In reality, the RSI was far from being a real government and there was little chance of Mussolini putting his policies into action. There were many reasons for this: 1. The RSI only controlled part of Italy, and even controlling that reduced area depended on the German armies holding back the advance of the allied armies. Keeping normal economic life going was very difficult. 2. Mussolini was virtually a puppet ruler under close German supervision. He had no freedom of movement and his villa was under SS guard. His actual powers were very limited and he rarely made public appearances. He kept himself busy, regularly meeting 'important' visitors, but this was merely going through the motions. 3. Mussolini was no longer the dynamic leader he had been in the 1920s and 1930s. He was ageing and frequently unwell. (He suffered from chronic stomach problems, partly because of his habit of consuming vast quantities of warm milk every day.) He was prone to bouts of pessimism, as Source 1 (page 123) shows. 4. Even within the shrinking borders of the RSI, there were many Italians opposed to Mussolini's rule. Many people wanted a quick end to the war and saw Mussolini as the reason why it was continuing. There was a gradual increase in the numbers of partisans. By the middle of 1944, the fascist militias and their German allies were having to fight a vicious civil war against the communist partisans. The Salo Republic was always living on borrowed time. Sooner or later, the Germans would eventually be defeated and the RSI could not survive without the presence of German armies. The end of Salo, and defeat of the Germans, was accelerated by the rise of resistance movements and partisan fighters, especially on the left.

Challenges to the League of Nations:

In the 1930s, the League of Nations was faced with a series of challenges to its authority and power. 1. The first came in 1931 when Japanese extremists annexed a large part of China called Manchuria. Manchuria was a rich region, full of coal, iron, oil, and farmland—Japan needed all of these to continue its process of industrialization and support its growing population. Acting against the orders of the Japanese government, Japanese military forces marched into Manchuria—China responded by asking the League of Nations for help. The League of Nations wanted to resolve this issue, and asked Japan to desist, but the Japanese government seemed incapable of "calling off" its forces, which were acting independently. 2. The League considered using its harshest punishment—economic sanctions—but the world was in the midst of the Great Depression, and Great Britain doubted that the League could actually enforce sanctions. Despite a mission being sent to Manchuria to try to find a solution, the League failed to force the Japanese to withdraw, and the region remained in Japanese hands and was renamed Manchukuo. - Kissinger: "Public opinion, especially in Great Britain, had already castigated the League for "failing" to prevent Japan's conquest of Manchuria; in the interim, a mechanism for economic sanctions had been put in place." = Kissinger argues a revisionist perspective that there was no political will power and strength = takes place in context of isolation, where most countries just looked at themselves.

What was the initial purpose of the concentration camps and why was it only short-lived?

Initially, the purpose of these arrests was to provide the Nazis with a labor force of slaves to work to rearm and build German industry. Ultimately, the Nazis wanted to get rid of them, but they were in no hurry to actively kill them. As a letter written by Martin Bormann, Hitler's deputy, stated: "The Slavs are to work for us. In so far as we don't need them, they may die."

Responses to German and Italian Aggression

International response to German aggression (1933-1938); international response to Italian aggression (1935-1936); international response to joint German and Italian aggression (1940)

How did the Acerbo Law help Mussolini and his party win the elections in 1924?

It assured the party that gained the most votes, provided it was above 25%, would get two-thirds of the seats in parliament

The Mediterranean and Mussolini

It is sometimes said that Mussolini wanted to make the Mediterranean an 'Italian Lake' but this is not really true. For Mussolini, a lake would be more like a prison than an empire because lakes do not have exits. He hated the fact that Italy was blocked at one end of the Mediterranean by British Gibraltar and, at the other end, by British control of the Suez Canal. Mussolini's dream of Mare Nostrum meant making Italy a great sea power capable of breaking out into the oceans.

Corfu

Italian intervention in Corfu in the summer of 1923 was a propaganda success for Mussolini at an important time, though it was a relatively minor international incident and its significance was much more about image than any tangible foreign policy success. The crisis originated in a dispute over the border between Greece and Albania. The Great Powers organised a Conference of Ambassadors to oversee the negotiations; Italian army officers formed part of the inspection team. The leader of this Italian delegation, General Enrico Tellini, and several of his men were killed inside Greek territory. There was no clear proof who was responsible for the murders but Mussolini seized the opportunity to uphold Italian national honour. He sent a harsh seven-point ultimatum to the Greek government, demanding a grovelling apology and massive financial compensation. Greece issued the apology but claimed the compensation demanded was too much. Mussolini immediately bombarded the Greek island of Corfu, killing a number of civilians; Italian troops occupied Corfu. This may have been a sudden, opportunistic decision, but there was speculation at the time that Mussolini had pre-planned the occupation of Corfu and was simply looking for a convenient excuse. Mussolini's actions amounted to a blatant act of war. Greece made furious protests and was supported by Britain. Greece went to the League of Nations (recently established at Geneva) but Mussolini refused to accept adjudication from the League and insisted that the Conference of Ambassadors should resolve the issue. In the end, the Corfu crisis fizzled out. Britain held back from punitive action because France wanted good relations with Italy. Greece lacked the military strength for a shooting war. Mussolini agreed to pull Italian forces out of Corfu and the whole affair blew over without any major confrontation, Corfu did, however, have some important consequences. Mussolini had achieved exactly the kind of cheap boost to his prestige he was looking for as he consolidated his power - Corfu helped to win over public opinion in the lead-up to the 1924 elections. Mussolini was able to restore good relations with Britain but Italy's actions weakened the League of Nations at an important early stage in its development. On a smaller scale, Mussolini's actions over Corfu in 1923 were a dress rehearsal for his approach to the Abyssinian crisis 12 years later.

Italo Balbo

Italo Balbo (1896-1940) was seen as a war hero for his exploits on the Alpine front in the First World War. He was ras of the fascist squads in Ferrara and was one of the key leaders of the March on Rome. Balbo became famous as an aviator, leading two mass flights across the Atlantic Ocean in 1930 and 1933; after which he was made Marshal of the Italian Air Force. Balbo was appointed Governor of Libya, partly to reduce his ability to rival Mussolini. In 1940, he was killed when Italian forces shot down his plane at Tobruk, apparently by mistake.

Why could transport be called a "success story" of the fascist regime?

Italy became a leader in Europe of both the construction of motorways as well as rail transport

Italian and German entry into WWII

Italy joined WWII in 1940 because: >it was an embarrassment not to join for Mussolini; contrary to Fascist doctrine and conflicting with his portrayal as confident and decisive leader >Mussolini wanted to keep Italy a first-rank power and not another Switzerland >War would give Mussolini to radicalize the regime and remove influence of conservatives and the Catholic Church >If Italy remained neutral, it risked becoming dominated by Germany >War could bring territorial gains and perhaps control of Mediterranean >Italy owed much money to the US and Germany Germany joined WWII in 1939 because: >Reunify German heritage = Lebensraum >Fight against threat of Socialism >Felt that Britain and France would not hold up agreement to defend Poland

What had Japan begun to do to enrich its natural resources?

Japan had begun borrowing land from China in Manchuria--developing its rich resources and even actively colonizing it--in 1910, but China had resisted any permanent development and competed with Japanese investments such as railroads.

What wars did Japan win to gain a colonial foothold in Asia?

Japan had defeated China in 1894-95, seizing the Korean peninsula, and had also defeated the Russians in 1904-05, establishing themselves as a military power to be reckoned with in the region and fending off a regional rival.

The impact of Japanese nationalism and militarism on foreign policy

Japan issued China the Twenty-One Demands 1915, and Japan became more self-sufficient as exports increased during WWI

League of nations

Japan joined the league of nations in 1920 The league of nations suggested the withdrawal of Japanese troops from Manchuria (Manchukuo) and the restoration of Chinese sovereignty, in response Japan removed itself from the League and exploited its resources (March 1933). Japan seized large coal deposits, iron, expansion room and rich farmland. League members called for the economic boycott of Japan after the violation of the covenant. Economic sanctions were ineffective as major powers suffered economically due to the great depression

China & Japan in the Interwar Period: Treaty of Versailles

Japan received Chinese territory (Shandong) + German South Pacific territories (—> May 4th movement in Beijing, China) Japan received racially unequal treatment from the Allies Influx of immigrants to USA since start of 1900's (manual labor, discriminated against by media) Laws passed against Japanese immigrants Treaties signed in 1921 and 1922 made countries agree to China's integrity and Japan returned the WWI territories Refusal of a racial equality clause in the LoN —> realization that they weren't seen as equal by the Allies

Results of the Second Sino-Japanese War

Japan underestimated the strength of Chinese nationalism, and the Chinese refused to agree to peace terms. Japan had to continue fighting, thus taking their focus away from the USSR. In November 1938 Japan declared creation of New Order in East Asia, which was rejected by Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai Shek).

Japan's Empire Expansion

Japan was ruled by the Shogan with only limited trade in Nagasaki by Chinese and Dutch merchants. Dutch studies were allowed limited into the country (RANGAKU). Any other foreigner shown up was instantly beheaded. Perry came in with a modern navy and forced Japan to trade with the rest of the world in 1853. This started the Bakumatsu Meiji Restoration brought back the power of the Emperor in 1868. The Meiji Constitution reaffirmed this Opening to the west allowed Japan to revitalise its army and modernise their equipment. They became a fighting force to be reckoned with

How did Japanese leaders see a rolemodel in the USA?

Japan's leaders wanted to match the United States of America, at least in economic and military might, in Asia. Aggressive imperialism was a common policy--Great Britain, France, and the U.S. all had colonies in Asia at the time--and Japan saw this as the fastest way of achieving this.

General Tojo

Japanese army officer who initiated the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and who assumed dictatorial control of Japan during World War II

How were the circumstances of arrival to the concentration camps?

Jewish families were arrested in their homes, and either marched or sent by train to the Concentration camps. Many died on the trains, as they were packed in too tightly to lie down or even sit, and they rarely received water or food on their days-long journey. Children and old people were the first to die.

Joachim von Ribbentrop

Joachim von Ribbentrop (1893-1946) was a businessman who joined the Nazi Party in 1932 and became useful to Hitler as a go-between during the rise to power, even though other leading Nazis detested him. Ribbentrop was Ambassador to Britain from 1936. In February 1938, he became Foreign Minister. He played a key role in the Munich conference and also negotiated the Nazi-Soviet Pact in August 1939. His influence declined during the war. In 1946, he was tried for war crimes at Nuremberg and executed.

King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy

King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy (1869-1947) became king in 1900, after his father, Umberto I, was assassinated. In 1922, Victor Emmanuel refused to authorise the use of martial law against the March on Rome, thus handing power to Mussolini. The King had little importance during the years of fascist rule until July 1943, when he suddenly dismissed Mussolini, replaced him with Marshal Badoglio and tried to negotiate an end to the war. In April 1944, the King gave most of his royal authority to Crown Prince Umberto. In May 1946, Italy became a republic and the King went into exile.

King Zog of Albania

King Zog of Albania (1895-1961) was President of Albania, with dictatorial powers, from 1925. He was crowned King of the Albanians in 1928 and reigned until 1939. During the 1930s, King Zog depended heavily on economic and military support from Italy; his efforts to resist Italian influence were not very effective. When Italian forces invaded Albania in April 1939, King Zog escaped into exile in England. Albania became an Italian protectorate until the end of the war.

Kōdōha vs Tōseiha

Kōdōha - "Imperial Way Faction" Sought to establish a military government that promoted totalitarian, militaristic and aggressive expansionist ideals Tōseiha - "Control Faction" A grouping of moderate officers who favoured aggressive imperialist and anti-modernization ideals. These two rivalled each other for power during the 1920s-1930s in the military until the Kōdōha was de facto dissolved and its members either executed or imprisoned.

What does fascism stress?

Loyalty to the state and obedience to its leader. Fascism says nothing is true, except for the myth of the leader. Authoritarian states create a world in which we can't trust the facts, the laws, and evidently eachother. It attacks our certainty in knowledge that we have and produces doubt.

Luigi Facta

Luigi Facta (1861-1930) Facta was a Liberal Party politician who entered politics in 1892. He held various minor posts in government before becoming finance minister in 1910. According to the historian Denis Mack Smith, in Mussolini & Italy (1984), Facta was 'a timid, ignorant provincial lawyer who had risen in politics through seniority alone. His appointment as prime minister was at first taken as a joke.' In July 1922, Facta was dismissed but was then re-appointed because there was nobody else. When faced with the March on Rome, Facta declared martial law but the King refused to sign the decree into law. Facta resigned and was replaced by Mussolini.

Luigi Federzoni

Luigi Federzoni (1878-1967) Federzoni was a fanatical Italian nationalist who strongly supported Italy's participation in the First World War 'to make the nation feel unified at last'. After the war, he joined the Fascist Party and influenced Mussolini's thinking about Nationalism and foreign affairs. From 1924 to 1926, Federzoni was Minister of the Interior. In July 1943, he was one of the 17 men at the Fascist Grand Council who voted for the motion against Mussolini.

The session in the Chamber of Deputies, 30 May 1924. Quoted in C. Duggan, Force of Destiny: Italy Since 1796, 2007

MATTEOTTI: ... if the government majority has obtained 4 million votes, we know that this result is the consequence of obscene violence, (From their benches, Fascists brandish their fists at the speaker. The most violent try to throw themselves at Matteotti.) MATTEOTTI: To support these government proposals there is now an armed militia, which is not at the service of the state but at the service of a party (Shouts on the right: Enough! Enough! Throw him out of the hall!) MATTEOTTI: You want to hurl the country backwards, towards absolutism. We defend the free sovereignty of the Italian people, whose dignity we will defend by demanding that light be shed on the elections. (The left rises to acclaim Matteotti. On the right there are cries of: Villain! Traitor! Provoker!) MATTEOTTI (smiling to his friends): And now you can prepare my funeral oration.

What were other nations represented at the Paris Peace Conference and what were their own main objectives?

Many other nations were represented at the conference as well, however, and delegation had their own objectives—namely, to be repaid for their efforts, sacrifices, and war dead from their participation in the war. - Italy: Wanted lands across the Adriatic in repayment for their part in the war: Port of Trieste, Albania - Japan: Wanted recognition from the West and to keep the territories it had gained: Marshall, Caroline islands - Serbia: Wanted more land and influence in the Balkans, also port of Trieste & Albania - Poland: Wanted nationhood, Silesia & W. Ukraine

Weimar problems 1919-23 [ILRIM]: Right-wing terrorism

Many right-wing groups hated the new government for signing the Versailles Treaty (June 1919): - The Kapp Putsch: in March 1920, a Freikorps brigade rebelled against the Treaty, led by Dr Wolfgang Kapp. It took over Berlin and tried to bring back the Kaiser. - Nationalist terrorist groups murdered 356 politicians. In 1922, they assassinated Walter Rathenau, the SPD foreign minister, because he made a treaty with Russia.

Michele Bianchi

Michele Bianchi (1883-1930) was a revolutionary syndicalist and trade union organiser. His power base was Milan. Bianchi was originally a Socialist, but joined the Fascists in 1919 and was one of the founders of the PNF. He was one of the Quadrumvirs leading the March on Rome. Bianchi became Party Secretary in 1923 and played a key role in organising the fascist list for the elections in 1924. He was appointed to the Fascist Grand Council, but lost influence in the party due to ill health. He died of TB in 1930.

What was the aftermath of WWI in France?

Most of the fighting had taken place in France, where millions had been made homeless by artillery bombardments; farmland, roads, railways, factories, and entire cities had been destroyed.

The legacy of Fascism by 1945

Mussolini certainly promised to change Italy. In many ways, he succeeded, both by design and in ways that he had never intended. Some evidence and arguments for and against the view that: 'The collapse of these changes were for the better, at least temporarily, but many were of Fascism in 1943-45 was mainly disastrously for the worse. due to external factors beyond In one sense, the legacy of Fascism by 1945 was obvious. Fascism, Mussolini's control.' or at least Mussolini's version of Fascism, had led Italy into war in 1940. The war had turned out badly, By May 1945, the Italian people had suffered five years of military defeats, economic hardships and occupation by foreign powers. Fascist Italy was in ruins, Mussolini was dead and his regime and its ideology were totally discredited. The legacy of Fascism could be summed up as a mixture of failure and evil. There was perhaps more to it than that. The consequences of Mussolini's rule in Italy were undeniably more harmful than beneficial, but it is possible to make a retrospective assessment of Mussolini's achievements (some of them unintentional) as well as his evident crimes and failures (Figure 13).

Changing diplomatic alignments in Europe; end of collective security; appeasement

Mussolini develops the Quadripartite Pact (1933), establishing an alternative to the League of Nations for European diplomacy, and setting out that smaller nations would not have as much say in "Great Power" relations. Stresa Front was also signed in 1935, though the ultimate impact was that most of these agreements were ignored as authoritarian rulers became more isolationist.

The end of Fascism, 1943-45

Mussolini fell from power not once but twice: first in July 1943, when his own Fascist Grand Council turned against him and King Victor Emmanuel III dismissed him; and finally in April 1945, when he was captured and summarily executed by anti-fascist partisans. In the 20 months between these two downfalls, the people of Italy experienced upheaval and suffering under two parallel governments during two parallel wars. In the South, ruled by a new Italian government under Marshal Badoglio, allied forces advanced slowly against strong resistance from the German armies. In the North, Mussolini came back to power at the head of the German-dominated puppet State known as the Salo Republic, causing a vicious civil war of Italians against Italians as anti fascist partisans attacked the fascist brigades and German occupiers. These two wars were a tragedy for Italy. Hundreds of thousands died and millions faced hardship as the war dragged on. The first main cause of this continuing tragedy was the failure to secure a negotiated peace during the Forty-Five Days after the fall of Mussolini. The second cause was the failure of the allied armies to deliver a knockout blow to the German forces occupying northern Italy in 1944. As a result of the long drawn out war and Civil War, bitter social and political divisions were stored up for the future.

Fiume

Mussolini gained another significant foreign policy success in 1924, when he secured Italian possession of the sea port of Fiume (Rijeka) on the Dalmatian coast. Fiume was a disputed territory after the collapse of Austria-Hungary, claimed by both Italy and Yugoslavia. The post war peace settlement established a compromise solution, by which Fiume became a free city. For 15 months in 1919-20, Fiume had been occupied by an unofficial force of 2,000 Italian volunteers led by Gabriele D'Annunzio. After months of heavy pressure from the Great Powers, the Italian government of Vittorio Orlando reluctantly expelled D'Annunzio's forces from the city in December 1920. Inevitably, this was unpopular with most Italians and severely weakened the government. In acquiring Fiume, therefore, Mussolini was playing to a very receptive national audience. Mussolini believed that Italy had the opportunity to establish political dominance in the Western Balkans, especially over Albania. In his speeches to enthusiastic fascist audiences, Mussolini often made boastful claims that the Adriatic Sea was 'by rights Italian'. On the other hand, he was still fairly cautious and realistic in his early years of power, and did not want to alarm foreign powers or the Italian Conservatives. Mussolini showed more diplomatic skill over Fiume than he had over Corfu. He persuaded the government of Yugoslavia to accept Italian annexation of Fiume by the Treaty of Rome in January 1924. The situation in Fiume had remained very chaotic since 1921 and the Rome agreement promised to establish order there. Mussolini also toned down the more extreme claims he had been making against Yugoslavia. Economically, the acquisition of Fiume was useless (because the port was cut off from its hinterland) but what Mussolini cared about was prestige. Success over Fiume significantly strengthened his popularity, without him having to take any risks.

Italian expansion into Abyssinia (1935-1936)

Mussolini secretly instructed forces to attain a total conquest of Abyssinia after Haile Selassie requests a League of Nations investigation. In May 1936, Abyssinia formally annexed by Italy. The war in Abyssinia increased nationalist sentiment domestically, which was further encouraged by the League's condemnation and economic sanctions.

Italian expansion into Albania (1939)

Mussolini wanted to regain initiative and imitate Hitler's success after Hitler invaded all of Czechoslovakia in March 1939. The invasion of Albania was rather meaningless, as it had been a satellite state. However, Mussolini wanted to project an image of strength. King Zog of Albania attempted to resist Italian invasion, but to no avail. Albania later used as a base to invade Greece in 1940.

Fascist aggression, 1935-40: Conclusion

Mussolini's foreign policy was informed by a personal desire for glory, plus ambitions for an Italian Empire and control of the 'Mare Nostrum'. His sense of destiny was fuelled by a series of foreign policy successes during the 1920s and 1930s, including a military triumph in the invasion of Abyssinia. Yet, you should also have gained an understanding of the weaknesses and indecision in Mussolini's foreign policy, and the problems within his military forces. Most importantly, you should see how Mussolini steadily drifted away from a potential alliance with Britain and France, into an actual alliance with Nazi Germany, expressed in the Pact of Steel.

Who was Yamamoto?

Naval Commander of the Japanese Forces, led the charge on Pearl Harbor.

International response to joint German and Italian aggression (1940)

Near the end, Britain stood alone against Nazi Germany, but US was largely unwilling to help, only marginally assisting with "cash and carry". Britain was unable to fight both Italy and Germany simultaneously, but under the leadership of Churchill successfully deflected invasion.

Key dates leading up to rise

November 6 and 7, the Bolsheviks seize power December 15, Temporary armistice with GermanyDecember, White armies begin to form in the Ukraine, beginning of the civil war 1918 January 18, Constituent Assembly convenes, and is forcibly broken up by the BolsheviksMarch 3, Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed with Germany, ending Russia's involvement in the First World WarMarch 13, Trotsky appointed People ́s Commissar for War, takes charge of the Red Army 1920April 26, Poland invades RussiaJune, Poles driven back to Warsaw by Red ArmyNovember, Evacuation of the last White forces across the Black Sea 1921 Famine in Russia, nearly 5,000 000 dieMarch, Military uprising on Kronstadt IslandMarch 8, Tenth Party Congress in Moscow, Lenin announces New Economic Policy 1922: Stalin becomes general secretary of the Communist Party 1923: triumvirs begin their campaign against Trotsky and "Trotskyism" 1924: Jan Lenin dies Nov Stalin reveals "socialism in one country" for the first time 1927: Trotsky and Zinoviev are expelled from the Communist party and Kamenev from the Central Committee 1936:first show trial 1937: purges end; Stalin is in control 1945:Stalin begins to reassert power over the party and state 1948: Zhdanov dies 1949: Leningrad affair

Oligarchy

Oligarchy: the monopolisation of political power by social and political groups. In an oligarchy, power is rotated or shared (and there may be the outward trappings of democracy) but is actually controlled by a narrow group for their own interests.

When was the Enabling Act passed?

On the 23rd of March, 1933, the Reichstag voted to give Hitler the power to make his own laws, passing legislation called the Enabling Act.

Mussolini and the King

On the afternoon of Sunday 25 July, Mussolini went to see the King. Il Duce was still over-confident. He had bullied and humiliated Victor Emmanuel ever since coming to power more than 20 years earlier and he could not believe that the King would be a serious challenge. Mussolini gave a long report on the military situation, as if he were still in control of affairs. The King then interrupted him to say that the war was irrevocably lost and that he had decided to dismiss Mussolini and to replace him as prime minister with Marshal Badoglio. A stunned Mussolini was arrested, bundled into an ambulance and taken away as a prisoner. Dino Grandi wrote in his diary that Sunday night (Source 3). Grandi and the other fascist leaders were premature to celebrate. They had supposed that Fascism would carry on without Mussolini but there was a violent reaction against the whole regime. People burned fascist uniforms and gave streets new anti-fascist names. The dismissal of Mussolini was popular with many people because they believed it would bring a quick end to the war. Hitler could see this, too. He immediately launched plans for the German occupation of Italy, for the arrest of the King and Marshal Badoglio and for setting Mussolini free again.

Mussolini the statesman, 1923-35

One of the key themes of Italian Fascism was the promise to rescue the nation from the sense of national humiliation following the peace settlement after the First World War. Mussolini promised to restore national pride and make Italy an empire to be reckoned with on the international stage. Mussolini also talked the language of violence and war, promising to build up Italy's armed forces and to turn the Italian people 'from sheep into wolves'. Outwardly, at least, Mussolini achieved considerable foreign policy successes. Italy gained influence over smaller neighbours, including Austria and Albania, Mussolini gained prestige as a statesman on the world stage; the formation of the Stresa Front in 1935 seemed to mark British and French recognition of Italy's status as a European power. At the same time, however, Mussolini was seeking to expand Italian influence in the Mediterranean and Africa, if necessary by wars of aggression. Between 1923 and 1935, therefore, fascist foreign policies often seemed inconsistent and contradictory.

J. Pollard, The Fascist Experience in Italy, 1998

Outside the major cities of northern Italy, Fascism spread into the countryside and small towns of a specifically defined area. It never managed to move beyond this 'ghetto' until after the March on Rome, when seizure of the centralised Italian system of government gave Mussolini and the Fascists control over local government too. Through the prefects, Fascism was able to impose itself on local councils in many areas outside its classic heartlands, especially in the South.

What was the cost of the first world war?

Over the course of World War One, over 8 Million soldiers had died, and approximately twice that number had been wounded or maimed. For instance, Germany had the highest number of killed people by 2 Million. Then came Russia with 1.7 Million and France with 1.4 Million.

Key profile

Palmiro Togliatti (1893-1964) Togliatti was a founder member of the Italian Communist Party (PCI) in 1919 and was leader of the PCI from 1927 until his death in 1964. Most of his career was spent in exile outside Italy. He was trained alongside other foreign Communists in Moscow and played a key role in the intervention in the Spanish Civil War. Togliatti went back to Italy in 1944 and led the PCI into the so-called 'Salerno Turn', which rejected armed struggle in favour of cooperation with democratic parties. The PCI took part in the first post-war governments until 1947, with Togliatti as Minister for Justice.

Pierre Laval

Pierre Laval (1883-1945) was a French politician who started his career as a Socialist but later adopted right-wing views. He was prime minister four times in all, first in 1931. In 1935, as Foreign Minister, he agreed the Hoare-Laval Pact, attempting to find a compromise solution to the crisis caused by the Italian invasion of Abyssinia. In 1940, he became prime minister in the pro-Nazi government of Vichy France headed by Marshal Pétain. Because of this collaboration, Laval was executed for treason in October 1945.

Pietro Badoglio

Pietro Badoglio (1871-1956) Marshal Badoglio held high rank in the Italian army in the 1920s, despite being widely blamed for the terrible defeat at Caporetto in 1917. He was Governor of Libya from 1929 to 1933. In December 1935, he led Italian forces to victory in Abyssinia and was promoted to the rank of Marshal. Badoglio was opposed to the Pact of Steel. He resigned from his command in December 1940. When Mussolini was removed from power in 1943, the King appointed Badoglio temporary prime minister but he was later replaced by Bonomi. The 'pacification' was done by very brutal methods that nowadays would be described as 'ethnic cleansing'. More than 100,000 of the native population were expelled from their land and penned up in concentration camps in harsh conditions. Death rates were high. Badoglio openly encouraged his men to be 'firm' and 'ferocious'. In putting down a native rebellion in 1930-31, the Italian forces used poison gas to bomb the rebels. By 1933, the 're-conquest' of Libya was over and the concentration camps were closed. Mussolini was ready to move on to his next target, Abyssinia.

Pope Pius XI (1857-1939)

Pius XI (Cardinal Achille Ratti) was elected pope in February 1922, just before Mussolini's rise to power. Pius XI clashed with the fascist regime, often over issues connected to education and youth, He issued a papal encyclical denouncing totalitarianism in 1931. In 1938, he showed disapproval of Mussolini's race laws. The Pope was also ready to collaborate, however, especially in the historic Lateran Pacts of 1929. Pius XI negotiated similar treaties with foreign powers, such as Germany in 1933, and strongly supported Franco during the Spanish Civil War. He died in 1939.

What was unique about some recruitments of Jews in Poland?

Poland had the largest population of jews with an entire population of 400,000 Jews in Warsaw forced to leave their homes and move to a new "Jewish Sector" called a Ghetto. Unable to work, trade, or get food, the Jews in Warsaw gradually sickened and starved. Despite the relative success of an armed revolt, over 90% of the Jews in Poland died.

What is "Autarky?"

Policies designed to achieve self-sufficiency by reducing imports and maximizing domestic production

International response to German aggression (1933-1938)

Policy of collective security attempted, but held back by three means: 1. Britain opposes France's idea of encircling Germany, leading to a stalemate; 2. Britain was unwilling to enter a naval race with its navy already at capacity; 3. Mussolini's invasion of Abyssinia left the Stresa Front in ruins. Britain and France prepared military responses to the remainder of Hitler's invasions, but did not actually react in any notable way.

Key profile

Pope Pius XII (1876-1958) Pius XII (Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli), sometimes known as 'Hitler's Pope', became the subject of huge controversy after 1945 because of his perceived failure to speak out against anti-Jewish atrocities, such as the round up of Roman Jews in October 1943. Pacelli was a diplomatic expert, who spent many years in Germany. He negotiated the Concordat between the papacy and Nazi Germany in 1933. He was elected pope in 1939. His defenders claim Pius XII'S diplomacy behind the scenes secured protection for many Jews. His critics have accused him of virtual collusion with German, Austrian, Croatian and Italian war criminals.

Prince Konoe's Government (Jun 1937-38)

Prince Konoe took over and it was hoped he could help control the army. Soon it became apparent that he could not.

In short, what did Göbbels think of propaganda & censorship?

Propaganda was a government prerogative, Goebbels claimed, and to be successful, propaganda messages had to be kept simple and repeated often. "What luck for governments that people don't think," he wrote. "Intellectual activity is a danger to the building of character."

Quadrumvirs

Quadrumvirs: the leaders of the four columns of the March on Rome: Italo Balbo; Michele Bianchi; Emilio De Bono; and Çeşare Maria De Vecchi. The term was taken from the Quadrumvirate who had been joint leaders of the Republic in Ancient Rome.

Reactionary or revolutionary? HISTORIOGRAPHY

Reactionary 1. Fascism was a movement brought about by industrialization, democracy, and the post-war era in Italy. 2. → Alexander DeGrand: Fascism was a pragmatic political program to maximise support rather than a consistent ideology. 3. Mussolini appealed to different groups at different times, often offering contradicting policies to secure support.

What was the aftermath of WWI in Russia?

Revolution had broken out in Russia in 1917, and more than 30% of its land had been seized by Germany and Austria in the treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

Reactionary or revolutionary? HISTORIOGRAPHY

Revolutionary 1. Fascism was a new movement that aimed to transform Italy. 2. It provided a new ideology besides a new socio-economic system. 3. → Jacob Salwyn Schapiro: Fascism was a middle-class oriented revolutionary movement that attempted to establish a new social order that was not based on socialism or capitalism 4. " Fascism is something unique in modern history, in that it is a revolutionary movement of the middle class directed, on the one hand, against the great banks and big business and, on the other hand, against the revolutionary demands of the working class.

Roberto Farinacci

Roberto Farinacci (1892-1945) was a leader of the violent right-wing elements in the fascist movement and played a key role in the use of intimidation by the fascist squads. He became Secretary of the Fascist Party in 1925, but his influence declined because he was seen as too extreme. Farinacci made a comeback during the Abyssinian War and was appointed to the Fascist Grand Council in 1937. He was very pro-German and anti-Semitic. He was responsible for enforcing the Race Laws from 1938 and strongly supported the war in alliance with Germany. He was executed by Italian partisans in 1945.

Rodolfo Graziani

Rodolfo Graziani (1882-1955) General Graziani made his reputation in the 'pacification' of Libya from 1926 to 1934. He commanded Italian forces on the southern front in the Abyssinian War. From 1937, he was Governor-General of Abyssinia. He later became chief of the general staff but resigned in 1941 after failures in the campaign in Egypt. Graziani was the only senior general to stay loyal to Mussolini after July 1943 and was rewarded with the post of Defence Minister in the Salo Republic. In 1945, he was given a long prison sentence for collaboration with the Nazis but was released after a few months.

Chinese Communist 🎉Party🎉 (CCP)

Russia set up an international communist organisation, the Comintern, in 1919 and sent Grigory N.Voyinsky to China in 1920. Voyinsky met Li in Beijing and Chen in Shanghai; they organised a socialist youth league in order to recruit young "intellectuals". In 1921, there were around 50 members and many of which were in the 1919 demonstrations Mao Zedong (a protege of Li Dazhao) started his own group in Changsha

2nd Mussolini P1

SOURCE I: It offers information on different factors influencing Mussolini's decision. For example, the fact that Italy did not make the territorial gains that it believed were promised to them. Mussolini wanted revenge on Abyssinia. Mussolini believed that Britain and France were unlikely to intervene in any conflict with Abyssinia. SOURCE J: Abyssinia was completely unprepared for war in 1935 and Italy, with its technological advantage, would achieve an easy victory. Mussolini believed Abyssinia was uncivilized. SOURCE K: Mussolini wanted to create an African empire by invading Abyssinia, eradicating the memory of the defeat of Adowa. Mussolini's domestic policies were failing and he needed to maintain morale at home by a successful overseas war against weak opponents. Mussolini also saw little danger of interference from Britain and France in 1935 who he considered as allies. Source L Mussolini thought that Fascism had to show that it had an effective foreign policy and the invasion of Abyssinia was a perfect way of demonstrating it. Italy was still suffering economically from the Depression and a successful colonial conquest, which also reversed the humiliation of Adowa, was the perfect solution to criticism at home. Own knowledge: Candidates may offer further detail on the relationship between Italy, Britain and France. For example, candidates may discuss the Franco-Italian Pact, the Stresa Front, the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and their impact. Candidates may argue that the attitudes of Britain and France towards Italy indicated to Mussolini that the League would also be ineffectual in taking any unified action against the invasion. Its policy of collective security had been weakened by the Manchurian Incident in the 1930s. Candidates may also include some specific details concerning the failures of Italian social and economic domestic policies in the 1930s and Mussolini's attempt to achieve autarky as factors behind the invasion.

Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1941)

Set off by the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, and led to full-scale war with China by July 1937; Rape of Nanjing occurred

Sir Samuel Hoare

Sir Samuel Hoare (1880-1959) was Britain's Foreign Minister in 1935 but was forced to resign by the furious public condemnation of the Hoare-Laval Pact. (Hoare already knew Mussolini well. As an army intelligence officer during the First World War, Hoare paid £6,000 to the then unknown journalist, Benito Mussolini, to finance his propaganda campaign to keep Italy fighting in the war after the shock of defeat at Caporetto.) From 1940 to 1944, Hoare was British Ambassador in Spain and played an important role in persuading the Franco regime to remain neutral in the Second World War.

How did some Jews survive in the concentration camps?

Some Jews survived by working with the Nazis, helping to process newly-arrived prisoners and sort through their belongings and dispose of their bodies after their murders.

Nazi Propaganda argues that Hitler had a plan since the very beginning:

Step by Step Adolf Hitler ripped up the dictated Treaty of Versailles! 1933 Germany leaves the League of Nations created by Versailles 1934 Reconstruction of the Wehrmacht, the navy and the Luftwaffe begun! 1935 Saarland brought back home! Armed power of the Reich regained! 1936 Rheinland completely liberated! 1937 The myth of war guilt ceremoniously extinguished! 1938 Germany and Austria united in the Reich! Greater Germany achieved! Therefore the whole of Germany will acknowledge their liberator on 10th April. Adolf Hitler All say: YES!

The Battle of Caporetto

The Battle of Caporetto (now Kobarid in Slovenia) was an epic battle between Italian and Austrian forces, fought high in the Dolomite mountains over a period of many months in 1917. There is a brilliant account of the battle, and its impact on Italy, in The White War by Mark Thompson (2008) and a great fictional account in For Whom The Bell Tolls, by Ernest Hemingway.

Weimar problems 1919-23 [ILRIM]: Left-wing Rebellions

The Communist KPD hated the new government: - In Jan 1919, 50,000 Spartacists rebelled in Berlin, led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Leibknecht. - In 1919, Communist Workers' Councils seized power all over Germany, and a Communist 'People's Government' took power in Bavaria. - In 1920, after the failure of the Kapp Putsch, a paramilitary group called the Red Army rebelled in the Ruhr.

The Duke of Aosta

The Duke of Aosta (1869-1931) Emanuele Filiberto, the second Duke of Aosta, was a cousin of King Victor Emmanuel III and an ally of Mussolini during his rise to power. Aosta commanded Italian armies in the First World War and had very nationalistic and militarist views. In the post-war crisis, he was sympathetic to the Fascist Party and provided a link between Mussolini and the ruling elites. He also hoped that Victor Emmanuel would abdicate 'in favour of a stronger man' - himself. Mussolini promoted Aosta to the rank of Marshal of Italy in 1936.

Italy without Mussolini and the continuation of war

The Forty-Five Days from Mussolini's dismissal on 25 July to the announcement of Italy's surrender on 8 September had a crucial impact on Italy. The King and Badoglio hoped for a swift, painless exit from the war but had made only sketchy plans to negotiate peace with the allies, They did not move quickly or decisively enough. Hitler did. Most of northern Italy came under complete German control. Mussolini was released from captivity and restored to power. The Italian people had to endure nearly two more years of war and Civil War. The King and Badoglio feared the consequences of declaring an immediate end to the war. They wanted to get out of the war without losing their own power and without having to fight against the Germans. Grandi had advised the King that the only solution was to immediately change sides and to declare war on Nazi Germany, but Badoglio was terrified of provoking a strong German reaction by making such a move. He hoped for Italy to become neutral in the war, with allied and German armies pulling out, leaving Italy alone. This was hopelessly unrealistic because the Germans were determined to occupy Italy anyway, whatever the new Italian government did or did not do. There was no chance of Hitler allowing Italy to leave the war without a fight. During the Forty-Five Days, therefore, the Badoglio government moved too slowly and sent out confused messages, both to the allies and to the Italian people. In the meantime, Hitler rushed extra troops into Italy and stationed German units alongside Italian forces to guard against the danger of Italy making a separate peace. On 8 September, news leaked out that an armistice had been agreed. A radio announcement was rushed out to proclaim the end of hostilities: "The Italian government, acknowledging the impossibility of continuing the unequal struggle against the overwhelming power of our opponents, and with the aim of sparing the nation from further and more serious harm, has requested an armistice. This request has been met. Consequently, all hostilities against Anglo-American forces by Italian forces must stop. Italian forces, however, will resist attacks coming from any other source.' The government broadcast was deliberately vague - it said next to nothing about what should be done about fighting against the Germans, something that was almost inevitable. The Badoglio government was still clinging to the impossible dream of getting the Germans out of Italy without having to fight them. Italian armies were based far and wide - in France, Croatia, Greece and the Greek islands. They received no clear orders. This resulted in dangerous tensions between Italian and German forces, as the Germans were determined to prevent Italian forces from surrendering or changing sides. The most explosive example of the chaos and uncertainty was the massacre of 8,500 Italian troops by German forces on the island of Kefalonia in the last week of September. On the morning of 9 September, King Victor Emmanuel III and his staff evacuated Rome and left it to the Germans. General Kesselring moved very swiftly to station German military units in Rome. There were some instances of resistance against the Germans and several casualties, but within 48 hours the city was under German control. Rome would not be liberated until almost a year later, in June 1944. On 12 September 1943, the hopes of an early end to Italy's war were hit by Mussolini's escape from captivity. After his arrest on 25 July, Mussolini had been moved to various secure locations until he ended up at a hotel in a ski resort in the Gran Sasso mountains, north-east of Rome. This supposedly secret location was detected by the Germans who launched Operation Oak, a daring airborne raid by gliders and light aircraft, led by Otto Skorzeny. Mussolini was 'liberated' from Gran Sasso and flown to a hero's welcome in Vienna. The escape was a propaganda coup for the Germans and for Mussolini, who was effusively grateful to Hitler. Mussolini, however, was not really free. He was going to be used by Nazi Germany as a political puppet. Mussolini was taken back to Italy where he became leader of the new Italian Social Republic (Salo Republic) with its 'capital' in small towns on the western shore of Lake Garda. He hoped he would be able to rebuild fascist rule, at least in northern Italy, but it soon became clear that the Germans had no intention of allowing Mussolini to be independent. From September 1943, therefore, there were two different Italies. From Rome northwards, was the Italy still under German occupation, no longer allied to Germany on a supposedly equal basis but regarded suspiciously as a potential enemy to Germany and thus needing to be closely controlled. This was the situation facing Mussolini and his Italian Social Republic. South of Rome, recently liberated by the allies, was the 'Kingdom of the South', moving tentatively towards pro-Western democracy.

The Salo Republic

The Italian Social Republic (Repubblica Sociale Italiana or RSI) is commonly known as the 'Salo Republic' after the small lakeside resort on the western shore of Lake Garda, where some of the government agencies were based. However, the name is misleading. There was no real centre of authority for the RSI, as its various government departments were scattered over a wide area. Salo was in no sense a real centre of government and authority. Mussolini himself lived at Gardone, some miles north of Salo. Many key sections of the government were in Milan, several hours away by road. Mussolini had wanted his government to be based in Milan but the Germans blocked this proposal, on the grounds that there was too great a danger from allied air raids on Milan, The real reason was that they wanted to prevent Mussolini from having a REPUBBLICA SOCIALE ITALIANA significant power base - it suited them to have Mussolini sidelined at Lake Garda with his government ministers dispersed around northern Italy. The Salo Republic lasted for 600 days. It had all the trappings of a sovereign State. Rome was declared the 'official' capital, although in reality it was completely outside the authority of the RSI. Mussolini was Head of State and Foreign Minister of a republic that refused to recognise the King of Italy. There was a full set of government departments headed by cabinet ministers, who were mostly loyal old-style Fascists. Among the key figures who ran the RSI government were General Rodolfo Graziani, the Defence Minister; Guido Buffarini Guidi, the Interior Minister; and Alessandro Pavolino, boss of the Republican Fascist Party, the replacement for the PNF. The RSI had an army, a navy and even an air force fighting alongside the German armed forces. Recruiting soldiers for General Graziani's army was difficult, but by July 1944 there were four divisions totalling more than 50,000 men. In addition, there was the fascist police force, the Republican National Guard (GNR) and various fascist militias, such as the so-called Black Brigades. These paramilitary groups played a key role in fighting the Civil War against the partisans. The militias were often fanatical Fascists, rather like the squadristi of the early days of Fascism. Mussolini claimed that the Salo Republic represented a return to the ideology of 'true Fascism' (though it is striking that the RSI, a fascist State led by the founder of Fascist Italy, Benito Mussolini, did not include the word 'Fascist' in its title). Mussolini was keen to stress the socialist principles that he maintained had always been a key element in Fascism. He spent a lot of time stressing the importance of breaking away from big business and adopting radical 'anti-bourgeois' social policies.

How did the US underestimate the Japanese technological advancements?

The Japanese also modified their torpedo bombs, adding fins which would allow them to be dropped from airplanes, and then travel close to the surface, destroying U.S. warships.

How many attacks the the Japanese launch?

The Japanese launched three waves of attack, with planes returning to their Carriers to reload. The planned fourth wave was called off by Admiral Isoruku, after slightly less than 3 hours of continuous attack.

What were the Japanese war plans?

The Japanese military commanders had already created and initiated a plan to ensure the expansion and survival of the emerging Japanese empire, consisting of two main parts: 1. Launch a pre-emptive surprise attack on the U.S. fleet at their Hawaiian territory base at Pearl Harbor, crippling the U.S. and providing time for the Japanese to set up defenses against the inevitable response. 2. Simultaneously launch a massive and far-reaching attack, creating a defensive ring of islands surrounding the Japanese homeland, gaining natural resources and creating an Asian "Co-prosperity Sphere" which Japan would benevolently rule.

Why did Japan attack Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 ? Economic Lense

The Japanese navy presented its plan for war to the Japanese cabinet - and after some debate, the following was agreed on 4 September, 1941: Our Empire will [1] for the purpose of self defence and self-preservation complete preparations for war, [2] concurrently take all possible diplomatic measures vis-a-vis the USA and Great Britain and thereby endeavour to attain our objectives. [3 j In the event that there is no prospect of our demands being met by the first ten days of October ... we will immediately decide to commence hostilities against the United States, Britain and the Netherlands.

Mukden Incident

The Mukden Incident (1931) is a "Chinese" attack on a Japanese railway near the city of Mukden (had actually been carried out by Japanese soldiers disguised as Chinese); used by Japan as an excuse to seize Manchuria.

How did the Nazi's mass-murder the Jews?

The Nazis began sending tens of thousands of Jews to these "death camps," where they were processed, relieved of their clothing and belongings and told to go to shower after their long journey. In specially designed "showers" they were poisoned using a deadly gas called Zyklon B. Their bodies were relieved of any valuables such as gold fillings, and then burned. Arrested Jews were sent by train from all over Europe to extermination camps such as Auschwitz, and the number of dead rose to such an extent that specially designed furnaces had to be used to dispose of the bodies.

Treatment of the Opposition: Repression of the Opposition (2)

The Nazis implemented a series of repressive measures to deal with the opposition: 1. Structured repression 2. Gestapo (1933) 3. "Monolithic and all-seeing secret police" image 4. Encouraged informants 5. Smear campaigns (Demonization) 6. Forced resignations 7. Imprisonment 8. Concentration camps 9. Assassinations

Why did the Nazi's hold the "book burning rallies"?

The Nazis wanted to control what people thought about and read. Therefore, Goebbels held "book burning" rallies where books and novels by "degenerate" authors, whether Communist, black or Jewish, were publicly burned.

Frustrated Nationalism: the legacy of the past

The Risorgimento, the movement for national independence in the 19th century, aroused patriotic fervour and great expectations for Italy's future as a great European power. These high expectations were not fulfilled. Italian unification coincided with Bismarck's unification of Germany, but the rapid rise of Imperial Germany to Great Power status was in sharp contrast to the halting progress of Italian expansion, Italian ambitions to acquire a colonial empire produced negligible results and a good deal of frustration. In 1911, Italy did seize territory in North Africa from the Ottoman Empire following the invasion of Libya, but there were many failures. The most embarrassing failure was at the Battle of Adowa in 1896, when native armies decisively defeated Italian forces invading Abyssinia. The defeat at Adowa was especially humiliating at a time when other European powers were rapidly extending their empires in Africa and elsewhere, showing complete military superiority. The hope of gaining territory from Austria-Hungary, the German Empire and Ottoman Turkey was a key motive for Italian intervention in the First World War in 1915, but these hopes were only partly fulfilled. Italian armies did not win the glorious victories that were expected. The most important battle of Italy's war, the Battle of Caporetto on the Alpine front, ended in a shattering defeat, with many Italian troops and their commanders accused of running away. After the war, Italy was dissatisfied with the peace settlement. The port of Fiume, disputed with Yugoslavia, was made a free city and not awarded to Italy. German colonies in Africa were not given to Italy but came under British rule or were made mandates of the League of Nations. Italian representatives at the post-war peace negotiations were angered by the actions of the 'Big Three' (Britain, France and the United States) who frequently met separately and froze Italy out of important discussions. Participation in the war had been intended to enhance Italy's prestige but, in reality, it had the opposite effect. One of the themes of fascist foreign policy was to right the wrongs of the 'Mutilated Victory'.

Stresa Front falling apart:

The Stresa Front started to fall apart within a matter of weeks. In June 1935, without consulting France or Italy, Britain negotiated the Anglo-German Naval Agreement. This reassured Britain by restricting the German Navy to 35 per cent of the size of the Royal Navy; but it broke the terms of the Versailles Treaty, which prohibited Germany from having a large battle fleet. Both Mussolini and the French government blamed the Anglo-German Agreement for undermining what had been achieved at Stresa but, for Mussolini, this was more of an excuse than a reason. By June 1935, Mussolini was already committed to the invasion of Abyssinia (something he had kept quiet about at Stresa) and this was bound to cause a breach with Britain anyway. The summer of 1935, therefore, was a turning point for Italian foreign policy.

Impacts of the Tokugawa Era

The Tokugawa era in Japan saw the forcible removal of European influence from Asia. However, japanese leaders industrialized in order to emulate the U.S (economically and militaristically) 24% of Japan's wealth was invested into the army/navy in 1905 and at the start of WWI Japan has the 4th largest navy in the world and an army of 700,000 men. Japanese Emperor, Hirohito, recognised that Japan lacked the natural resources necessary in order to industrialize.

The Treaty of Neuilly: Bulgaria

The Treaty of Neuilly (signed November 27th 1919) forced Bulgaria to surrender its Mediterranean Sea coastline to Greece; to recognise the independence of Yugoslavia; to pay reparations of 100 million pounds; and to maintain an army no larger than 20,000 men. The Bulgarians were strongly resentful by the terms of this treaty, though it was merciful in comparison to the treatment given out to Germany and Austria.

Weimar problems 1919-23 [ILRIM]: Ineffective Constitution

The Weimar Constitution did not create a strong government: - Article 48 of the constitution gave the President sole power in 'times of emergency' - something he took often. - The system of proportional voting led to 28 parties. This made it virtually impossible to establish a majority in the Reichstag, and led to frequent changes in the government. - The German states had too much power and often ignored the government. - The Army, led by the right-wing General Hans von Seeckt, was not fully under the government's control. It failed to support government during the Kapp Putsch or the crisis of 1923. - Many government officials - especially judges - were right-wing and wanted to destroy the government. After the Kapp Putsch, 700 rebels were tried for treason; only 1 went to prison. After the Munich Putsch, Hitler went to prison for only 9 months

Weimar problems 1919-23 [ILRIM]: Invasion-Inflation: the crisis of 1923

The cause of the trouble was Reparations - the government paid them by printing more money, causing inflation (had a short term relief). In January 1923, Germany failed to make a payment, and France invaded the Ruhr. This humiliated the government, which ordered a general strike, and paid the strikers by printing more money, causing hyperinflation: - In Berlin on 1 October 1923, soldiers calling themselves Black Reichswehr rebelled, led by Bruno Buchrucker. - The Rhineland declared independence (21-22 October). - In Saxony and Thuringia the Communists took power.

Mare Nostrum: Italy's Mediterranean empire

The concept of Mare Nostrum (Our Sea), of the Mediterranean Sea as an Italian sphere of influence, was very appealing to many Italians. It harked back to the glories of Ancient Rome and of the maritime empire of Venice. It fitted with the idea of Italian cultural superiority. It enabled Mussolini to project Fascism as something new and exciting that would wipe away the sense of national humiliation following the post-war peace settlement. Mussolini hoped that control over the Adriatic would be expanded to include key strategic islands such as Malta and Crete. Further east, Mussolini aimed to replace British influence in Egypt and in East Africa with an Italian colonial empire. The Italian colonial possessions in Libya would be exploited to the full. The idea of Mare Nostrum included Italian dominance of North Africa. Libya (the Italian name for the combined territories of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica) had been an Italian possession since it was seized from the Ottoman Empire in 1911-12. Although huge in area, Libya had little economic value (nobody knew then about the huge oil reserves buried under the sand) but many nationalists like Luigi Federzoni promoted grandiose ideas about Italy's 'civilising mission' there. These pre-war nationalist ideas influenced the Fascists in the 1920s.

A closer look: Bringing down Mussolini?

The extent and importance of internal opposition to the fascist regime is still controversial. After Mussolini's fall, the Italian Communists claimed that industrial unrest and political activity on behalf of the workers had played a key role in bringing down Fascism. Many historians have disputed this, arguing that internal opposition had little or no impact on events in July 1943 and that communist influence in Italy only became significant much later, when the Salo Republic was already falling apart in the winter of 1944-45. It is true that the wave of industrial strikes starting in Turin in March 1943 showed the depth of anger and disillusionment at the harsh wartime conditions and the impact of heavy bombing raids. It is also true that one reason the strikes spread was the influence of Communist Party activists who steered workers' grievances over pay and conditions towards anti-war and anti-fascist protest. On the other hand, the police and the Fascist Party officials handled the strikes quite skilfully. The key organisers of the strikes were arrested. Concessions were made to the workers on higher wages and back pay. Although the strikes showed dissatisfaction with the regime, there was no popular revolution. Police reports on the public mood in the first half of 1943 indicated that people were tired, apathetic and 'switched off', but not on the edge of aggressive rebellion. His regime may have been seriously weakened by industrial unrest but Mussolini was not overthrown by a popular uprising. There was little organised anti-fascist opposition to his regime until after he had been dismissed from power. Mussolini's downfall was brought about by a 'coup from above' - a decision by the half-forgotten King of Italy, Victor Emmanuel, to remove the dictator who had overshadowed the monarchy for so long. What prompted the King to take this step was a revolt against Mussolini from his own generals and from dissidents within his own Fascist Grand Council.

Hitler's list of 25 demands included many Socialist ideas as well as nationalistic ones:

The fact that Hitler's list of 25 demands included many socialist ideas, as well as nationalistic ones meant that he appealed to a range of people = broad ideology & base = meets the needs of people = gives people an identity & sense of belonging & promises & restores pride of Germany:. 1. The union of all Germans to form a Greater Germany 2. The Abolition of the Peace treaties of Versailles and Saint Germain 3. Land and territory for the nourishment of the German people ("Lebensraum") 11. The abolition of incomes unearned by work 14. Profit sharing in the big industries 15. A generous development of provision for old age 16. The creation and support of a healthy middle class 25. The creation of a strong central government

Libya

The idea of Living Space for the expanding population was a key theme of fascist ideology. There was a lot of excited speculation about the millions of emigrants who would be settled in Italy's colonial empire and about the need to expand Italian colonial territories to make room for them. In reality, the number of Italians settled in North Africa was small. Instead of the 'millions' predicted by fascist propaganda, the real figure was about 50,000. Predictions about the wealth that would flow into Italy as a result of developing the colonial empire were also wildly unrealistic. The costs of running the colonies were always greater than any economic returns, These realities did not have any effect on Mussolini's policies and propaganda. Throughout the 1920s, his regime gave a high priority to the North African Empire. Bringing Libya under fascist imperial rule was not only a matter of immigration from Italy and of developing agriculture and the economy; it was also necessary to use the armed forces to carry out the 'pacification' of the native population. This was carried out between 1928 and 1933. De Bono was in overall command but the actual military operations were carried out by two rising stars in the Italian army, Pietro Badoglio and Rodolfo Graziani, both of whom later played prominent roles in all of Mussolini's wars. They both gained big reputations in Libya, in spite of the fact that De Bono, Badoglio and Graziani did not get on with each other and were obsessed by personal and petty rivalries.

Causes of Expansion

The impact of Japanese of nationalism and militarism rising popularity in Japan lead to their aggressive expansionist foreign policy, which were further boosted by political instability in China, wars against China (South Korean Peninsula & Russia and domestic issues: the Economic Crisis (due to Great Depression).

(b) 'Throughout the years 1923 to 1939, Mussolini's foreign policies were very successful.' Explain why you agree or disagree with this view.

The key requirement here is a clear, balanced argument in response to the question. (Balanced, of course, need not mean even-handed, it just means you need to show awareness of alternative views.) Your argument might be that Mussolini was indeed very successful until the fatal error of joining the war in 1940; or that he was successful up to 1935 before everything fell apart after the invasion of Abyssinia; or that his foreign policies were always unrealistic and over-ambitious and never achieved any worthwhile or lasting success at all. Whatever your interpretation, it should be set out clearly and concisely and supported by selected specific examples. It would be a mistake to try to give a comprehensive account of all foreign policies.

Who were the main players of the Paris Peace Conference?

The main players were the "Big Three": the leaders of the most powerful countries, each of whom had his own agenda (France, England & the US).

Why the fascist regime collapsed

The main reason why Fascism collapsed in 1945 is the obvious one: it was in 1945 that the Axis was finally defeated. The retreat of the German armies meant that the Salo Republic could no longer survive. The end of Mussolini in 1945, however, was not the first collapse of Fascism. The removal of Mussolini from power in July 1943 was more significant. Again, there is an obvious explanation - that Fascism collapsed because Italian involvement in the Second World War had gone disastrously wrong - but there were other important reasons. The collapse of Fascism was due to a complex mixture of foreign and domestic issues.

How did the military leadership respond to the coup d'etat?

The military leadership had to respond, and began to cleanse their own ranks of hotheads.

The Weimar Republic - Epic fails:

The position of Reichspräsident The political violence The political division The presence and prevalence of extremist ideologues heading parties Hyperinflation!

What happened to the Ruhr after the french invasion?

The richest part of Germany (besides those that had been taken from it in the Treaty of Versailles) was no longer producing goods, and the government was now faced with a wave of refugees from the Ruhr; expelled from their homes for following the government's orders.

The Stresa Front

The rising threat from Nazi Germany from 1934 onwards changed Mussolini's attitude to Hitler. It also raised deep concerns for Britain and France. In March 1935, Hitler announced his decision to ignore the Treaty of Versailles, which limited Germany's armed forces to 100,000 men, and to build up an army of 400,000 men. Hitler also announced plans to develop a German air force (also forbidden by Versailles) and to introduce conscription, Britain, France and Italy immediately started to seek joint action to guard against the German threat. Their response led to the Stresa Front in April 1935. Mussolini had always had contradictory attitudes towards Britain and France, especially Britain. On the one hand, Mussolini regarded Britain as a colonial rival, blocking his foreign policy ambitions. On the other hand, Britain was potentially a useful ally in countering the rise of Germany. From 1932, Italy's ambassador to Britain was Dino Grandi, who was generally in favour of keeping good relations with Britain, Mussolini met the French Foreign Minister, Pierre Laval, and the British prime minister, Ramsay MacDonald, at Stresa, in the beautiful setting of the shores of Lake Maggiore. It was another occasion for Mussolini to show off on the international stage; he made a flamboyant arrival at Stresa, dashing across the lake by speedboat. On 14 April, the Final Declaration of the Stresa Conference set out the joint agreement by the three powers to underline their support for the Locarno Treaties of 1925 and to maintain the independence of Austria, Germany was never mentioned by name, but it was plain that the whole purpose of the conference was directed against Germany.

What happened in 1907 after the US, France & GB made "equal" treaties with Japan on its expansion in the Pacific?

Their treaties however were only short-lived, because from 1907, however, the U.S. had a plan for war with Japan in the Pacific, called "Plan Orange;" the Japanese also began to recognize the U.S. as their main competitor in the Pacific.

Fascist Italy: Aggression in Corfu

There was a boundary dispute between Greece and Albania. Which was brought up to the league of nations. The Conference of Ambassadors which was authorized by the League of Nations to settle the dispute. From the outset of the negotiations, the relations between Greece and the commission became negative, the greek delegate accused Tellini of working in favour of Albania's claims. On August 27, in 1923 the Italian general Enrico Tellini, three of his assistants and their interpreter fell into an ambush and were assassinated near Kakavia, in Greek territory An ultimatum was sent by Italy to Greece following the event, with 7 demands, Greece replied by accepting 4 of them, The other demands were rejected on the ground that they infringe the sovereignty and honor of Greece. On the 31st of August 1923 the Italian Navy bombarded Corfu and has 10000 troops land on the island. The 30 minute attack killed 16 civilians, most of them children. After the Greeks appealed to the League of Nations, the Italians were ordered to evacuate but Greece was forced to pay Italy an indemnity

Influences behind Mussolini's foreign policy

There were several key influences pushing Mussolini's Italy towards an ambitious, expansionist foreign policy: 1. Mussolini's quest for personal glory on the world stage. Gaining prestige victories, even small-scale ones, was an important aspect of Mussolini's consolidation of power. 2. The recent experience of the First World War and the 'Mutilated Victory'. Ever since unification, Italians had been motivated by a sense of frustrated Nationalism, the feeling that Italy ought to be a Great Power but had somehow been cheated out of the international recognition the nation deserved. 3. Fascist ideology, with its emphasis on the concepts of national greatness, military strength and the glorification of war. In Italy, as in some other European countries, the experience of the First World War had fostered a cult of strength and violence, idealising the image of the storm trooper. 4. The sense of history - a desire to recreate the glories of Ancient Rome and the domination of the Mediterranean world by Roman and Venetian Empires. Liberal Italy had missed out badly on the great age of European imperialism before 1914 and Mussolini was pledged to put this right.

Japanese Empire Expansion (Continued)

They wanted to be seen as a world power, and so engaged in combat with Russia, taking Korea as a vassal state as a result of their victory. They outright annexed it in 1910 They took German possessions in the Pacific during WWI and the Treaty of Versailles (TOV) allowed them to keep them as their own. They expanded into China creating the puppet state of Manchukuo in Manchuria in 1931. In 1937 there was an incident at the Marco-Polo bridge (probably staged) that set off the outright invasion of all of China. The US imposed an embargo of Japan and froze their fuel assets. Japan was very dependent on the US as they had very few fuel reserves of their own. This was one of the reasons for the attack on Pearl Harbour, as the Japanese wanted to invade the fuel and mineral rich possessions of the Netherlands, United Kingdom, and United States.

What did this "puppet state" allow Japan to do with its rebel-cititzens?

This allowed Japan to move some of its dissatisfied, nationalistic & aggressive citizens out of the home islands and into mainland China (expansionism is a tactic used by countries to do this = relieve tensions within one nation by sending them off to other places), and also fostered economic growth, particularly in the areas of heavy industry and chemical production, both of which contributed towards preparations for war.

What was illegitimate about the invasion of Manchuria?

This attack, however, was representative of massive dissatisfaction with the existing leadership, and was organized entirely by soldiers in Manchuria, the Kwantung Army, without authorization by the central command in Japan (independently from government = military & government not seeing eye to eye). If more was not done to placate the people, a coup d'etat seemed inevitable.

Historiography: Was Hitler a Planner, or an Opportunist, in foreign affairs?

This key question was a matter of life and death. - The Nuremberg War Trials of 1946 led to the executions of large numbers of former Nazis on the basis that they had helped Hitler to deliberately plan and launch World War Two. - AJP Taylor turned this thesis on its head in 1961 when he argued that Hitler was a traditional statesman, with traditional aims, who had muddled into war much as the Great Powers had done in 1914. The Nuremberg Trials had been a barbaric form of victor's justice.

First Five Year Plan (1928-32) outcomes:

This plan met industrial targets in less time than originally predicted. The production goals were increased by a reported 50% during the initial deliberation of industrial targets. Much of the emphasis was placed on heavy industry. Officially, the first five-year plan for industry was fulfilled to the extent of 93.7% in just four years and three months The plan was also referred to as the "Great Turn". Individual peasant farming gave way to a more efficient system of collective farming. Peasant property and entire villages were incorporated into the state economy which had its own market forces There was, however, a strong resistance to this at first. The peasants led an all-out attack to protect individual farming; however, Stalin rightly did not see the peasants as a threat. Despite being the largest segment of the population they had no real strength, and thus could pose no serious threat to the state While there was great success, there were also many problems with not just the plan itself, but how quickly it was completed. Its approach to industrialization was very inefficient and extreme amounts of resources were put into construction that, in many cases, was never completed. Many of the consumer goods produced during this time were of such low quality that they could never be used and were wasted. A major event during the first Five Year-Plan was the famine of 1932-33. The famine peaked during the winter of '32-'33 claiming the lives of an estimated 3.3 to 7 million people, while millions more were permanently disabled. The famine was the direct result of the industrialization and collectivization implemented by the first Five Year-Plan. The second five year plan (1933-7) continued the objectives of the first. Collectivization led to terrible famines, especially in the Ukraine, that caused the deaths of millions

Where did the Japanese pride manifest itself in?

This pride manifested itself not only in xenophobia and belief in the general racial superiority of the Japanese, but also in a strong military tradition centered around the Samurai code of Bushido--the "Way of the Warrior." In this, honor and bravery were the supreme qualities to be sought at all costs.

Economic Policies (3) - New Plan: FAILURES

To a greater extent the failures outweight the "New Plan's" successes, which is why it was renewed. 1. Import shortage: Though the agreement solved the trade issue in 1934, there was still increased demand for imports (which could not be met), especially as rearmament grew at a steady pace. 2. Economic distortion: Schacht worried about an economy that had been too distorted towards rearmament due to budget deficits and payment problems. Schacht believed that redrafting a new plan would reduce these negative impacts. 3. Hence, Schart wanted to encourage exports, and halt the increase in arms expenditure. 4. Hitler's disapproval: Hitler thought that Schacht's approach was overly conservative and would not get Germany where he wanted it to be. 5. Hence, Schacht was fired and Goering was appointed in 1936, who would take on German economic policy from that time onwards and almost completely gearing Germany's economy toward rearmament - meeting Hitler's demands.

Initial Problems in the Early 1920s

Treaty of Versailles War guilt clause (Article 231) made Germany take all the blame for WW1 and was included to get France and Belgium to accept lower reparations. The clause upset the german population and made them feel backstabbed by the government. The clause also caused further hatred by the Germans towards the other countries included in the treaty. The war guilt clause was under the "reparations" section of the treaty. In the treaty, Germany agreed to pay reparations to countries involved in the war to cover civilian damage. Economist John Maynard Keynes denounced the treaty's reparations clause by saying that such pressure upon the German economy threatened the stability of the whole European economy. This caused an already struggling German economy into an even worse situation, and make the citizens of Germany even more unhappy. The Great Depression Starting in 1929, the US entered a period called the great depression. Following the reparations clause, Germany turned to the US for loans so they can repay the countries such as England and France. With the help of the loans, the German economy began to recover and the Nazi party went down in popularity, but as the great depression hit, and the US no longer had the ability to loan money to Germany, Germany once again began struggling, upsetting the civilians and paving a path for the Nazi party to rise back by feeding to the anger of the Germans and promising change. Political Instability Following world war 1, the Kaiser Wilhelm fled and a new democratic government came into power: the Weimar Republic However, both the extreme left (e.g. the communists) and extreme right (e.g. Nazis) were against the Weimar Republic, causing various violent uprisings from various groups. For example, in 1919, communists Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Leibknecht, together with 50,000 Spartacists, rebelled in Berlin. The rebellion was stopped by the army and freikorps but both sides suffered significant losses.

Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939)

USSR and Germany agreed to remain neutral if either one was attacked by a third party, and divided Eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence

Summary and significance of the bombing of Pearl Harbour (2)

War in the Pacific (December 1941 - August 1945): Attack on Pearl Harbour: December 7, 1941 Luck: There was a consoling feature to the tragedy → two US aircraft carriers were not in the harbor at the time of the attack. (The USS Enterprise & The USS Lexington). As the USS Lexington was actually undertaking a similar mission as the USS Enterprise but to ferry marine dive-bombers to Midway. The Enterprise was scheduled to return to Pearl Harbor on December 6, but was delayed by weather... The Pearl Harbor attack severely crippled US naval and air strength in However, all but the Arizona and the Oklahoma battleships were repaired and returned. And the Japanese failed to destroy important oil storage facilities on the island. As said earlier, the "date which will live in infamy," as US President Franklin D. Roosevelt termed it, unified the US public and swept away any earlier support for neutrality. On December 8, Congress declared war on Japan.

Summary and significance of the bombing of Pearl Harbour

War in the Pacific (December 1941 - August 1945): Attack on Pearl Harbour: December 7, 1941 The surprise aerial attack on the US naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii by the Japanese was one of the major attacks (wins) imposed at this time of their co-prosperity sphere. At the same time as the Pearl Harbor attack, the Japanese bombed British Hong Kong and Malaysia, and sent 60,000 troops to invade and conquer Singapore. Nonetheless, their attack on the US precipitated their entry into WW2 given the consequences and rage of anti-Japanese sentiment that it created. The attack: 1. The first wave of attacks included nearly 200 aircraft, including torpedo planes, bombers, and fighter planes. → Of the 126 planes on the ground, 42 were destroyed, 41 were damaged, and only 43 were left undamaged. 2. On Sunday morning (a time chosen by the Japanese for a maximum Surprise) caused the destroyal of the battleship USS Arizona, USS Oklahoma ... of the 8 US Naval Battleships present all were damaged and four were sunk. Consequences: US Military Casualties totaled more than 3,400 including more than 2,300 killed. Comparatively, the Japanese lost more than 29 to 60 planes, perhaps one or two fleet submarines, and fewer than 100 men.

Fascist Italy - Benito Mussolini

Was initially part of the PSI (Italian Socialist Party), however he was expelled because of his support of intervention (during which there was a divide as to whether Italy should sign the Pact of London) in the First World War Became the Prime Minister of Italy in 1922, after a period of great instability in Italy (short-term small governments, not able to form proper coalition governments because of lack of votes), now his views centered on nationalism rather than socialism After this point, he quickly made sure to dispose of all political opposition, consolidating his power and establishing an authoritarian state in the following years

- Stripped Germany naked. - Class of 1940 predicted that we would be at war again and the Diplomats did not realise/foresee this. -- leading to new cannon fodder and the peace does not last.

What is the message of this political cartoon published in the magazine Punch by the cartoonist Dyson in 1919? Do an OPCVL analysis of this cartoon: What are the values and limitations of the:

Stage 3: The Golden Age (1924-1929)

Why this was such a good period (Stressman Era) of economic and political stability. Democratic government gained popularity and didn't look like it would be overcome by the nationalists, until the 1929 Economic Crash.

Who was Woodrow Wilson and what was his "agenda" at the Paris Peace Conference?

Woodrow Wilson was the President of the United States and, despite their late entrance to the war, he too had many objectives; in fact, he had his list of Fourteen Points, including: - To be repaid for the loans given to the Allies in the first years of the war. - To secure freedom on the high seas. - To reduce the size of armies worldwide. - To ban secret treaties. (e.g. Treaty of London) - To provide national self-determination to all people groups.

What were the work conditions at the concentration camps?

Work conditions in the concentration camps were harsh, and the type of labor was simple, and back-breaking; mostly digging and hauling. Camp discipline was brutal, and labourers could be beaten or shot for talking back to Nazi guards, for being late or working too slowly, or simply out of boredom. Failure to immediately obey resulted in death. Not to mention, various forms of public humiliation were more than common.

In November, Stresemann ceased the printing of the old currency and replaced it with:

a new one, called the Rentenmark.

Democracy

government by the people

What was the significance of the Nazi Myth of Hitler's role in building the Autobahn?

https://www.dw.com/en/the-myth-of-hitlers-role-in-building-the-autobahn/a-16144981#:~:text=Many%20people%20still%20believe%20that,eradicate%20mass%20unemployment%20in%20Germany.

What made the Kind do it? There were several pressures on the King in 1922 to make Mussolini PM:

next few slides: 1. The royal family 2. Fears of civil war 3. The collapse of the liberal oligarchy 4. Other political movements

Failures to prevent the NSDAP uprise

so before we close off the video let's just overview some of the failures uh of weimer germany and of germany in general of preventing the rise of the nazis in 1933 and then we can close off the video okay so the first major failure that we discussed was the collaboration of the elites the elites in the face of the wall street crash of 1929 wanted a central authoritarian figure that could effectively tame the economy take grip of it and bring about economic stability for their businesses to prosper once again uh for them there was no one better than hitler who not only was a more authoritarian figure that they knew we want to effectively take hold of the economy but they also saw hitler as a barrier to communism something very attractive because naturally communism uh threatened uh these elite elites uh capitalist and more right-wing economic desires another major factor that allowed hitler to emerge to the chancellorship was the the fact that the left failed to effectively form uh a coalition to oppose the nazis as we're going to see in the upcoming video of hitler's mainstream power the left which was empty made up of the kpd and the spd continuously antagonized each other and failed to effectively leave their differences aside for the interest of self-preservation and fight this ideological enemies there that was the nazis uh similarly other groups that could have uh well opposed the nazis like the church and the army for example failed to do so which did allow hitler to be given some significant room to improve the popularity of the nazi party and essentially the chancellorship also as we briefly discussed in the last video the fact that the nazi party was able to reorganize itself and grow as a more popular political movement uh during the golden age was a significant factor that allowed it to become uh the major party in the right side by 1932 and for hitler to become chancellor by 1933 because the nazi party reorganized itself the nazis emerged from this small movement in south germany to a nationwide one by 1929 which allowed them to effectively exploit the insecurities and uncertainties of the economic depression and grow extremely in popularity and lastly uh propaganda was a major factor that allowed the nazis to emerge at this time as we previously discussed in the other video propaganda allowed some of the key nazi figures like hitler gobbles gurim and even ernst rum leader of the sa to become these very popular and admired figures within germany propaganda allowed for nazi ideas like the nastification of germany and the vox and mineshaft to be widely propagated and enjoyed and appreciated by the population which made the people want a nazi government where these very policies could be implemented i'm thinking of doing a video solely through investigating how propaganda was used on each period of hitler's uh ascent maintenance and uh implementation of power so we can better understand propaganda but it is key that you guys take propaganda as one of the major factors that allow the nazis to propagate themselves as the only choice during the depression and also propagate nazi ideology uh which would become almost coat-like in nazi germany okay guys we finally did

Reichstag

the parliament of Germany before 1945 (and the name of its building).

These successes concerned relatively minor issues but helped to build up Mussolini's image as the man to restore national pride. Mussolini also extended his control over the State through a series of legal and constitutional measures:

■ The Palazzo Vidoni Pact of October 1925 provided a framework for industrial relations, bringing the trade unions under fascist control and strengthening the position of the employers. ■ The Leggi Fascistissime (fascist laws) of December 1925 provided Mussolini with a new title as head of government, rather than prime minister. The Leggi Fascistissime banned opposition political parties and free trade unions and established tighter censorship of the press. The laws reorganised local government, replacing elected mayors with podestas - powerful local officials appointed directly by the State. In January 1926, the fascist laws were extended, giving Mussolini permanent powers to rule by decree. ■ The Syndical Law (often known as the Rocco Law, after the Minister of Justice who devised it) was passed in April 1926. It made strikes illegal and laid the foundations for the Corporate State. ■ The Press Law of 1926 suppressed the remaining independent newspapers and tightened up press censorship. ■ The Charter of Labour in April 1927 extended the Rocco Law by forcing the fascist trade unions and the employers to enter into collective legally binding contracts.

Above all, Mussolini made it clear he would get tough with the fascist radicals. This was enough to reassure the Liberals and Conservatives; Mussolini won the next big vote in parliament. He had survived the Matteotti Affair, just, but he was badly shaken by how close he had come to political disaster. It is important, therefore, to analyse the reasons why Mussolini was not toppled from power in 1924:

■ The key decision was up to King Victor Emmanuel III, and he had already made up his mind in October 1922 that there was no credible alternative to Mussolini. ■ Mussolini had just won the elections with a huge majority and this seemed to give his government legitimacy. ■ The democratic parties badly misjudged the situation and took the wrong decisions. ■ It was difficult to unite the opposition around a single leader - some people proposed Gabriele D'Annunzio but he was now unwilling to step forward (partly because Mussolini bombarded him with letters claiming he was innocent and begging D'Annunzio to hold back). ■ Removing Mussolini would have required intervention by the armed forces and the generals were not keen to get involved in a civil war with the fascist militia. ■ Mussolini was clever enough to avoid provoking further opposition. He waited the crisis out skilfully, made appropriate-sounding responses and sacked a number of fascist ministers. (The historian Doug Thompson claims that this was a turning point in Mussolini's rise to power, the moment when Fascism became the 'interrupted revolution'.)