The Sciences of Anatomy and Physiology

Gross Anatomy

(also called macroscopic anatomy) Investigates the structure and relationships of body parts that are visible to the unaided eye, such as intestines, stomach, brain, heart, and kidneys. in these macroscopic investigations, specimens or their parts are often dissected for examination. Gross anatomy may be approached in several ways: systemic anatomy, regional anatomy, surface anatomy, comparative anatomy, and embryology.

Nervous System

A regulatory system that controls body movement by initiating responses to muscles, processes, and responds to sensory stimuli. Also responsible for consciousness, intelligence, memory

Organization

All organisms exhibit a complex structure and order.

Responsiveness

All organisms exhibit responsiveness, which is the ability to sense and react to stimuli

Coronal Plane

Also called a frontal plane, is a vertical plane that divides the body or organ into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.

Describe the science of anatomy.

Anatomy is the study of strutter and form. Anatomists are scientists who study the structure and form of or organisms. Specifically, they examine the relationships among parts of the body swell as the structure of individual organs.

Dorsal

At the back side of the human body The spinal cord is on the dorsal side of the body.

Lateral

Away from the middling of the body The arms are lateral to the heart.

___ physiology examines how the heart, blood vessels, and blood function.

Cardiovascular physiology examines the functioning of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.

List the subdivisions in physiology.

Cardiovascular physiology, neurophysiology, respiratory physiology, reproductive physiology, and pathophysiology

Inferior

Closer to the feet The stomach is inferior to the heart.

Superior

Closer to the head The chest is inferior to the heart.

Proximal

Closest to point of attachment to truck The elbow is proximal to the hand.

Cardiovascular System

Consists of the heart and blood vessels; the heart moves blood through blood vessels in order to distribute hormones, nutrients, gases, and pick up waste products.

Tissue Level

Consists of tissues, which are groups of similar cells that perform common functions.

Organ System Level

Contains related organs that work together to coordinate activities and achieve a common function.

Epithelial Tissue

Covers exposed surfaces and lines body cavities

What directional term would be most appropriate in the sentence "The elbow is ___ to the wrist"?

Distal

Sagittal Plane

Divides a structure into left and right portions that may not be equal.

Growth and Development

During their lifetime, organisms assimilate materials from their environment and often exhibit increases size (growth) and increased specialization as related to form and function (development). As the human body grows and develops, structures such as the brain become more complex and sophisticated.

Pathologic Anatomy

Examines all anatomic changes resulting from disease. Both gross anatomic changes and microscopic structures are examined.

Regional Anatomy

Examines all of the structures in a particular region of the body as a complete unit. For example, one may study the axillary (armpit) region of the body, and in so doing examine the blood vessels (axillary artery and vein), nerves (branches of the brachial plexus), lymph nodes (axillary lymph nodes), musculature, connective tissue, and skin.

Neurophysiology

Examines how nerve impulses travel throughout the nervous system and how nervous system organs work.

Comparative Anatomy

Examines similarities and the differences in the anatomy of different species. For example, a comparative anatomy class may examine limb structure in humans, chimps, dogs, and cats.

Microscopic Anatomy

Examines structures that cannot be observed by the unaided eye. For most of these studies, scientists prepare individual cells or thin slices of some part of the body and examine these specimens under the microscope. Microscopic anatomy has several subdivisions with two main divisions: cytology and histology

Urinary System

Filters the blood and removes waste products from the blood, concentrates waste products in the form of urine, and expels urine from the body.

Antebrachial

Forearm (the portion of the upper limb between the elbow and the wrist)

Distal

Furthest from point of attachment to trunk the wrist is distal to the elbow.

Section

Implies an actual cut or slice to expose the internal anatomy

Plane

Implies an imaginary flat surface passing through the body. The three major anatomic planes are the coronal, transverse, and midsagittal planes.

Posterior

In back of; toward the back surface The heart is posterior to the sternum.

Anterior

In front of; toward the front surface The stomach is anterior to the spinal cord.

Pathophysiology

Investigates the relationship between the functioning of an organ system and disease or injury to that organ system. For example, a pathophysiologist would examine how blood pressure, contractile force of the heart, and both gas and nutrient exchange may be affected in an individual afflicted with heart disease

Radiographic Anatomy

Investigates the relationships among internal structures that may be visualized by specific scanning procedures, such as ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), or x-ray.

Appendicular Region

Is composed of the upper and lower limbs, which attach to the axial region.

Catabolism

Large molecules are broken down into smaller molecules

Digestive System

Mechanically and chemically digests food materials, absorbs nutrients, and expels waste products.

List the subdivisions in both microscopic and gross anatomy.

Microscopic - cytology and histology Gross - systemic anatomy, regional anatomy, surface anatomy, comparative anatomy, and embryology

Organelles

Microscopic structures found within cells.

List the characteristics common to all living things.

Organization, Metabolism, Growth and Development, Responsiveness, Regulation, and Reproduction

Oblique Planes

Passes through a structure at an angle.

Homeostasis

Refers to the ability of an organism to maintain a consistent internal environment or "steady state"

Abdominal

Region inferior to the thorax (chest) and superior to the hip bones

Respiratory System

Responsible for exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between blood and the air in the lungs.

Anabolism

Small molecules are joined to form larger molecules

Systemic Anatomy

Studies the anatomy of each functional body system. For example, studying the urinary system would involve examining the kidneys (where urine is formed) and the organs of urine transport (ureters and urethra) and storage (urinary bladder).

Organismal Level

The highest level of structural organization in the body

Organ Systems

The human body contains 11 organ systems which are composed of interrelated organs that work in concert to perform specific functions.

Organism

The living being

What is the relationship between anatomy and physiology?

The sciences of anatomy and physiology are intertwined; one cannot study physiologic function without first having some understanding of anatomic form. Likewise,one cannot adequately describe and understand the anatomic form of an organ without first learning that organ's function.

Atom

The smallest units of matter.

Medial

Toward the midline of the body The lungs are medial to the shoulders

Rostal

Toward the nose or mouth The eyes are rostral to the back of the head.

Physiology

is the study of function of the body parts.

Anatomy

is the study of structure and form.

Reproduction

All organisms produce new cells for growth, maintenance, and repair. The somatic (body) cells divide by a process called mitosis, while sex cells (called gametes) are produced by a cell division process called meiosis. The sex cells, under the right conditions, have the ability to develop into a new living organism.

Transverse Plane

Also called a horizontal plane or cross-sectional plane, dives the body or organ into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) parts.

Regulation

An organism mud be able to adjust or direct internal bodily function in the face of environmental changes. Homeostasis refers to the ability of an organism to maintain a consistent internal environment, or "steady state."

Compare and contrast how anatomists and physiologists describe the esophagus.

Anatomists - The esophageal wall is composed of an innermost nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium, a middle layer of dense irregular connective tissue, and an outer layer of muscle tissue (which contains a mixture of skeletal and smooth muscle.) Physiologists - The esophageal wall is designed to withstand the abrasive activities associated with swallowing food. The mixture of skeletal and smooth muscle contracts sequentially, in order to propel food toward the stomach.

Describe the levels of organization in the human body.

Anatomists and physiologists recognize several levels of increasingly complex organization in humans. These levels, from simplest to most complex, are the chemical level, cellular level, tissue level, organ level, organ system level, and organismal level.

Explain how the studies of form and function are interrelated.

Anatomy and physiology initially may appear to be different sciences, but further reflection reveals that these two sciences are integrated, because form (anatomy) and function (physiology) are interrelated. Anatomists cannot gain a full appreciation of anatomic form without also understanding a structure's function. Likewise, physiologists cannot fully appreciate body functions without learning about the forms of the structures involved.

Molecule

Are formed when two or more atoms combine together. Examples of molecules include a sugar, a water molecule, or a vitamin.

Tissue

Are groups of similar cells that perform common functions. There are four types of tissues. Epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, nervous tissue.

Macromolecules

Are more complex molecules and include some proteins and the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules. Macromolecules form specialized microscopic subunits of cells called organelles, which are microscopic structures found within cells.

Cells

Are the smallest living structures and serve as the basic units of structure and function in organisms. The structures of cells vary widely, reflecting the specializations needed for their different functions.

Ventral

At the belly side of the human body The umbilicus (navel, belly button) is on the ventral side of the body.

Caudal

At the rear or tail end The buttocks are caudal to the head.

Endocrine System

Consists of glands and cells clusters that secrete hormones, which regulate development, growth and metabolism; maintain homeostasis of blood composition and volume, control digestive processes, and control reproduction.

Reproductive Physiology

Explores how the regulation of reproductive hormones can drive the reproductive cycle and influence sex cell production and maturation

Surface Anatomy

Focuses on both superficial anatomic markings and the internal body structures that relate to the skin covering them. Health-care providers use surface features to identify and locate important landmarks, such as pulse locations or the proper body region on which to perform CPR.

Female Reproductive System

Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and female hormones for example estrogen and progesterone, receives sperm from male, site of fertilization of oocyte, site of growth and development of embryo and fetus, produces and secretes breast milk for nourishment of newborn.

Male Reproductive System

Produces male sex cells (sperm) and male hormones for example testosterone, transfers sperm to the female.

Muscle Tissue

Produces movement

Connective Tissue

Protects, supports, and binds structures and organs

Integumentary System

Provides protection, regulates body temperature, site of cutaneous receptors, synthesizes vitamin D, prevents water loss

Skeletal System

Provides support and protection, site of hemopoiesis (blood cell production), stores calcium and phosphorus, provides sites for muscle attachments.

Which organ system is responsible for filtering the blood and removing the waste products of the blood in the form of urine?

The urinary system

Stimuli

A change in a regulated variable; event that provokes a cellular response.

What does it mean if an organism 'responsive' , and how does this characteristic relate to the survival of this organism?

All organisms exhibit responsiveness, which is the ability to sense and react to stimuli (changes in the external or internal environment). A stimulus to the skin of the hands, such as an extremely hot temperature, causes the human to withdraw the hand from the stimulus so as to prevent injury or damage. Responsiveness occurs at almost all levels of organization.

Anatomic Position

An individual in the anatomic position stands upright with the feet parallel and flat on the floor, the upper limbs are at the sides of the body, and the palms face anteriorly (toward the front); the head is level, and the eyes look forward toward the observe.

What subdiscipline of anatomy may explore how the lower limb differs between humans and chimpanzees?

Comparative anatomy examines similarities and the differences in the anatomy of different species.

Organs

Composed of two or more tissue types that perform a specific function for the body.

Nervous Tissue

Conducts nerve impulses for communication

Cellular Level

Consists of cells, which are the smallest living structures and serve as the basic units of structure and function in organisms. Cells and their components are formed from the atoms and molecules from the chemical level. The structures of cells vary widely, reflecting the specializations needed for their different functions.

Cardiovascular Physiology

Examines the functioning of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. Cardiovascular physiologists examine how the heart pumps the blood, what are the parameters for healthy blood pressure, and details of the cellular exchange mechanisms by which respiratory gases, nutrients, and wastes move between blood and body structures

Axial Region

Includes the head, neck, and trunk; it forms the main venatical axis of the body.

Organ Level

Is composed of organs, which contain two or more tissue types that work together to perform specific, complex functions.

Embryology

Is the discipline concerned with development changes occurring from conception to birth.

Chemical Level

Is the simplest level, and it involves atoms and molecules.

Cytology

Is the study of body cells and their internal structure.

Histology

Is the study of tissues.

Deep

On the inside, internal to another structure The heart is deep to the rib cage.

Superficial

On the outside The skin is superficial to the biceps brachia muscle.

Muscular System

Produces body movement, generates heat when muscles contract

Metabolism

The sum of all of the chemical reactions that occur within the body. Metabolism consists of anabolism and catabolism.

When you digest a meal, what type of metabolic reactions do you think you are utilizing primarily: anabolic or catabolic chemical retains? Why?

When you digest a meal, you are utilizing primarily catabolic chemical reactions, because the main goal is to break down larger molecules (such as starches in bread) into smaller molecules (such as simple sugars) that can be absorbed.

Midsagittal Plane

Also called the median plane, is a vertical plane and divides the body or organ into left and right halves

Describe the science of physiology.

Physiology is the study of function of the body parts. Physiologists are scientists who examine how organs and body systems function under normal circumstances, as well as how their functioning may be uttered via medication or disease.

Cranial (Cephalic)

At the head end The shoulders are cranial to the feet.

Lymphatic System

Transports and filters lymph (interstitial fluid transported through lymph vessels) and participates in an immune response when necessary.