the ULTIMATE

Muller v. Oregon

(1908) Authorized states to pass laws setting maximum working hours.

Gideon v. Wainright

(1963) Required states to provide public defenders for indigent defendants in felony cases.

Joint Committees

Congressional committees to discuss & supervise certain topics, with membership drawn from both houses. (ex., Committee on Library, Taxation)

At-large

Election of an officeholder by the voters of an entire governmental unit (e.g., a State or county) rather than by the voters of a district, a subdivision of that area.

Safe Seat

Electoral office, usually in the legislature, for which the party or incumbent is strong enough that reelection is almost taken for granted.

Faithless Elector

Electors that don't vote for the person they promised to vote for; Occurred 156 times (never affected outcome of election) Major problem with Electoral College

Fiscal Federalism

Federal government using money (grants) to influence & control states.

Voting Rights Act (1965)

Federal law protecting against racial discrimination in voting. Major accomplishment of civil rights movement vs. Jim Crow. Bans all discriminatory voting procedures. Requires ballots to be printed in minority languages. Section 5 = federal policing of states with history of discrimination (still necessary?)

Unfunded Mandates

Federal laws that require states to meet certain regulatory standards, but provide no money to help the states comply. Congress enacted a law in 1995 to curtail the practice.

Unfunded Mandates

Federal laws that require the states to do things without providing the money to do so. Examples: ADA (wheelchair ramps), NCLB (AIMs testing)

Trophic Level

Feeding position in food chain

Grants-In-Aid Program

Financial aid granted by federal government to the states with the funds available subject to certain conditions and to be used for certain purposes.

oil shales

Fine-grained sedimentary rock rich in solid organic material called kerogen. When heated, the kerogen liquefies to produce a fluid petroleum fuel.

Federal Election Campaign Act

First major federal law (1971) to regulate federal elections. Created Federal Election Commission (FEC). Required disclosure of sources of campaign funds (transparency), set limits on contributions to candidates (individuals = $1000, PACs = $5000), spending limits for candidates, limits on independent expenditures.

Electricity

Flow of electrons

work

Force x Distance

Describe amendment procedure

2/3 of both houses must agree to propose amendment or call convention and then must be ratified by 3/4 of states (article 5)

Discharge Petition

A procedure to bring a bill to the floor of the legislative body when a committee has refused to report it.

Cloture

A procedure used in the senate to limit debate on a bill (end a filibuster); requires 60 votes.

Electrolysis

A process in which electric current is used to separate water molecules into their component hydrogen and oxygen atoms Separates hydrogen from oxygen in water through 2H2O(l) → 2H2(g) + 02(g)

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

A proposed amendment to the United States Constitution, aimed at ending discrimination against women; defeated in 1982.

New Democrat

A term created by the Democratic Leadership Council in 1992, it denotes a more conservative, centrist Democrat.

litmus test

A test of ideological purity used by recent presidents in selecting and senators in confirming judges to nominate to federal courts.

Hyperpluralism

A theory of government and politics contending that groups are so strong that government is weakened; see also *Pluralism.*

Party Eras

A time period characterized by national dominance by one political party. There have been four major party eras in American history: the era of good feeling, the Republican era following the Civil War, the Democratic era following the election of Franklin Roosevelt, and the Republican era following the election of Richard Nixon.

Measurement Error

An error in collecting polling data. Example = response bias or confusing questions.

Religious Right

An evangelical conglomeration of ultraconservative political activists, many of whom support the Republican Party.

Convention Bump

An increase reflected in presidential preference polls immediately following a party's nominating convention.

Humidity

Amount of Water vapor in air

Critical (Realigning) Elections

An election that signals a party realignment through voter polarization around new issues. *Examples:* 1800, 1828, 1860, 1896, 1932, 1964

concurring opinion

An opinion by one or more justices who agree with the majority's conclusion but for different reasons that they wish to express.

Formal Amendment Process

Article V; the (very difficult) process of adding or deleting words to the constitution (27 times since 1788); propose by 2/3 vote of Congress or Constitutional Convention (never used); ratify by 3/4 vote of state legislators or state convention (only used once)

Grand Jury

Body of 12 to 23 persons convened by a court to decide whether or not there is enough probable cause (sufficient evidence) to justify bringing a person to trial.

Mutualism

Both species benefit

Sugar cane-based ethanol is a major component in the energy resources of ________.

Brazil

How does the burning of coal contribute to acid rain?

Burning coal releases sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.

Genetic drift

Change in allele frequency in pop due to chance event

South Dakota v. Dole (1987)

Congress is allowed to attach "strings" (conditions of aid) to money given to states (raise drinking age to 21 to get highway funds). Major tool of fiscal federalism.

Statutory Law

Law enacted by a legislative body.

Sunshine Laws

Law requiring agency meetings and decision-making process to be open to the public. One way of making agencies more accountable to Congress and the public.

Freedom of Information Act (1966)

Law requiring that the federal executive branch and regulatory agencies to make information available to journalists, scholars, and the public unless it falls into one of several confidential categories; also known as *Sunshine Laws*.

Bill of Attainder

Laws that punish individuals or groups without a trial. These laws are always unconstitutional.

Core

Layer of earth at center, composed of outer liquid layer and inner solid layer Twice as dense as mantle; hot; iron-nickel composition

Symbolic Speech

Forms of free speech guaranteed under the First Amendment to the Constitution, such as wearing a black armband to protest a governmental action or burning an American flag in protest for political reasons.

Which of these is a major reason that we have used fossil fuels rather than their alternatives?

Fossil fuels are much cheaper than most alternatives.

Elastic Clause

Found in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution, it gives Congress the power to make "all laws necessary and proper" to carry out the other defined powers of Congress; also known as the *Necessary and Proper Clause*.

Which of the following countries has the highest percentage of electricity generated from nuclear power plants?

France

North American Free Trade Agreement

Free trade agreement among USA, Canada & Mexico. Goal = promote economic prosperity & cooperation. Easier perhaps to achieve at regional level than global level (World Trade Organization).

1st Amendment

Freedom of religion (establishment & free exercise clauses), speech, press, assembly, and petition.

"Peace Dividend"

Funds allocated to national defense that might be spent on domestic needs because of the end of the Cold War.

Electoral College

Group of persons (presidential electors) chosen in each State and the District of Columbia every four years who make a formal selection of the President and Vice President.

Community

Group of populations

Civil Liberties

Guarantees of the safety of persons, opinions, and property from the arbitrary acts of government.

What type of bond forms between and enzyme and substrate at the active site?

H-bonds

Amicus Curiae Brief

Literally, a "friend of the court" brief, filed by an individual or interest group to present arguments / points of view in addition to those presented by the immediate parties to a case (lobbying). Solicitor General files Amicus Briefs for U.S. government.

Continental Drift

Idea that continents were joined as 1 large land called Pangaea & moved over time to current position Evidence: fit of continents, similar rock types, similar fossils, glacial deposits Hypothesized by Wegener

Engle v. Vitale (1992)

Mandatory nondenominational school prayer violates Establishment Clause (see also Santa Fe School District v. Doe striking down student-led prayer at school football games)

Republic

Representative democracy. Sovereignty rests with the people, as opposed to a king or monarch.

Initiative

Some states allow citizens to come up with their own ideas for laws to put on an election ballot. If the proposition passes it becomes a law. Requires many voter signatures to get on the ballot. Most direct form of democracy (citizen law-making)

Appropriations

Money used by Congress or a state legislature for a specific purpose.

Subsidies

Partial or full financial aid from the government

Turbidity

Particle matter suspended in water

National Convention Delegates

Party members that vote at the National Convention to select the party candidate for president. Pledged delegates follow the wishes of voters in primaries and caucuses. Unpledged "superdelegates" vote for whoever they want.

Loam

Perfect agricultural soil with equal portions of sand, silt, and clay

Ideological Party

Political Party based on a particular set of beliefs, a comprehensive view of social, economic, and political matters. *Examples:* Libertarian Party

Judicial Appointment Factors

Political ideology (litmus test); acceptability to Senate (not too radical); judicial experience; diversity

Talking Heads

Politicians who use sound bites or other means to present a superficial look at a policy position rather than an in-depth approach in explaining their views.

Bipartisan

Politics that emphasizes cooperation between the major parties.

Pardon Power

Power of the president to forgive a federal offense without penalty or grant release from a penalty already imposed. Based on kingly power to intervene in judicial process in exceptional cases.

Veto Process

President may veto any bill by returning it to Congress with explanation. Congress can override with 2/3 vote in both houses (very hard to do)

Line Item Veto

Presidential power to strike, or remove, specific items from a bill without vetoing it in its entireity; passed by Congress in 1996 and declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1998. *Supreme Court Cases:* Clinton v. City of New York

Impoundment

Presidential refusal to allow an agency to spend funds that Congress authorized and appropriated; essentially ended under the *Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974*.

ATP

Primary source of energy in cellular reactions

Drain tile suction

Radon Reduction Technique • If a house has drain tiles, suction can be applied to these tiles to draw radon-containing water away from the home.

Eutrophication

Rapid algal growth (algal bloom) caused by an excess of nitrogen & phosphorus, blocks sunlight, causing the death/decomposition of aquatic plants, decreasing dissolved oxygen (DO), suffocating fish Condition in which bodies of water contain excess nutrients, usually as result of sewage/fertilizers

Open loop recycling

Recycling process in which a product is recycled and becomes a different type of product The properties of the product may be degraded during this process

Thermocline

Region where temperature changes drastically

General Election

Regularly scheduled election at which the voters choose public officeholders.

Green Remediation

Remediation techniques that follow best practices, including minimizing total energy use (and maximizing use of renewable energy); minimizing air pollutants, including greenhouse gas emissions; minimizing water use; reducing, reusing, and recycling materials; and protecting the land and ecosystems

Deforestation

Removal of trees from forests by logging or burning

Model

Representation of process or object

Potential Energy

Stored energy or energy due to position

Mutagen

Substance that causes a genetic mutation

Teratogen

Substance that causes a malformation in embryonic development

Super Tuesday

The Tuesday on which a number of primary votes take place, with a heavy concentration of Southern states voting.

Foreign Policy

The actions and stands that a nation takes in every aspect of its relationships with other countries; everything a nation's government says and does in world affairs.

Direct Incitement Test

The advocacy of illegal action is protected by the First Amendment unless imminent action is intended and likely to occur. *Supreme Court Cases:* Brandenburg v Ohio (1969)

Extradition

The constitutional provision which allows a state to request another state to return fugitives.

Bully Pulpit

The Presidency is a "bully pulpit" - a good position from which to inspire Congress & the nation, with the help of the media, to follow his political agenda. Example = FDR's fireside chats, Obama's televised State of the Union Address...

Removal Process

The President may remove any appointed federal officer whenever he wants for any reason. However, the Supreme Court has upheld Congressional limits on removal power for Independent Commissioners (can only be removed "for cause").

Senate Leaders

The heads of the minority and majority parties in the Senate. Less powerful than the Speaker, they set legislative agenda for their party and help set the daily Senate agenda.

Bitumen

The heaviest, thickest form of petroleum.

Docket

The list of cases that the Supreme Court has agreed to hear (granted certiorari to) in a term (usually 70-100 cases)

Inherent Powers

The powers of the national government in foreign affairs that the Supreme Court has declared do not depend on constitutional grants but rather grow out of the very existence of the national government.

Pork Barrel Legislation

The practice of legislators obtaining funds through legislation that favors their home districts.

Honeymoon Period

The short period (days or months) following an election when a president's popularity and ability to influence Congress is at its highest.

General Purpose Grants

The smallest category of federal grants which may be used by states and local communities mostly as they wish; see also *Block Grants*.

Kinetic Energy

energy of motion

biofuel

energy recovered from biomass (plant material & animal waste)

British Thermal Unit (BTU)

energy to increase temp of 1lb of water by one degree F

Nuclear power plants ________.

experienced the most growth in the United States during the 1970s and 1980s

Theory

explanation that has been tested & supported by wide variety of observations & that new info in unlikely to discredit

Monoculture

farm focuses on just one organism; all resources are focused on producing it efficiently

constitutional courts

federal courts specifically created by the US Constitution or by Congress pursuant of its authority in Article III.

Survivorship curve

graphical rep of organism's probability of surviving until current age

Cancer Cluster

greater occurrence of cancer in a geographic area over time

The main reason for the current high rate of animal extinctions is

habitat destruction worldwide.

pastoralism

herding of animals that have been domesticated/partly domesticated

stare decisis

in court rulings, a reliance on past decisions or precedents to formulate decisions in new cases.

Municipal Solid Waste Landfill

landfill that receive household waste as well as nonhazardous materials

Karst Topography

landscape influenced by dissolution of underlying carbonate rocks w/ water, results in caves & sinkholes

Smokestack

large, tall chimney through which combustion gases and smoke are released

The element commonly used as a fuel in commercial nuclear power plants is

Uranium

Phosphates

Water Quality Indicator A type of nutrient Sources: Fertilizer, organic pesticides, and detergents

Other Industry

Water used in mining & production of steel/paper products 23.2 bill gallons/day

Climate

Weather averaged over long term (usually 30 years)

jurisdiction

authority vested in a particular court to hear and decide the issues in a particular case.

Cap rock

barrier of impermeable rock to prevent oil from seeping out

run-of-the-river flow

a hydroelectric generation plant where little or no water storage is provided

What is Hubbert's peak?

a prediction, based on rates of extraction and new discovery, of when a country's or global oil production will be at a maximum and then start to fall

Dust Bowl

a prolonged agriculture disaster in the United States due to improper agricultural practices and natural drought cycles

Coal mining exposes rock surfaces and greatly accelerates the process of __________.

acid drainage

What is the minimum input of energy that will start a chemical reaction?

activation energy

Gene flow

addition/subtraction of genetic info from group b/c of movements of breeding individuals b/t groups

Slash-and-burn

agriculture that involves burning a forest or field of vegetation and using the resulting ash as fertilizer—this is an ancient technique that pre-dates modern fertilizers

Precision

agriculture that uses technology, such as global positioning software (GPS) and remote sensing, to customize crop selection and chemical inputs to the system

"supreme law of the land"

anything part of constitution or created under US authority (article 6)

Technology

application of science to human problems/needs

External benefits

benefits that are received by those not immediately involved in economic transaction

The total number of living species is probably

between 3 million and 50 million

What are enzymes?

biological catalyst

catabolic reactions

break bonds between molecules; gives off energy Ex. hydrolysis

Volcano

break in earth's crust through which magma, gases, and ash escape Usually occur at plate boundaries, but can occur at non-plate boundaries where crust is thin and hot spot exists

trial courts

court of original jurisdiction where cases begin.

appellate courts

court that generally reviews only findings of law made by lower courts.

legislative courts

courts established by Congress for specialized purposes, such as the Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims.

how is amendment repealed?

create another amendment repealing previous (article 5)

Surface retort

critical process in oil shale mining; involves crushing & heating the shale, which generates solid & hazardous waste from crushed shale & water that can wash toxic organic substances into soil

Erosion

physical movement of materials that are weathered

A major barrier preventing more widespread use of biodiesel is ________.

political and economic inertia and current lack of abundant fueling stations

Evaporation

liquid changes to gas at temp below boiling

Why is phosporus an important biological molecule?

makes up ATP and NADP; nucleic acids and phospholipids in membrane

The biome that is most at risk due to over-harvest of organisms might be the

marine biome.

Name three examples of irreversible allosteric inhibitors.

nerve gas, sarin, and many insecticides are cholinesterase inhibitors

control rods

neutron-absorbing rods that help control the reaction by limiting the number of free neutrons

Two poles have the same charge

nonpolar bond

Background extinction

normal, low-level rate of extinction of species b/c of naturally changing environment conditions

what is the difference about the phosphorus cycle as compared to the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles?

not in atmosphere

The source of energy for nuclear power is ________.

nuclear fission

Where is the nuclear waste from nuclear power plants in the United States currently being stored?

on-site at nuclear power plants

The fact that there is a high sulfur content in the coal burned in South African power plants means that the ________.

power plants contribute to acid deposition

Dumpster Diving

practice of reducing consumption of goods through taking goods that have been disposed of by others

The location of specific biomes can be predicted based on

precipitation and temperature.

Population dynamics

study of how populations change over time

Endocrine Disruptor

substance that mimics hormones in the body, causes changes to reproductive cycles and growth patterns and metabolism and development

What happens in nitrification?

the ammonium compounds formed during decay are converted into nitrites by Nitrosomonas. The nitrites in the soil are then converted into nitrates by Nitrobacter.

Energy

the capacity to do work

Power

the rate of energy flow to get work done.

Mixed Waste

radioactive & hazardous substances that are housed together

Acid Precipitation

rain, snow, fog that has low pH (acidic) due to presence of transformed sulfur & nitrogen compounds

The energy bill passed by the U.S. Congress in 2007 ________.

raised the CAFE standard to 35 mpg for vehicles by the year 2020

Productivity

rate at which new biomass is produced

Albedo

ratio of reflected to incident light

Species richness

total number of species in area

sustainable society

society whose processes/function can continue forever

Metal

soft, shiny, ductile, malleable, good conductor

Alfisols

soil order in semi-arid to humid regions, often in hardwood forests Very fertile & imp to food production Typically have not been heavily leached unlike ultisols

Gelisols

soil order that is limited geographically to poles & to mountainous regions where permafrost is close to surface Decomposition occurs very slowly, so there is a high amount of organic matter

Clay

soil particles that are very small (less than 0.002 mm in diameter) particles are negatively electrically charged, and help retain positive ions such as potassium (crucial for plant growth). Does not allow water to pass through easily (smallest particle size), so it holds water (has highest water-holding capacities of soil)

solar energy system

solar power tower- uses mirrors to concentrate sunlight into central tower, heats up fluid and stores energy for the grid

Sublimation

solid changes directly to gas; water moves from solid form (ice) on surface to gaseous form in atmosphere

Hazardous Waste

solid waste that is toxic, carcinogenic, or mutagenic Have at least ¼ characteristics: • Are ignitable under certain conditions (waste oil and solvents) • Are corrosive (battery acids) • Are reactive (lithium-sulfur batteries) • Are toxins (mercury or lead)

Non-point Source

source of pollution is many or specific, but can't be traced

invasive species

species intro to ecosystem accidentally or purposefully that disrupt native pop & ecosystems

Name two examples of noncompetitive inhibition.

1. Some anti-cancer drugs inhibit enzymes involved in DNA synthesis and this disrupts cancer cell formation 2. Cyanide poisoning - Cyanide is an irreversible inhibitor of Cytochrome C, an enzyme used in cellular respiration and stops production of ATP.

Marbury v. Madison

(1803) Established principle of judicial review (the Court's power to rule an act of Congress unconstitutional). The Court did not again invoke this power until the Dred Scott decision in 1857.

McCulloch v. Maryland

(1819) Established that the federal government's power must be considered supreme within its sphere and that states do not have the power to interfere with the exercise of federal powers.

Gibbons v. Ogden

(1824) Interpreted Congress's right to regulate interstate commerce to include all forms of business, not just the exchange of goods.

Barron v. Baltimore

(1833) Established a precedent on whether the United States Bill of Rights could be applied to state governments.

Dred Scott v. Sanford

(1857) Effectively nullified the Missouri Compromise and declared slaves to be property, not citizens.

Slaughterhouse Cases

(1873) Drew a distinction between state and federal citizenship and ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment does not guard against all instances of state discrimination. In its ruling, the Court considered the amendment's original purpose; to protect citizenship rights of freed slaves.

Munn v. Illinois

(1877) Allowed states to regulate private businesses when "public interests" are involved; has since been modified.

Plessy v. Ferguson

(1896) Ruled that segregation is legal as long as accommodations were "separate but equal."

Cumming v. County Board of Education

(1899) Ruled that laws establishing separate schools for whites are constitutional even if there are no comparable schools for blacks.

Northern Securities Company v. United States

(1904) The first case in which the Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890) was successfully invoked to break up a business monopoly.

Standard Oil Company of New Jersey v. United States

(1911) Authorized the federal government to break up trusts for "unreasonable restraint of trade."

Schenck v. United States

(1919) Set the "clear and present danger" standard for restricting free speech, especially applicable during wartime; upheld the Espionage Act (1917).

Near v. Minnesota

(1925) Recognized the freedom of the press by roundly rejecting prior restraints on publication, a principle that was applied to free speech generally in subsequent jurisprudence.

Gitlow v. New York

(1925) Ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution had extended the reach of certain provisions of the First Amendment—specifically the provisions protecting freedom of speech and freedom of the press—to the governments of the individual states.

Schechter v. United States

(1935) Declared the National Recovery Administration (part of FDR's New Deal) unconstitutional on the basis that the NRA gave the executive branch regulatory powers that belonged exclusively to Congress.

Dennis et. al. v. United States

(1951) Upheld the Smith Act (1940), which made it a crime to advocate overthrowing the government.

Brown v. Board of Education

(1954) Declared segregation in schools unconstitutional, overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).

Roth v. United States

(1957) Defined obscene publications as those that attract "prurient interests" and lack any "redeeming social importance."

Mapp v. Ohio

(1961) Extended the federal exclusionary rule to states; this rule prohibited illegally obtained evidence from being presented in courts.

Baker v. Carr

(1962) Granted federal courts jurisdiction over state apportionment systems to assure that all citizens' votes are granted equal weight.

Engel v. Vitale

(1962) Ruled school prayer unconstitutional on the basis that it violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.

Abington School District v. Schempp

(1963) Declared school-sponsored Bible reading in public schools in the United States to be unconstitutional.

Griswold v. Connecticut

(1965) Ruled that the Constitution protected a right to privacy.

Miranda v. Arizona

(1966) Required police to make suspects aware of their rights to remain silent and to have an attorney present during questioning--the so-called Miranda rights.

Loving v. Virginia

(1967) Declared laws against interracial marriage unconstitutional.

New York Times Company v. United States

(1971) Overturned the Justice Department's order to restrict free press in the interests of national security (the Justice Department aimed to block publication of the so-called Pentagon Papers). The ruling firmly protected freedom of the press.

Lemon v. Kurtzman

(1971) Ruled that Pennsylvania's 1968 Nonpublic Elementary and Secondary Education Act, which allowed the state Superintendent of Public Instruction to reimburse nonpublic schools (most of which were Catholic) for the salaries of teachers who taught secular material in these nonpublic schools, secular textbooks and secular instructional materials, violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.

Furman v. Georgia

(1972) Ruled on the requirement for a degree of consistency in the application of the death penalty.

Miller v. California

(1973) Involved what constitutes unprotected obscenity for First Amendment purposes.

Roe v. Wade

(1973) Ruled unconstitutional all laws outlawing abortion (except in the third trimester) on the basis that these laws violate the Fourteenth Amendment's implied right for women to make private decisions about their bodies and reproductive capabilities.

Gregg v. Georgia

(1976) Reaffirmed the United States Supreme Court's acceptance of the use of the death penalty in the United States.

University of California v. Bakke

(1978) Allowed universities to admit students on the basis of race in order to counter discrimination.

Bowers v. Hardwick

(1986) Authorized states to regulate sexual interaction conducted in private between consenting adults.

Webster v. Reproductive Health Services

(1989) Allowed states to restrict access to abortion services significantly.

Texas v. Johnson

(1989) Invalidated prohibitions on desecrating the American flag enforced in 48 of the 50 states.

Judiciary Committee

Key Senate committee that is responsible for recommending presidential judicial appointments to the full Senate for approval.

Criminal Law

Laws dealing with offenses against society (murder, rape, arson). Prosecuted by the government, violation results in fines or prison sentences

Civil Law

Laws dealing with private rights of individuals (defamation, breach of contract, negligence). Violation results in damages or injunction.

Constitutional Law

Laws relating to the interpretation of the Constitution.

Ex Post Facto Laws

Laws that punish conduct that was not illegal when it was performed. These laws are always unconstitutional. Also known as a retroactive law.

Mantle

Layer of earth b/t crust & core Dense; hot; solid rock; iron-magnesium-calcium composition;

Soil Horizons

Layers of soil

Committee Chairperson

Leader of a congressional committee. Usually the longest serving member of the majority party on that committee (seniority rule). A very powerful position - Controls the committee calendar, agenda, and hearings. Can pigeonhole (table) a bill by refusing to schedule debate on it.

Brief

Legal document submitted to the court setting forth the facts of a case and supporting a particular position.

Substantive Due Process

Legal process that places limits related to the content of legislation and the extent government can use its power to enact unreasonable laws.

Superfund

Legislation that mandated the cleanup of abandoned toxic waste dumps and authorized premarket testing of chemical substances. It allowed the EPA to ban or regulate the manufacture, sale, or use of any chemicals that could present an "unreasonable risk of injury to health or environment," and outlawed certain chemicals such as PCBS.

New Deal

Legislation that provided a safety net for all members of society, such as Social Security, under Franklin Delano Roosevelt during the Great Depression.

Joint Committee

Legislative committee composed of members of both houses of Congress. *Examples:* Joint Committee on the Library Joint Committee on Printing

Joint Resolution

Legislative measure that must be passed by both houses and approved by the chief executive to become effective; similar to a bill, with the force of law, and often used for unusual or temporary purposes.

Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971)

Lemon Test for Establishment Clause (1) Primary purpose and effect of law must be secular; (2) Law cannot create "excessive entanglement" of government with religion (subjective standard)

Explain how nitrogen fixation occurs during thunderstorms.

Lightning provides the energy to convert nitrogen into nitrogen oxides. These gases dissolve in rain droplets to form nitrates that plants can use.

Matching Funds

Limited federal funds given to presidential candidates that match private donations raised during the campaign

Reduce

Limiting the consumption of products, decreases amount of trash & resources needed overall Includes producing and buying fewer goods and services, buying long-lasting products that do not need to be replaced frequently, and buying smaller sizes of items

22nd Amendment

Limits the president to two terms.

State Party Organization

Links local level to national level. State committee (still mostly volunteer but might have an office, some paid positions). Major jobs are (1) to hold primary elections to select candidates; (2) to support state level candidates in general elections; and (3) to influence platform of National Party.

Synfuel

Liquid fuel created from fossil fuels such as coal or methane

Procedural Due Process

Literal meaning of 5th & 14th Due Process Clauses: Government cannot deprive you of life, liberty or property without holding certain procedures (trial, lawyer, right to question witnesses). Many elements of PDP are specifically protected by 5th, 6th, 7th & 8th Amendments.

Biotic

Living

Caucus

Locally held meeting in a state to select delegates who, in turn, will nominate candidates to political offices.

Epicenter

Location on Earth's crust directly above focus

Dealignment

Marks a period when a significant number of voters choose to no longer support a particular political party; see *Crtitical Election.*

Horse-Race Journalism

Media tends to cover elections like a sporting event because it generates excitement (who is ahead, who is behind) & it is easy to do (poll data). HRJ is bad because it reduces time spent on analysis of issues & it can create a bandwagon effect in coverage of elections ("Romney looks like he will win this one...")

White House Press Secretary

Member of White House staff that controls flow of information from president, holds daily press briefings, tries to spin/control media

Remediation

Method of land conservation Cleaning up or correcting an environmental problem with the land, to clean up human-caused pollution problems

Mitigation

Method of land conservation Limiting the impact of land pollution; limiting the ability of a problem to occur on land To lessen/prevent problem (law)

Reclamation

Method of land conservation Refers to minded or drained/flooded lands, and includes stabilization and re-vegetation of land

Restoration

Method of land conservation To return land to its natural state Get ride of invasive species of other natural/human-made problem (NOT pollution)

Preservation

Method of land conservation land is kept in an undisturbed, natural state

Smelting

Mining process of melting ore to remove desired substances from associated water materials called tailings Produces air pollution by emitting gases like hydrogen fluoride, sulfur dioxide, & nitrogen oxides; can release toxic metals like arsenic & lead; can release heavy metal like lead, chromium, cadmium, etc.

Heap Leaching

Mining process where cyanide solution is sprayed on piles to dissolve gold

Hydraulic Mining

Mining process where land is blasted w/ water to remove soil & leave minerals

Dredging

Mining technique using draglines & chain buckets to scrap underwater mineral deposits

Open-Pit Mining

Mining technique using heavy machinery to dig holes to remove ores as well as materials like sand, gravel, stone

Strip Mining

Mining technique using heavy machinery to strip away soils/rock and then cut away mineral resources

Surface Mining

Mining that is safer, cheaper, and less hazardous to works compared to subsurface mining

Congressional District System (Electoral College)

Minority state system for allocating electoral college votes (used in ME & NE). The winner of each congressional district is awarded that district's electoral vote, and the winner of the state-wide vote is awarded the state's remaining two electoral votes. More accurately reflects voter will, but reduces states' influence in electoral process.

Power tower

Mirrors, driven by electric motors, track the sun and focus light on a heat absorber at the top; transfer medium is heated to temperatures as high as 500 degrees Celsius (1,000F), which then drives a steam-turbine electric generator

Campaign Tactics

Mobilize party base (ideologues) Focus on key interest groups (group benefit voters) Focus on candidate's personality / experience (image voters) Spin the last four years (retrospective / nature-of-the-times voters)

Linear Growth Model

Model is arithmetic, w/ constant rate of change

Demographic Transition Model

Model shows how countries can transition from high birth/death rates to low ones through industrialization

Logistic Growth Model

Model that increases initially very slowing during lag phase, begins to increase exponentially until pop reaches carrying capacity during the stationary phase when birth rates = death rates

Geometric Growth Model

Model's rate of change increases at an increased rate

Exponential Growth Model

Model's rate of change increases exponentially

The ______ is the substance that slows down the neutrons in a nuclear reactor so they are at the proper speed to break apart nuclei and sustain nuclear fission.

Moderator

Soft Money

Money that is not subject to campaign finance limits and regulation by the FEC. All money before FECA was soft money. FECA shut down unlimited contributions to candidates so soft money flowed to political parties. McCain-Feingold shut down soft money contributions to political parties so now unlimited contributions flow to 527s and Super-Pacs.

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)

More efficient bulbs, consuming 90% less energy and lasting hundreds of times as long as ordinary lightbulbs

Winner-Take-All System (Electoral College)

Most common state system for allocating electoral college votes (candidate with the most votes wins all of the electoral votes of that state). Used in all but 2 states. Maximizes states' influence in electoral process but completely ignores votes for losing candidates (undemocratic).

Citizens United v FEC

A 2010 decision by the United States Supreme Court holding that independent expenditures are free speech protected by the 1st Amendment and so cannot be limited by federal law. Leads to creation of SuperPACs & massive rise in amount of third party electioneering (Citizens for a Better Tomorrow, Tomorrow)

Fraser-McGovern Commission

A Democratic Party commission after 1968 that made changes to delegate selection process for National Convention to make the nomination process more democratic (by using primaries & ending superdelegates) and introduced affirmative action policy in delegate selection (more women & minorities).

amicus curiae

A Latin term meaning "friend of the court." Refers to interested groups or individuals, not directly involved in a suit, who may file legal briefs or oral arguments in support of one side.

Seniority Rule

A congressional custom that gives the chair of a committee or subcommittee to the member of the majority party with the longest continuous service on the committee.

General Revenue Sharing

A controversial program, in effect between 1972 and 1986, in which the federal government returned federal tax money to state and local governments to spend without restrictions.

Policy

A course of action decided upon by government, or by any organization, group, or individual, that involves a choice among competing interests.

Majority Opinion

A court opinion reflecting the views of the majority of the judges; sets forth the decision of the court and an explanation of the rationale behind the court's decision.

Crop Rotation

A crop conservation technique that includes cycling through different crops on the same land introduce different root structures, plant residues, nutrients like nitrogen, produced by legumes, into soil

Rock Cycle

A cycle through which rocks change and are remade into other rocks by external processes such as weathering, erosion, deposition, lithification, and internal processes, such as melting, cooling, and crystallization Volcanic Eruption → Cooling → Igneous Rock → Weathering/Erosion/Deposition → Sediment → Pushed into earth (high pressure) → Sedimentary Rock → Pushed into earth (high heat/pressure) → Metamorphic Rock → Pushed deeper into mantle through tectonic activity, melting → Magma → Volcanic Eruption

Precedent

A decision in a previous court case that is used as the basis for a decision in a similar case.

Marbury v. Madison

A decision of the Supreme Court written by Chief justice John Marshall in 1803 which interpreted the Constitution as giving the Supreme Court the power to declare an act of Congress unconstitutional. This decision is the foundation of the federal judiciary's power of judicial review.

Lame Duck

A defeated office holder after that person has lost their reelection, but is still in office until the newly elected official is sworn in.

Federal Budget

A detailed financial document containing estimates of federal income and spending during the coming fiscal year. *Key Agencies:* Office of Management and Budget Congressional Budget Office Budget Committees Ways & Means Committee (House) Appropriations Committee (House)

Executive Order

A directive, order, or regulation issued by the president; based on constitutional or statutory authority and have the force of law.

Clear and Present Danger Test

A doctrine adopted by the Supreme Court of the United States to determine under what circumstances limits can be placed on First Amendment freedoms of speech, press or assembly. *Supreme Court Cases:* Schenck v. United States (1919) Abrams v. United States (1919) Gitlow v. New York (1925)

Continuing Resolution

A emergency budget extension measure that Congress passes when a full budget law has not been completed by the beginning of the new fiscal year (October 1). Avoids government shutdown.

Government Accountability Office

A federal legislative agency that audits (investigates) other agencies of the federal government and reports it's findings to Congress (makes sure they are not spending more money than the government has appropriated for them).

Matching Requirements

A federal requirement that state or local governments must put up some of their own funds in order to get federal money.

Checks and Balances

A major principle of the American system of government. Helps maintain separation of powers so that no one branch gets too powerful. Explained in Federalist 51. Examples: President vetos laws; Senate confirms appointments & treaties; Congress impeaches president & judges...

Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTUs)

A measure of turbidity

Party Caucus (historical)

A meeting of important party members to select party candidates. Attacked as corrupt and anti-democratic so not used anymore.

Literacy Test

A method to deny blacks right to vote during the Jim Crow Era by requiring reading or civics test in order to vote. Could be selectively applied. Rationale: only the educated should vote. Prohibited by the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Political Ideology

A more or less consistent set of beliefs about what policies government should pursue.

Buffer strips

A narrow zone or strip of land, trees or vegetation bordering an area, that prevents wind erosion Also increases diversity in planting (as short grasses, shrubs, and tall trees are often used) Types includes shelterbelts and wind breaks, which both reduce wind erosion

Constitution

A nation's basic law, creates political institutions, assigns or divides power in government and often provides certain guarantees to citizens. Can be written or unwritten.

Issue Network

A network of people in Washington, D.C.-located within interest groups, on congressional staff, universities, think tanks, and the media-who regularly discuss and advocate public policies.

nuclear fission

A nuclear reaction in which a massive nucleus splits into smaller nuclei with the simultaneous release of energy

Lobbyist

A person who is employed by and acts for an organized interest group or corporation to try to influence policy decisions and positions in the executive and legislative branches.

Liberal

A person whose views favor more government involvement in business, social welfare, minority rights, & increased government spending; see also *Conservative*.

in forma pauperis

A petition filed with the U.S. Supreme Court by an indigent person. The normal $300 filing fee is waived for such petitions.

Judicial Activism

A philosophy of judicial decision-making that argues judges should use their power broadly to further justice, especially in the areas of equality and personal liberty.

Judicial Activism

A philosophy of judicial decision-making whereby judges allow their personal views about public policy (liberal or conservative) to guide their decisions. Activist judges are comfortable declaring laws unconstitutional.

Judicial Restraint

A philosophy of judicial decision-making whereby judges give significant deference to the decisions made by elected representatives in the legislative and executive branches. Restrained judges are uncomfortable declaring laws unconstitutional.

Push Poll

A type of poll that attempts to influence opinions secretly using a poll (would you vote for McCain if you knew that he had a black, illegitimate child?)

Federalist Papers

A series of articles written by John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison urging the adoption of the Constitution. *Key Ideas:* Federalist 10 - Factions, Tyranny of the Majority Federalist 39 - Federalism Federalist 51 - Checks and Balances Federalist 70 - Presidency Federalist 78 - Judicial Review

American Political Culture

A set of basic, foundational values and beliefs about government that is shared by most citizens. Key elements: democracy, equality before the law, limited government, capitalism & private property

Probable Cause

A set of facts and circumstances that would induce a reasonably intelligent and prudent person to believe that a particular person had committed a specific crime; reasonable grounds to make or believe an accusation.

Medicaid

A shared program between the federal and local governments that covers hospital and nursing home costs of low: income people

Party Dealignment

A shift away from the major political parties to a more neutral, independent ideological view of party identification.

Referendum

A state level method of direct democracy that gives voters a chance to approve or disapprove proposed legislative action or a proposed amendment. Occurs when a state wants the voter's opinion on a controversial issue.

Unitary State

A state ruled by one central government. This is the system used by most countries. Compare with federal state.

Swing State

A state that could go either way in a presidential elections (unlike "safe states"). Target of a lot of attention in elections. Also known as "battleground states" or "purple states" (Ohio, Florida in 2008)

Damages

A sum of money paid in compensation for loss or injury in a civil case

Coal liquefaction

A synfuel made from coal that can be refined to gasoline

Unitary system

A system of government in which power is concentrated in the central government.

Federalism

A system of government in which power is divided between one central government and several regional governments (dual or cooperative). Used in USA and a few other countries. Most countries have unitary governments.

Regressive Tax

A tax that is imposed on individuals regardless of how much they earn, such as a sales tax.

Direct Tax

A tax that must be paid by the person on whom it is levied.

Condition of Aid

A technique of fiscal federalism used by Congress to control states. Requires states to do something in order to get the money (ex. South Dakota v. Dole, raise drinking age 21 to get highway money).

Regulatory Federalism

A term used to describe the emergence of federal programs aimed at, or implemented by, state and local governments.

Literacy Test

A test administered as a precondition for voting, often used to prevent African Americans from exercising their right to vote; suspended in most states under the *Voting Rights Act of 1965*. *Constitutional Connection:* Fourteenth Amendment Fifteenth Amendment

Petit Jury

A trial jury of 12 that sits at civil/criminal cases.

State of the Union Address

A yearly report by the president to Congress required by Constitution describing the nation's condition and recommending programs and policies (bully pulpit to set legislative agenda )

Caddis fly

Biological Indicator of Water Quality Benthic Macroinvertebrate Not one of best indicator species, but serve key role in environment by consuming algae and being food for number of species of fish

Stonefly

Biological Indicator of Water Quality Benthic Macroinvertebrate generally indicate good water quality Food for trout & found in fast moving waters at stream riffles

Aquatic Worm

Biological Indicator of Water Quality Benthic Macroinvertebrate live in substrate of streams Lrg numbers of aquatic worms may indicate poor water quality

Which alternative energy source makes the largest contribution to world energy production?

Biomass

Worldwide, the most widely used renewable energy resource is ________.

Biomass

Constitution

Body of fundamental law, setting out the basic principles, structures, processes, and functions of a government and placing limits upon its actions; may be written or unwritten.

Risk Analysis

Broad field of study that incorporates risk assessment, risk management, and risk communication

Photochemical Smog

Brown or orange-brown smog Exists in major cities that are in warm, sunny climates & generally newer in terms of development Requires sunlight Created by reactions b/t unburned hydrocarbons & nitrogen oxides from fossil fuel-burning automobiles, creating secondary pollutants like ozone, formaldehyde, PAN Hydrocarbons (or VOCs) + O2 + NO2 + UV light → CH3COOONO2 (PAN)

Department of State

Cabinet-level agency in charge of foreign policy & international affairs. (Secretary Clinton)

Department of Defense

Cabinet-level agency in charge of the armed forces and military policy. HQ = The Pentagon. (Secretary Panetta)

Electoral College Reform

Constitutional Amendment (won't happen) Proportional allocation of electors (reduces importance of state) Tell electors to vote for winner of national popular vote?

Commander-in-Chief

Constitutional power of the president - "supreme commander" of the nation's armed forces. Important to keep military under civilian control, leads to conflict with Congress over war power (War Powers Act)

Impeachment Process

Constitutional process for removing executive officers & judges for "treason, high crimes & misdemeanors" (whatever Congress thinks is impeachable). Two stages: (1) House decides to impeach (accuse) target (simple majority); (2) Senate holds trial to convict (2/3 majority). Andy Johnson and Bill Clinton were impeached but not convicted. Nixon resigned as Articles of Impeachment were being drafted!

Political Question

Constitutional question that judges refuse to answer because to do so would encroach upon the authority of Congress or the president.

Procedural Due Process

Constitutional requirement that a government proceed by proper means.

Electoral College

Constitutional system for electing president and vice president. Each state has electors = to number of senators + representatives (DC also has 3 because of 23rd Amendment). Citizens of state vote for candidate. Winner gets all electoral college votes (except Maine & Nebraska which uses proportional system). Winner of majority of electoral college votes becomes president. If no majority then President picked by House from top 3 candidates.

National Security Counsel

Consults with the president on matters of defense and foreign policy.

Overnutrition

Consumption of too many calories or too many of one specific nutrient

A _________ is composed of metallic alloys, and slows fission in a nuclear reactor by absorbing neutrons.

Control Rod

Reformer

Converter that strips hydrogen from fuels such as natural gas, methanol, ammonia, gasoline, ethanol, or even vegetable oil

Photosynthesis

Converting the energy in sunlight into food; Producers take in carbon dioxide, water and light energy to yield glucose and oxygen

Government Corporation

Corporation set up and run by the government; provides a service to the public (ex. US Postal Service)

Marginal Cost

Cost of producing 1 additional unit of product

External costs / externalities

Costs that are incurred in the process but not reflected in cost of product

Iron Triangle

Creation of powerful (iron) relationship of mutual benefit & support among congressional committee, government agency and regulated interest group(s). Can lead to corruption and "agency capture" (where the agency is controlled by the target of regulation). Problem exacerbated by revolving door.

Substantive Due Process

Creative/activist interpretation of 5th and 14th Due Process Clauses. "Liberty" protected by the DPC includes substantive "fundamental rights" like rights protected by Bill of Rights (leads to incorporation doctrine) and other rights like the right to privacy.

Ex Post Facto Law

Criminal law applied retroactively to the disadvantage of the accused; prohibited by the United States Constitution.

Chief Justice John Robers

Current Chief Justice (appointed by Bush in 2005); moved court in conservative direction; known for pro-corporation cases (Citizens United)

Weather

Current, daily conditions of atmosphere

Nitrogen Cycle

Cycling of nitrogen through the biosphere Nitrogen fixation -> nitrificaiton -> assimilation -> ammonification or denitrification

Gridlock

Describes people's perception that Congress and the president are in a state of disagreement that results in little legislation passing.

President's Budget Proposal

Detailed budget outline prepared by President & OMB. Sets priorities in discretionary spending & proposes changes to entitlement programs. Start of annual budget process.

Fuel Cells

Devices that use ongoing electrochemical reactions to produce an electric current; similar to batteries except that rather than recharging them with an electrical current, fuel is added to power the chemical reaction

political question

An issue that the Court refuses to consider because it believes the Constitution has left it entirely to another branch to decide. Its view of such issues may change over time, however.

Misdemeanor

An offense that is less than a felony with punishment ranging from a fine to a short jail term.

Writ of Certiorari

An order by the Supreme Court saying that it will hear a certain case (rule of 4). Granted in cases that raise important constitutional questions or where circuit courts have reached different opinions on a particular issue.

Open Rule

An order from the House Rules Committee that permits a bill to be amended on the floor (allows "death by amendment")

writ of certiorari

An order issued by the Supreme Court granting a hearing to an appeal. A vote of four justices is needed to issue the writ. Only about 3 or 4 percent of all appeals are accepted.

Interest Group

An organization of people sharing a common interest or goal that seeks to influence the making of public policy.

Tar sands

An underground sand deposit permeated with a thick, asphalt-like oil known as bitumen. The bitumen can be separated from the sand by heating.

How can dams cause species die off due to an increase in the temperature of rivers downstream?

Downstream waters can become unnaturally warm because of the reduced amount of water released.

Watershed

Drainage basin for water

Disinfection

Drinking Water Treatment Process Adding chlorine (UV light, ozone) to remove pathogens

Flocculation

Drinking Water Treatment Process Adding to water coagulating compounds, such as alum or iron salts, allows particles to attach to coagulator and be removed

Sedimentation

Drinking Water Treatment Process Allowing water to stand undisturbed encouraging large particles to settle out of water and be removed

Absorption

Drinking Water Treatment Process Using an absorptive surface, like charcoal, can remove additional organic compounds that may cause odors

Biomass

Dry weight of all living things on earth

Primary Election

Election to select party's candidate for each office. It is now the main way of selecting party candidates. Most democratic method and simpler than caucus. Greatly weakens the power of party leaders and increases power of ordinary voters.

Grassroots Activism

Electioneering and issue advocacy by ordinary & unpaid citizens (the roots of American political system). Examples include Tea Party, youth activism in Obama 2008. Compare with "Astroturf Activism" - fake grassroots efforts (paid for by political interests).

Independent Expenditures

Electioneering by third parties (527s or SuperPacs) to help a candidate get elected (without coordinating with candidates). Protected by Supreme Court in Citizens United as free speech and so cannot be limited by federal law.

Presidential Primary

Elections held in individual states to determine the preference of the voters and to allocate the number of delegates to the party's national convention.

Faithless Elector

Elector who does not vote for the candidate they promised to vote for. These have never determined outcome of presidential election but is a major problem with electoral college system

Single-Member Plurality District (SMPD)

Electoral district with only one representative (single member). The representative is whoever wins a plurality of the votes in a general election (no run-off elections). Senate and House districts are SMPDs. Discourages third parties, leads to two-party system.

Multi-Seat District

Electoral districts in which voters choose more than one representative.

Commerce Clause

Art. 1, Sec. 8 of the Constitution (enumerated power). Congress has the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations, among the several states ["Interstate Commerce Clause"], and with the Indians. Interpreted by the Supreme Court very broadly (Gibbons v. Ogden) until Lopez & Morrison.

Which energy source has the lowest energy returned on investment (EROI)?

Ethanol

Judicial Review

Authority given to the courts to review the constitutionality of acts by the executive, the legislature, or the states; established in *Marbury v. Madison*.

Jurisdiction

Authority vested in a particular court to hear and decide the issues in any particular case.

John Locke

Father of political liberalism (limited government to protect life liberty & property; right to revolt if government becomes a tyranny); he greatly influenced Jefferson & the Declaration of Independence.

Independent Executive Agencies

Federal agencies that aren't large or important enough to get department status. Directors appointed by President w/ advice & consent of Senate. Ex. NASA, CIA, EPA

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)

Federal agency created to enforce the *Civil Rights Act of 1964*, which forbids discrimination on the basis of race, creed, national origin, religion, or sex in hiring, promotion, or firing.

Federal Communications Commission

Federal agency that regulates the radio, television, wire, satellite and cable communications.

Dual Federalism

Federal and state governments each have defined respinsibilities within their own sphere of influence; also called *Layer Cake Federalism*.

Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF)

Federal block grant to provide cash assistance for poor families ("welfare program"). Each state can design its own program. Replaces Aid to Families With Dependent Children (AFDC) which was a categorical grant.

Department of Justice

Federal department responsible for enforcing federal laws (includes FBI, Civil Rights Division, Antitrust Division, Drug Enforcement Administration...)

Defense of Marriage Act (1996)

Federal law defining marriage as man-woman & declaring that no state is forced to recognize same-sex marriage (unconstitutional exception to full faith & credit clause?)

Independent Regulatory Agencies

Federal regulatory agencies that are are administratively independent of both the president and Congress. *Examples:* Federal Trade Commission Securities and Exchange Commission

Mandatory Spending

Federal spending required by law that continues without the need for annual approvals by Congress.

District Courts

Federal trial courts. Limited jurisdiction (primarily to hear cases involving constitution and/or federal law). Must follow Supreme Court & their Circuit Court precedents (stare decisis). Federal government represented by U.S. Attorney's Office.

Supreme Court

Final federal appellate court ("court of last resort"). Hears appeals from Circuit Courts (certiorari petition / rule of 4). Only hears "important" constitutional cases.

Bill of Rights

First ten amendments to the Constitution; major source of civil liberties; applies to states via selective incorporation doctrine; promised to Anti-Federalists to secure ratification of Constitution

Calorie

Food Calorie = 1000 calories

Vice President

Back-up president. Only constitutional role = President of Senate & casts tie-breaker vote in Senate. Typically selected to increase odds in election (Biden experience & foreign policy; Palin youth & Tea Party)

Chemosynthesizers

Bacteria that have developed the ability to make their own food at deep ocean vents by turning carbon into organic matter using energy from inorganic compounds CO2 + O2 + 4H2S → CH2O + 4S + 3H2O

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act

Banned soft money donations to political parties (loophole from FECA); also imposed restrictions on 527 independent expenditures (issue ads only, not direct advocacy for a candidate). Declared unconstitutional by Citizens United case. Also known as McCain-Feingold Act.

23rd Amendment

Gives Washington DC electoral college votes as if it were a state (DC still has no representation in Congress)

Freedom of Information Act

Gives all citizens the right to inspect all records of federal agencies except those containing military, intelligence, or trade secrets; increases accountability of bureaucracy

Necessary and Proper Clause

Gives congress the power to do anything that is necessary and proper to carry out an enumerated power. Also known as the "elastic clause." Leads to implied powers doctrine (McCulloch v. Maryland)

Continuous Body

Governing unit such as the Senate whose seats are never all up for election at the same time.

Entitlement Programs

Government benefits that certain qualified individuals are entitled to by law, regardless of need. *Examples:* Social Security Medicare

Civil Service

Government bureaucracy; non-elected agents ("worker bees") that work for executive agencies to execute the law; hierarchical organization, job specialization, detailed rules & procedures, administrative discretion. Massive growth since New Deal & WWII (2.5m people = nation's largest employer)

8th Amendment

Government cannot inflict cruel and unusual punishment. Meaning of "cruel" based on "evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society." Categorical bans on death penalty: juveniles, retarded, non-murder crimes...

Prior Restraint

Government censorship of written material (preventing publication). Almost impossible due to 1st Amendment (only when major threat to national security). See Pentagon Papers Case (NY Times v. US)

U.S. Attorneys

Government lawyer that represents the US government at the district court level (trials).

Affirmative Action

Government or business policies favoring a historically disadvantaged minority group (university admissions, hiring decisions); raises 14th Amendment equal protection problems (reverse discrimination); limited by Bakke v. University of California (race can be "plus factor" in admissions but no racial quota system)

Deficit Spending

Government practice of spending more than is taken in from taxes.

Interim Government

Government set up to serve during the transition from a previous government.

Social Conservatism

Government should protect "traditional" (Christian) views on marriage, gender roles, & social issues. Oppose gay marriage, legalization of drugs, abortion.

Block Grants

Grants ($) given to the states by the federal government for a general purpose (like education or road-building). Unlike categorical grants, states have discretion to decide how to spend the money. Example = Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) (States develop and implement welfare programs using federal money).

Sulfurous Smog

Gray smog Exists in cities that use coal for heat; they are located in cold, moist climates & generally older in terms of development Does not need sunlight

Electrokinetic remediation

Green Remediation type Process in which electrical current is passed through a contaminated site attracting heavy metals, which can then be removed Can be used on: lead, chromium, nickel, mercury, copper, zinc

Ultraviolet remediation

Green Remediation type Process in which pollutants are exposed to ultraviolet radiation, which can break down toxins; most effective in liquids Can be used on: water with pollutants

Bioremediation

Green Remediation type Process of using bacteria, fungi, microbes, or plants to break down hazardous wastes into nonhazardous wastes Bacteria/enzymes help destroy toxic & hazardous waste or convert them to more benign substances Can be used on: Hydrocarbon products, crude oil compounds, some pesticides, some industrial solvents

Phytoremediation

Green Remediation type Process of using plants to break down hazardous wastes into nonhazardous wastes Can be used on: Some pesticides, lead, some heavy metals

Ultrasound remediation

Green Remediation type Process through which pollutants in groundwater break down from exposure to ultrasound Can be used on: heavy metals

The Cabinet

Group of important advisors to the President (Heads of Department agencies, VP and other VIPs chosen by president). Created by Washington, example of an informal amendment to the Constitution based on custom / tradition.

Which of the following statements about ethanol is true?

Growing corn for ethanol requires substantial inputs of fossil fuel energy.

Stunted growth

Growth that's not in keeping with average rates for height, weight, and head size Results from chronic undernutrition

Geothermal energy

High-pressure, high-temperature energy that exists just below the earth's surface; around the edges of continental plates or where the earth's crust overlays pools of magma (molten rock) close to the surface - experienced in the form of hot springs, geysers, and fumaroles

Passive houses

Highly insulated, virtually airtight buildings heated primarily by passive solar gain and by the energy released by people, electrical appliances, cooking, and other ordinary activities

Asbestos

Indoor Pollutant a mineral used for insulation in homes and businesses Human effects: lung cancer, mesothelioma, asbestosis, and other ailments concerned with the respiratory system

Pesticides

Indoor Pollutant products that kills, repel, control pests Includes insecticides, termiticides, rodenticides, fungicides, and disinfectants sold as sprays, liquids, sticks, powders crystals, balls, and foggers

Grandfather Clause

Jim Crow era state laws that discouraged African Americans from voting by saying that if your grandpa couldn't vote, then neither can you. The newly-freed slaves grandpas couldn't vote, so neither could they. Declared unconstitutional in 1915.

What happens in nitrogen fixation?

Nitrogen fixing bacteria like Azotobacter and Clostridium live in the soil and convert the nitrogen gas in the atmosphere (inactive state) to nitrates (active state) Nitrogen fixing bacteria make nitrogen available to plants in a form they can absorb. Plants use nitrogen from the soil to make proteins and DNA. Other kinds of nitrogen fixing bacteria called Rhizobium live in the roots of legumes and the nitrogen gas is converted into nitrates and used directly inside the plant to make protein.

Watergate Scandal

Nixon's "friends" broke into Democratic National Committee HQ during 1972 election, then Nixon tried to cover up White House involvement. Example of media muckraking (Woodward & Bernstein). Led to resignation of Richard Nixon.

4th Amendment

No "unreasonable" searches and seizures. Exclusionary rule (Weeks v. US, Mapp v. Ohio)

Republican Party

One of the two major modern American political parties. It emerged in the 1850s as an antislavery party and consisted of former northern Whigs and antislavery Democrats. Now the party is conservative (pro-life, anti-affirmative action, anti-too much government intervention, anti-taxing on the rich, pro-death penalty)

conservative/strict constructionist bloc

One of three groups of justices in the 1970s and 1980s, including Chief justice Warren Burger, who took a consistently conservative position on issues.

Divided Government

One party controls the executive, and the other party controls one or both houses of Congress.

Primary Election

One way for a state party to select delegates to send to the National Convention. Can be closed, open or blanket. Now used by most states instead of caucus (cheaper, quicker, more democratic).

Party Caucus (modern)

One way for a state party to select delegates to send to the National Convention. Consists of a series of meetings (local, county, state) among party members (no "open caucuses").

Fecal-Oral Contact

One way transmissible disease can be passed from infected to uninfected Includes indirectly through contaminated water & food Locus: mouth

Vector-borne Transmission

One way transmissible disease can be passed from infected to uninfected Includes insects Locus: bit of vector

Direct Physical Contact

One way transmissible disease can be passed from infected to uninfected Includes sexual contact, locus is cut in skin or through mucous membranes Transmission involves bodily fluids (like semen that carry disease)

Indirect Contact

One way transmissible disease can be passed from infected to uninfected Includes touching contaminated surface, locus is also cut in skin or through mucous membrane Diseases can be spread indirectly by fomites (objects that carry agent of infection) including needles, clippers, clothing, food, water

Droplet Contact

One way transmissible disease can be passed from infected to uninfected Respiratory Route Locus: Respiratory system An uninfected person breathes in droplet nucleus (travels through air as droplet nucleus covered by coating of mucus) through mouth/nose, & virus enters lungs

Plaintiff

One who brings a court action against another (the complainer)

Closed Primary

Only registered party members can vote in the party primaries. Maximum party control over process, used in most state primaries.

Anti-Federalists

Opposed the adoption of U.S. Constitution because it gave too much power to the national government at the expense of the state governments and it lacked a bill of rights. *Key Individuals:* Patrick Henry George Mason Richard Henry Lee

Humus

Organic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganisms

Decomposer

Organism that breaks down remains of organisms into simpler, inorganic substances

Detrivore

Organism that eat dead matter

Consumer

Organisms that eat other organisms

Heterotroph / Consumer

Organisms that must eat other organisms for energy

Producer / Autotroph

Organisms that preform photosynthesis First level of food chain / web

Ecosystem

Organization of living things that consists of all living and nonliving things in the area as well as interactions b/t them

Super-PAC

Organization set up after Citizens United to engage in independent electioneering. Can receive unlimited donations but cannot coordinate with a candidate. Causing amount of money spent on elections to skyrocket (SuperPacs have spent $85 million so far in Election 2012)

Senatorial Courtesy

Policy that gives senators the right to be notified by the chief executive of pending political nominations, usually judicial. Once informed, the approval of the senators from the state from which the judge comes is obtained and the appointment process moves on. This courtesy does not apply to Supreme Court justice nominations.

Regulatory Policy

Policy that results in government control over individuals and businesses. Examples of regulatory policy include protection of the environment and consumer protection.

Redistributive Policy

Policy that results in the government taking money from one segment of the society through taxes and giving it back to groups in need. It includes such policies as welfare, Aid to Families with Dependent Children, tax credits for business expenses or business investment, and highway construction made possible through a gasoline tax.

Grassroots Politics

Political action on the local level by ordinary citizens (the roots): fundraising, volunteering, get-out-the-vote activities (knocking on doors); important function of local party organization

Partisan

Political opposition drawn along party lines.

Reservoir

Porous rock that stores oil

Gravitational

Potential Energy "Stored" in object's position

Mechanical

Potential Energy Stored by tension

Chemical

Potential Energy Stored in atomic & molecular bonds

Nuclear

Potential Energy Stored in nuclei of atoms

Diatomaceous Earth

Powder made up of ground shells of diatoms, which can cause insects to dehydrate One of the least toxic pesticides

Boric Acid

Powder prevalent in ant control products, which has a low toxicity One of the least toxic pesticides

16th Amendment

Power of Congress to tax income

Legislative Veto

Power of Congress to veto executive decisions & actions; declared unconstitutional in INS v. Chadha (1983) (violates separation of powers)

Congress' Enumerated Powers

Power to tax, borrow & coin money, regulate foreign & interstate commerce, establish army, declare war, make all laws necessary & proper for carrying out the enumerated powers (elastic clause)

Congressional Oversight

Power used by Congress to gather information useful for the formation of legislation, review the operations and budgets of executive departments and independent regulatory agencies, conduct investigations through committee hearings, and bring to the public's attention the need for public policy.

House Rules Committee

Powerful House standing committee that reviews all bills coming from other House committees before they go to the full House (gatekeeper function); sets time limit for debate decides whether amendments can be added (open or closed rule).

10th Amendment

Powers not expressly given to federal government by the Constitution are reserved to states or the people. Also known as "reserved powers amendment" or "states' rights amendment"

Implied Powers

Powers of the national government that flow from its enumerated powers and the *"Elastic Clause"* of the Constitution.

Reserved Powers

Powers retained by the states, as dictated by the 10th Amendment.

Concurrent Powers

Powers that are given to both federal and state governments. Ex., the power to tax and create courts. Exclusive powers are given only to one level of government (ex., the power to declare war)

Enumerated Powers

Powers that are granted specifically to the three branches of the federal government under the Constitution; also known as *Expressed Powers*.

Expressed Powers

Powers that congress has that are specifically listed in the Constitution; also known as the *Enumerated Powers*.

Delegated Powers

Powers which are granted to, and exercised ONLY by the national government. The delegated powers are specifically listed in the U.S. Constitution at Articles I, II, III; also known as *Expressed Powers*.

Diplomatic Immunity

Practice in international law under which ambassadors and other diplomatic officials have special privileges and are not subject to the laws of the state to which they are accredited.

Earmarking

Practice of congressmen of securing ("appropriating") federal money ("pork") for projects that will benefit their constituents. Major incumbent advantage & source of budget increases

Privatization

Process of ending government services and allowing the free market (private firms) to provide the service. Purpose = reduce government spending & provide more efficient services. Example = abolishing the postal service. Supported by Republicans.

Photosynthesizers

Producers that convert sunlight into own food

Medicare

Program that covers hospital and medical costs of people 65 years of age and older as well as disabled individuals receiving Social Security.

US Term Limits v Thornton

Prohibited state legislatures from imposing term limits of their Representatives and Senators (Court held that the Constitution's Qualifications Clause is the only limit on congressional service)

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Prohibits discrimination based on race or gender in employment or public accommodations (restaurants, hotels). Created EEOC to enforce. Based on Congress's interstate commerce clause power (discrimination impacts interstate commerce). The most important federal civil rights law.

Salinity

Proportion of salt in solution

Equal Rights Amendment

Proposed constitutional amendment requiring full equal treatment for men and women (ex. allow women special forces). Proposed by Congress in 1972 but never ratified

Libel

Publication (written) of statements that wrongfully damage another's reputation; see slander. *Constitutional Connection:* First Amendment *Supreme Court Cases:* New York Times v. Sullivan (1964)

White House Management Styles

Pyramidal (with Chief of Staff) or Spokes and Hub style (less reliance on Chief of Staff)

Presidential Election Campaign Fund

Qualified presidential candidates can receive matching federal funds in primary and set amount to spend on general elections (but cannot raise & spend additional money). Attempt to limit campaign spending & corruption but rejected by Obama in 2008 (too easy to raise more money by contributions)

Sound Bites

Quote or "snippet" from politician's speech used by media to represent whole speech. Used by candidates to spread message (slogan); Used by media to avoid serious (boring) discussion of issues.

Suspect Classification

Racial or national origin classifications created by law and subject to careful judicial scrutiny

Block wall suction

Radon Reduction Technique Reduces radon by depressurizing the block wall.

Sump hole suction

Radon Reduction Technique Removes water from a basement and caps the sump pump so radon cannot enter the basement

sub-membrane suction system

Radon Reduction Technique Used if home has crawl space and involves covering soil underneath home w/ high-density plastic & using vent pipe/fan to guide radon from under plastic sheet to outdoors

Subslab suction

Radon Reduction Technique • Active method reduces radon by inserting suction pipes in the floor slab to remove gas from under the house and put it in the outside air • Passive method uses pressure differentials and air currents to remove radon from under a house to vent to the outside

Degradable

Resources that break down over shorter amts of time & include biodegradable waste that originates from plants/animals

Renewable

Resources that can be replenished at rate =/> rate at which used

Non-Renewable

Resources that cannot be replenished at rate they are used

Non-degradable

Resources that virtually never break down & have indefinite life spans

Equal Protection Clause

Section of the *Fourteenth Amendment* that guarantees that all citizens receive "equal protection of the laws"; has been used to bar discrimination against blacks and women.

Scientists search for fossil fuels in many ways. Sending a sound wave into the ground (by exploding dynamite, thumping the ground with a large weight, or using an electric vibrating machine) and measuring its return to the surface at receiving stations is called ________ surveying.

Seismic

Trial Balloons

Selective leaks aimed at testing the political waters

Senatorial Courtesy

Senate will not confirm a presidential nomination for a position within a state (ex., District Court Judge) without the consent of the senior senator of the President's party from that state. Informal amendment to appointment process (by tradition)

Solicitor General

Senior Justice Department attorney. Decides what cases the government will appeal to the Supreme Court, files amicus briefs with the Supreme Court in cases the government is interested in, and represents the United States before the Supreme Court.

Carcinogen

Substance that causes cancer

Federalists

Supporters of the new constitution in 1787. Supported a strong central government. Hamilton, Washington, Marshall. Became first political party (vs. Jefferson's Democratic-Republicans)

US v. Lopez (1995)

Supreme Court declared Gun Free School Zones Act exceeded Congress's Interstate Commerce Clause power and was therefore unconstitutional. First federal law declared to exceed commerce clause since the 1930s (Devolution Revolution?)

U.S. v. Nixon

Supreme Court intervenes in battle between President Nixon and Congress (impeachment process). President cannot use executive privilege as an excuse to withhold evidence in impeachment process. Leads to Nixon's resignation.

Topography

Surface features

Type III

Survivorship curve Likelihood of death is very high at young ages, & most of individuals in pop die off quickly within 1st part of life The few that survive to adulthood have high probability of surviving for some time

Type I

Survivorship curve Younger organisms have high probability of survival & almost all individuals reach middle age, but after middle age there is an increasing probability of death

Type II

Survivorship curve probability of death is equally likely in all age groups

Stabilization Ponds

Sustainable Waste Water Practice Series of ponds that are easy to operate & require little energy Moderately effective in removing solids Series Includes: Anaerobic pond, Primary facultative pond, Maturation Pond Disadv: Use lrg area of land, attract mosquitoes, require regular removal of sludge

Free Water Wetland

Sustainable Waste Water Practice Water flows through free water wetland from inlet to outlet over surface w/ vegetation & water ADV: Passive manner, do not require large inputs of energy and it can be done in most climates; Can be created on undeveloped / under construction land DISADV: Do take up lrg areas of land; can attract mosquitoes

Civil Law

That body of law relating to human conduct, including disputes between private persons and between private persons and government not covered by criminal law.

Judiciary Act of 1789

The congressional act which set the scope and limits for the federal judiciary system.

Due Process/Due Process Clause

The constitutional guarantee that "no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law." *Constitutional Connections:* Fifth Amendment Fourteenth Amendment

Double Jeopardy

The constitutional prohibition against a person being put on trial more than once for the same offense. *Constitutional Connection:* Fifth Amendment

How do enzymes lower the activation energy in synthesis reactions?

The enzyme brings the substrate closer and orients it in the correct position for the reaction.

How do enzymes lower activation energy in hydrolysis reactions?

The enzyme puts strain on bonds in the substrate that need to be broken.

Logrolling

The exchange of political favors for support of a bill.

Capital Punishment

The execution of an individual by the state as punishment for heinous offenses. *Constitutional Connection:* Eighth Amendment

Political Socialization

The factors that determine voting behavior such as family, religion, and ethnic background.

courts of appeals

The federal courts that have the authority to review decisions by federal district courts, regulatory commissions, and certain other federal courts. Such courts have no original jurisdiction; they can hear only appeals.

Cabinet Departments

The fifteen largest and most influential agencies of the federal bureaucracy (e.g., Department of State, Treasury, Justice...) Headed by Secretary or Attorney General (Department of Justice)

Jacksonian Democracy

The first major opening up of American suffrage (voting rights) by Jackson's new Democratic Party in 1830s. Franchise extended to all white men (not just rich white men). Achieved by state legislation not constitutional amendment.

Articles of Confederation

The first national constitution of the United States that created a government lasting from 1781 to 1789; replaced by the current Constitution.

Shared Powers

The fused or overlapping powers and functions of the separate branches of government.

National Nominating Conventions

The governing authority of the political party. They give direction to the national party chairperson, the spokesperson of the party, and the person who heads the national committee, the governing body of the party. They are also the forums where presidential candidates are given the official nod by their parties.

National Committee

The governing body of a political party made up of state and national party leaders.

Independent Executive Agency

The government not accounted for by cabinet departments, independent regulatory agencies, and government corporations; its administrators are typically appointed by the president and serve at the president's pleasure. *Examples:* NASA

Price Supports

The government's price guarantees for certain farm goods. The government subsidizes farmers to not grow certain crops and also buys food directly and stores it, rather than let the oversupply in the market bring the prices down.

Descriptive Representation

The idea that politicians can only represent people like them (ex. only women can represent women, blacks represent blacks, etc.)

Watergate

The illegal entry and phone monitoring of the Democratic headquarters by members of the Republican Party.

Separate But Equal

The judicial precedent established in the Plessy v Ferguson decision that enabled states to interpret the equal protection provision of the Fourteenth Amendment as a means of establishing segregation.

Original Jurisdiction

The jurisdiction of courts to hear a case for the first time (trial). Trial courts (District Courts in federal system) assess the facts in a case and the issue the first decision (guilt, innocence). Supreme Court has OJ over disputes between 2 states.

Appellate Jurisdiction

The jurisdiction of courts to hear appeals from lower trial or appellate courts. Appellate courts determine whether cases were decided correctly by the court below. Circuit courts have mandatory AJ (they have to hear appeals from District Courts). Supreme Court has discretionary AK (they can choose to hear appeals from Circuit Courts and State Supreme Courts).

Direct Primary

The most widely used method of making nominations in American politics; an intra-party nominating election at which those who vote choose a party's candidates to run in the general election.

Fiscal Federalism

The national government's use of fiscal policy to influence states through the granting or withholding of appropriations.

dissenting opinion

The opinion of the justices on the losing side.

Appellee

The party opposing an appeal from a lower court to an appellate court.

Party Machine

The party organization that exists on the local level and uses patronage as the means to keep the party members in line. Boss Tweed and Tammany Hall are examples.

plaintiff

The party that initiates a suit in law.

Plaintiff

The party who brings a civil action to court for the purpose of seeking a monetary remedy.

Congressional Oversight

The power of Congress to oversee how laws are carried out ("watchdog function" to prevent fraud & waste). Carried out through committee hearings & investigations, approprations process (how much are we spending on that program again?), GAO..

Police Powers

The power of a government to make laws protecting the health, safety and welfare of citizens (example: traffic laws, criminal laws). In America, police powers are reserved to the states by the 10th Amendment.

Eminent Domain

The power of a government to seize private property for public use, usually with compensation to the owner. *Constitutional Connection:* Fifth Amendment

Appointment Power

The power of the President & Senate to appoint important government officers (federal judges, agency directors, etc.). President nominates candidate, which then must by confirmed by simple majority in the Senate (check on President's power). Subject to senatorial courtesy rule for local appointments (district judges)

Judicial Review

The power of the Supreme Court to declare laws and actions of local, state, or national governments unconstitutional. Established in Marbury v. Madison (informal amendment to Constitution)

Natural selection

The process in which organisms with adaptive characteristics are more likely to survive and pass on their traits to their offspring; a primary mechanism of evolution

Gerrymandering

The process in which state legislatures create congressional districts, many of which are oddly shaped and favor the political party in power in the state making the changes.

Agenda Setting

The process of forming the list of matters that policymakers intend to address.

Referendum

The process whereby a legislative proposal is voted upon by popular vote.

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

The region within 200 miles of U.S. shores

Desegregation

The removal of racial barriers either by legislative acts or by judicial action.

Speaker of the House

The representative from the majority party in the House of Representatives who presides over House meetings, recognizes speakers, refers bills to committees, answers procedural questions, and declares the outcome of votes.

Poll Tax

The requirement of a person to pay for the right to vote.

Jurisdiction

The right & power to make decisions in a particular area. Federal courts are courts of limited jurisdiction. Before a federal court can hear a case it must establish that it has the power to hear this type of case (primary jurisdiction is to hear cases involving the federal constitution and/or federal law).

Franking Privilege

The right of congresspeople to send job-related mail to their constituents without paying postage. Incumbency advantage.

judicial review

The right of federal courts to declare laws of Congress and acts of the executive branch void and unenforceable if they are judged to be in conflict with the Constitution.

Executive Privilege

The right of the president to withhold information from Congress or refuse to testify. *Supreme Court Cases:* U.S. v. Nixon (1974)

Habeas Corpus

The right to challenge the legality of your detention by government (to have a judge determine whether or not the government can detain you). This right can be temporarily suspended by Congress in times of rebellion or unrest.

6th Amendment

The right to counsel in criminal trials. Gideon v. Wainwright held that states must provide indigent defendants with a free lawyer ("public defender"). Right to jury in criminal trials.

Incorporation Doctrine

The selective application of the protections of the federal Bill of Rights to the states. *Supreme Court Cases:* Gitlow v. New York (1925)

Party Realignment

The signaling resulting from a national election or a major shift in the political spectrum and characterized by the start of a party era. Party regulars: enrolled party members who are usually active in the organization of a political party and support party positions and nominated candidates.

Articles of Impeachment

The specific charges brought against a president or a federal judge by the House of Representatives.

Oral Arguments

The stage in Supreme Court proceedings in which attorneys for both sides appear before the Court to present their positions and answer questions posed by the justices. Good theater (for law nerds).

Prosecutor

The state or federal government attorney in a criminal case.

________ strongly influence(s) the amount of energy generated from hydropower.

The volume of water released and the height of the fall

Fundamental Niche

Theoretical role that organism can occupy w/o limiting factors

Substantive Representation

Theory of representation that says that anyone can represent any group (ex. a rich white guy can represent the interests of poor black people). Compare to Descriptive Representation.

Transmissible Disease

These types of disease can be passed from organism to organism and are typically caused by bacteria, viruses, protists, fungi, or other pathogenic organisms Also called infectious or communicable diseases

Non-transmissible Disease

These types of disease cannot be passed from organism to organism Also called noncommunicable diseases

what groups were in favor of ratification and why?

federalists because they were merchants and lawyers who needed a national government to control commerce and regulate the economy (article 7)

The primary difference between a bog and a fen is

fens are fed by groundwater, bogs are fed by rainfall.

Which of the following is a benefit of using nuclear power?

few greenhouse gasses are emitted

Biomass energy is energy contained in ________.

firewood and other plant material

Thermohaline Circulation

global circulation of water, shaped by differences in temp & salinity

Biological Community

group of populations living in certain area, which consists of plants, animals, fungi, microorganisms, other living things

Idealism (foreign policy)

Use American power to promote democracy and peace around the world. Associated with Woodrow Wilson & Jimmy Carter. (Compare with realism)

Concentrating solar power (CSP) system

Use long trough-shaped parabolic mirrors to reflect and concentrate sunlight on a central tube containing a heat-absorbing fluid

Filibuster

Use of unlimited time for debate in the Senate to kill bills by making (or threatening to make) long speeches. No filibuster in House (House Rules Committee places time limits on all debates). Broken by cloture motion (60 votes)

Clear & Present Danger Test

Used in Schenck v. US (1919) to determine whether speech is unprotected "incitement" to illegal activity. Replaced by stricter "imminent lawless action" test in Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969)

Red Tape

Used to describe the difficulty it takes to get answers from a bureaucratic agency.

Property assessed clean energy (PACE)

Uses city bonds to pay for renewable energy and conservation expenses

Gross Domestic Product

Value of final goods/services produced over time period in county

Slander

Verbal defamation of a person's character.

How is the energy produced by nuclear fission used to produce electricity?

Water in the containment vessel is kept under high pressure and heat from the fission reactions that heat it to well over boiling. This is then used to boil another loop of water, which turns a turbine that drives a generator and makes electricity.

Hard Water

Water that has a high concentration of dissolved minerals

Irrigation

Water that is used for farm crops 137 bill gallons/day

Thermoelectric Power

Water used in electric power plants, primarily for cooling 195 bill gallons/day

ranking of all laws of constitution in order of importance

constitutional laws, federal laws, state laws (article 6)

Hydrologic Cycle

cont cycle that moves water through atmosphere, on surface of earth, below surface Evaporation & transpiration (evotranspiration) & sublimation -> Condensation -> Precipitation -> Runoff & infiltration

Oil shale deposits ________.

contain organic kerogen which can be processed into petroleum

wind turbines

a device that converts kinetic energy from the wind into electric power

Age-structure diagram (population pyramid)

a diagram that breaks down the divisions of age into cohorts and according to sex

B20 represents ________.

a diesel fuel blend of 20% biodiesel to 80% petrodiesel

A self-amplifying reaction and a nuclear explosion in a nuclear power plant are prevented in large part by ________.

control rods that absorb extra neutrons

Historically, the greatest threat to grasslands has been

conversion to farmland.

Barrage

dam constructed near the mouth of a tidal body of water affected by tides; as the tide rises and falls, water moves through tunnels in the dam

Perceived Harm

damage that human beings think may occur from an action or an activity

Life Table

data table arranged by individual's current age that shows probability of surviving until next birthday

Habitat fragmentation usually leads to a

decrease in biodiversity.

What is the effect of humans on the carbon cycle?

deforestation-the indiscriminate removal of trees. Trees use carbon dioxide from the air. Therefore no trees,more carbon stays in the atmosphere combustion of fossil fuels-more carbon released in the atmosphere-adding a source of carbon to the atmosphere rearing of animals-animals' urine and faeces enrich the soil with nutrients

Desertification

degradation of once-fertile land into nonproductive desert; turning semi-arid and arid lands into desert-like areas When A Horizon (or topsoil) is lost

Vertical Transmission

describes disease transfer between generations, particularly mother to offspring, including transmission through breast milk

Horizontal Transmission

describes disease transfer independent of a parental or generational relationship and occurring among members of the same generation

nuclear fusion

a nuclear reaction where two or more atom nuclei react and join together to form a new nucleus

breeder reactors

a nuclear reactor that produces fuel by bombarding isotopes of uranium and thorium with high-energy neutrons that convert inert atoms to fissionable ones

judicial restraint

a philosophy of judicial decision making that posits courts should allow the decisions of other branches of government to stand, even when they offend the judge's own principles.

judicial activism

a philosophy of judicial decision making that posits judges should use their power broadly to further justice.

precedents

a prior judicial decision that serves as a rule for settling subsequent cases of a similar nature.

writ of certiorari

a request for the Supreme Court to order up the records from a lower court to review the case

Chloracne

acne-like condition that develops within months of exposure to dioxin

Enzymes lower the _____________ _____________ in a biological reaction.

activation energy

Name the location on an enzyme where the substrate binds.

active site

Realized Niche

actual niche that organism occupies

How does salt concentration affect enzyme function?

addition of salt will add or remove cations (+) & anions (-) causing a disruption in bonding. The attractions between charged amino acids is effected and the 2° & 3° structure is destroyed and the protein denatures. Enzymes are intolerant of extreme salinity! Ex. Dead Sea is called dead for a reason

Community-supported

agriculture that allows shareholders to buy a share of the farm and provide cash up front for the farmer, who, in turn, grows food for the shareholders These farms may be other types of agriculture as well

Conservation

agriculture that focuses on minimizing disturbances to the soil, adding organic matter to the topsoil, and rotating crops

Organic

agriculture that focuses on the health of the ecosystem and of the human population with natural pest control and fertilizers, and typically not using seeds that were genetically modified

Sustainable

agriculture that focuses on the long-term needs of the land, in terms of soil health, as well as sociological needs and health of the workers, including labor and wages, with the overall goal of

Industrial

agriculture that includes farming of crops as well as livestock, poultry, and fish using methods of economies of scale, genetically modified organisms, vast amounts of fossil fuels and heavy machinery This is how much food in developed countries is produced

what oath is required by clause #3 of article 6?

all legislative, executive, and judicial members must be bound to support constitution (article 6)

Which of the following is a documented negative impact of dams?

alteration of river sediment deposition

Response

amount and type of damage caused by the exposure

When assessing energy resources, it is helpful to use a measure called EROI, which is ________.

amount of energy invested minus heat released into the environment

Sustainable Yield

amount of resources that can be removed/harvested w/o compromising ecosystem/initial natural capital

Magnitude

amount of seismic energy released by earthquake

Specific Heat

amt of heat that must be gained/lost from 1g sample to change temp of substance by 1C

Doubling

amt of time it take pop to double in size

strict constructionist

an approach to constitutional interpretation that emphasizes interpreting the Constitution as it was written and intended by the Framers.

smart meter

an electronic device that records and measures electricity used in intervals and reports the information back to the utility for monitoring and billing

Heat Island

an urban area that is significantly warmer than surrounding non-urban areas

Cost-benefit analysis

analysis compares potential cost/benefits of product or process

benthic macroinvertebrates

animals that lack backbones, are large enough to be seen unaided, and live in or on top of substrate

what groups may have opposed ratification and why?

anti federalists apposed ratification because they were mostly farmers who did not feel they would gain benefits from the constitution (article 7)

Public Land

any areas controlled by gov (in city, county, state, federal), funded by taxpayers

Energy Conservation

any practice that involves using less energy

One biome type that has not been as badly threatened as other biomes is

arctic tundra.

We are usually referring to species diversity when we talk about biodiversity. However, genetic diversity is also important to ecological systems because diverse genes

are necessary for a population to evolve in a changing environment.

Humid tropical forests have extraordinary biological diversity

despite the poor, weathered soils.

Primary Succession

development of communities in a previously lifeless area without soil

Incinerator

device that burns or combusts garbage to reduce volume

Scrubber

device that spray liquid onto particulate matter in the air, which can neutralize acids in gas form Used to control particulate matter generated by combustion

Filter

devices that filter particulate matter from the air Used to control particulate matter generated by combustion

active solar energy systems

direct use of solar energy, consists of pumps to circulate air, water from solar collectors to a heat sink

Precession

direction of the Earth's axis of rotation

Which of the following best describes the way that the United States has dealt with the insecurity caused by foreign oil dependence?

diversifying oil imports

The run-of-river approach to hydropower often involves ________.

diversion of a portion of a river's flow through pipes

Dust dome

dome-like structure of air around a heat island that traps pollutants

Rainshadow

dry region on side of mountain that is sheltered from wind

Name 7 factors that can affect enzyme function.

enzyme concentration substrate concentration temperature pH salinity activators inhibitors

Amino Acids

essential component of proteins

Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)

estimate of radiation absorbed by photosynthesis in plants another way of measuring productivity

Demography

examines how human pops change & the factors that lead to change (specifically in terms of birth rate, fertility, immigration, emigration, mortality rate)

Barter

exchange of goods without currency

acid deposition

falling of acids from the atmosphere to Earth; includes but is not limited to acid rain Is wet deposition (rain, snow, fog) or dry deposition (particulate matter or gas), all of which must have pH of less than 5

Aquaculture

farming of aquatic organisms (fish, shrimp, etc.) for human consumption

Algal Bloom

growing mass of algae within an aquatic ecosystem; sign of pollution in water; will cont to grow until it covers the stream

Risk Management

have idea about risks and try to find ways to reduce the risk Includes: o Economic consequences of reducing risk o Political consequences of reducing risk o Limiting impact of risk o Ethical considerations

Polar

having areas of greater positive and negative charge

Triazines

herbicides that include melamine and benzoguanamine and atrazine, are also widely used and are less persistent in the environment, but can irritate the skin and eyes Atrazine: banned in UN but not US; suspected endocrine disruptor, possible carcinogen, considered "moderately" toxic

judicial implementation

how and whether judicial decisions are translated into actual public policies affecting more than the immediate parties to a lawsuit.

Human Capital

human beings w/ skills, talents, abilities

Cultural Eutrophication

human-induced increase in nutrients & productivity, often resulting in from nitrate or phosphate pollution

Today ________ provide Sweden with virtually all of its electricity.

hydroelectric, nuclear, and biofuels

Malnutrition

imbalance in the amount of nutrients a body needs and nutrients a body gets

Name two types of allosteric regulators. How do they work>

inhibitors and activators Inhibitors stabilize the inactive form of the enzyme. Activators stabilize the active form of the enzyme.

Beneficial insects

insects that are natural predators and parasites that control other pests

Environmental Science

interdisciplinary field of study of interactions in the environment

Most of the species that are yet undiscovered are probably

invertebrates.

passive solar energy systems

involves specific architectural design, captures heat from sunlight for specific purposes such as heating in winter and cooling in summer

As a fuel, biodiesel ________.

is a beneficial alternative for buses and trucks

The Keystone XL pipeline ________.

is a hotly debated pipeline that would carry petroleum from Canada to the southern United States

E-85______

is an isotope of uranium used to generate electricity is an ethanol-gasoline mixture used in flexible-fuel vehicles

The oil spill resulting from the 2010 Deepwater Horizon disaster ________.

is the largest accidental oil spill in world history, causing damage to marine and coastal ecosystems

Threshold Level

level below which there are no visible or noticeable effects

Preservationists

lobby to preserve lands & resources so they can't be used by humans

Conservationalists

lobby to preserve/maintain land & natural resources so that they may be cont to be used by humans

Subduction zone

location sat which 1 tectonic plate descends beneath another plate into Earth's interior

pH

log of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration in a substance

Chronic effects

long-term results of exposure to a hazard

What happens to phosphorus that is carried by runoff to oceans?

marine sediment, animal bodies- fish scales

Greenwashing

marketing term for practices that suggest sustainability when its not

Law of Conservation of Matter

matter cannot be created or destroyed during chemical/physical processes

Energy Intensity

measure of how much energy it takes to produce one unit of economic activity = Total energy consumption divided by gross domestic product (GDP) Affected by: Fuel economy of vehicles, commuting distances & transportation networks, climate, & energy efficiencies of structures & appliances

Ecological footprint

measure of sustainability in which the amount of land and water used (and the amount of pollution produced) by an individual or group is measured

Silt

medium-size soil particles (0.002 - 0.05 mm in diameter)

Ecological diversity is a measure of the number of

niches, trophic levels, and ecological processes of a biological community.

What main processes does the nitrogen cycle entail?

nitrogen fixation decay nitrification denitrification

What are cofactors?

non-protein, inorganic helpers for enzymes that are bound within the enzyme molecule ex. Mg, K, Ca, Zn, Fe, Cu

What are coenzmyes?

non-protein, organic helpers for enzymes that bind temporarily or permanently to the enzyme near active site; many vitamins are coenzymes Ex, NAD (niacin; B3), FAD (riboflavin; B2) and Coenzyme A

What is a noncompetitive inhibitor?

noncompetitive inhibitors bind to a site other than active site causing an enzyme to change shape (conformational change) Allosteric inhibitors bind to an allosteric site and this makes the enzyme's active site is no longer functional.

Fertility Rate

number of children avg woman in pop would have in her lifetime

Death rate

number of deaths per 1000 organisms

6

number of electrons carbon (C) has

Birth rate

number of live births per 1000 organisms

1

number of phosphorous (P) atoms in the compound potassium (K) phosphate (P)

8

number of valence electrons argon (Ar) has

3

number of valence electrons boron (B) has

2

number of valence electrons calcium (Ca) has

Commensalism

one species benefits & other is unaffected

Parasitism

one species benefits, other is harmed

Nonmetal

opposit characteristics of metals

hydraulic fracturing

or fracking, a common method to extract the natural gas from the rock.

Experiment

organic way of testing hypotheses

Endangered

organism at risk for extinction in signif # of habitats

Threatened

organism at risk of being endangered in future

Vector

organism that transmits disease but does not cause disease

Biological Species Concept

organisms are members of same species if they can mate & produce fertile offspring

Bycatch

organisms caught while fishing for something else

All enzymes have an optimal __________ and ________ where they function at their best.

pH and temp

Organismic Phase

parts of nutrient cycle in which nutrients are found in organisms

Environmental Phase

parts of nutrient cycle in which nutrients exist in soil, water, air

Carbon Cycle

pathway through which carbon travels b/t living things & nonliving environment

Alaskans benefit from the trans‑Alaska pipeline because Alaska's state constitution requires approximately 25% of state revenues associated with the oil industry to be placed into a monetary fund called the Permanent Fund, which ________.

pays yearly dividends to all Alaska residents

U.S. oil production ________.

peaked in 1970

Tuna and great white sharks would be found within the

pelagic zone

permafrost

permanent frozen ground

Most enzymes are ____________.

proteins, but a few have been discovered that are RNA

The International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) is a ________.

prototype nuclear fusion reactor

solar collectors

provides space heating/hot water, panel with tubes of fluid that are heated by sun- captures sun's energy

exergonic reactions

reactions that give off energy ex. hydrolysis (catabolism)

endergonic reactions

reactions that require an input of energy ex. dehydration synthesis (anabolic)

Crude oil is ________.

refined to separate the chemicals used for gasoline, lubricants, plastics, and other products

The process of __________ turns crude oil into the type of gases that can be used for cooking, in cars, and for other human purposes.

refining

Ten Percent Rule

relates to energy flow in food webs and food chains only about 10% of useful energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next

Predation

relationship b/t 2 species in which one hunts other for food

Trophic Cascade

relationship b/t populations of predators & resources consumed by predators' prey

Synergistic Relationship

relationship in which there is greater effect of two toxicants when exposed to both at the same time than when exposed separately

Antagonistic Relationship

relationship in which there is less effect of two toxicants when exposed to both at the same time than when exposed separately

Species evenness

relative abundance of each species

Earthquake

release of energy in Earth's crust that causes seismic waves

what type of test is prohibited for public office holders? why?

religious tests (article 6); freedom of religion, everyones religion protected

alternative energy

renewable and nonrenewable energy, alternative to fossil fuels

Sweden had to rescind its pledge to replace completely nuclear power with renewable energy because ________.

renewable energy was taking longer to develop than expected

Common

renewable resource owned by no one and used by all

Green Revolution

series of research and technology advances related to agriculture, occurring between World War II and the 1970's, which increased crop yields, crop nutrition, and pesticide effectiveness responsible for developing high-yield strains of wheat/rice, nitrogen-based fertilizers, & effective pesticides

Ecosystem Services

services we get from functioning ecosystems like clean water, soil, air, habitat, timber

Mercury and air toxic standards

set of standards that is preventing about 90% of the mercury in coal burned in power plants being emitted to the air, reducing 88% of acid gas emissions from power plants; reducing 41% of sulfur dioxide emissions from power plants

Eccentricity

shape of Earth's orbit around the sun

Acute Effects

short-term results of exposure to a hazard

What is the lock and key model of enzyme action?

simplistic model of enzyme action where the substrate fits into 3-D structure of enzyme's active site; like a key fits into lock Remember enzymes are very specific just like keys!

Subsidence

sinking of land due to removal of subsurface material, including water, oil, or gas

Triple Bond

six electrons are shared between elements

Carrying capacity

size of particular pop that given ecosystem can sustain over long term

hunter-gather

small, mobile bands of humans that survive on whatever resources they have in territory

Low-head hydropower

small-scale technology that can extract energy from small headwater dams that cause much less damage than larger projects

Ocean Wave energy

the capture of energy from waves for electrical power generation

Carbon capture and storage

the capturing carbon dioxide from sources such as power plants and transporting it to storage sites so that it will not enter the atmosphere

Negative

the charge an element is when it gains an electron

Positive

the charge an element is when it loses an electron

Wasting

starvation from lack of calories another form of malnutrition resulting from continued food shortages and illness

Scientific Law

statement/math relationship that describes single concept & is widely accepted by science community, but is not modified over time

One method for mining oil shale is __________.

strip mining

Covalent bonds

strong bonds between atoms in which the atoms share one or more electron pairs

Toxicology

study of the nature and effects/treatments of poisons, particularly on people

Organic Material

substances made of chains of carbon atoms w/ hydrogen atoms attached & other elements like oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur

Toxicants

substances that contain toxins

What is the general name for the reactant that binds with the enzyme?

substrate

Recovery Levels

sufficient # of organisms needed to regenerate pop; numbers below may collapse & become locally extinct

renewable energy

sun, water, wind, biomass- all derived from sun's energy

McCulloch v. Maryland

supremacy of the federal government and Congress over state governments through necessary and proper clause

Pyrethroids

pesticide includes natural and synthetic insecticides, some of which are toxic to the nervous system, and some of which are persistent in the environment Break down quickly, no bioaccumulation Possible endocrine disruptor

Chlorinated hydrocarbons

pesticide including DDT (illegal in US), chlordane, lindane endosulfan, and mirex are broad-spectrum insecticides that have been banned or restricted in many countries because they cause cancer and birth defects Biomagnifies and bioaccumulates Suspected carcinogen & endocrine disruptor Does not break down easily in the environment

Broad-spectrum

pesticides that kill a wide variety of pests

Narrow-spectrum

pesticides that kill only a few pests

Biodiesel is to ________ as ethanol is to gasoline.

petrodiesel

Thermal Inversion

phenomenon in which a warm air mass moves over and traps a cool air mass, disrupting normal air convection The motion of air stops

How are phosphates incorporated into the organic molecules in plants and animals?

phosphates absorbed by plant roots

Weathering

physical, chemical, biological processes through which Earth materials are exposed to atmosphere & change in color, texture, composition, form

Penstock

pipe at a hydroelectric dam that directs water to a turbine

Data

points that are measurable = quantitative or observations w/o numbers = qualitative

Toxin

poison that is harmful to an organism

Two poles have opposite charge

polar bond

Secondary Pollutants

pollutants that begin as primary pollutants and change form in the atmosphere; Change in a chemical reaction Include: SO3, H2SO4, HNO3, O3, H2O2, Most NO3s and SO4s

Primary Pollutants

pollutants that come directly from the source without reacting in the atmosphere Include: SO2, CO, NO, CO2, NO2

Brownfields

polluted sites that can be developed

Point Source

pollution that can be traced to specific source

An uncontrolled, self-sustaining nuclear fission chain reaction is an example of _____feedback.

positive

joules

the SI unit of energy that is the energy transferred. J = N * m

Watt

the SI unit of power as defined as Joules per second

Economies of scale

the advantages of mass production in terms of reducing costs

Whether using a food crop as a source of biofuels is environmentally sustainable would depend upon all of the following, except ________.

the corporate profits that would be made

original jurisdiction

the jurisdiction of courts that hear a case first, usually in trial. There courts determine the facts of the case.

Parent Material

the material from which soil forms

What is the nitrogen cycle?

the movement of nitrogen through the biosphere,the soil,the animal.

peak oil

the point when the maximum rate of global petroleum extraction is reached and at which the rate of production continues to decline

appellate jurisdiction

the power vested in particular courts to review and/or revise the decision of a lower court.

Salinization

the process through which too much water is applied to soil from irrigation or because the water table is close to the surface of the land, and the land becomes supersaturated, waterlogging occurs, and subsequent evaporation of water results in salts on the surface

Permeability

the rate at which water passes through soil Higher the value, the more rapidly water flows through an aquifer or other layer of soil

Risk Assessment

to determine how risky activities are Includes: o Estimating risk o Determining exposure methods o Measure the lethal dose o Experiments on organisms

Rule of 70

to find doubling time of pop, divide 70 by the percent of growth

Seismograph

tool consisting of fixed mass and a base; during quake, earth moves base but mass doesn't move

Ecotones

transitional areas b/t ecosystems

The United States and other industrialized nations devote the greatest proportion of their oil use to __________.

transportation

In contrast with the ______________, the soil of the ______________ is more nutrient-rich and this type of biome has fewer insects, parasites, and fungal diseases. Therefore, in many places, these areas are highly endangered.

tropical rainforest; tropical seasonal forest

Suburban sprawl

unplanned development by many different entities, often as part of urban outgrowth

Methods to conserve and improve soil

• Add organic matter (improves fertility, reduces erosion, increases water retention) • Cover crop (reduces erosion) • Avoid tilling (reduces erosion) • Rotate crops (legumes add nitrogen, reduce pests) • Avoid compaction (limit traffic) • Alley cropping (crops grown b/t rows of trees) • Buffer strips, wind breaks, shelter belts (reduce wind erosion) • Contour strips & strip cropping (reduce water erosion) • Minimize broad spectrum commercial pesticide application (many kill needed soil organisms)

Civil Service System

The system created by civil service laws by which many appointments to the federal bureaucracy are made; established under the *Pendleton Act* of 1883.

Slowly Degradable

Resources that break down over long periods of time

Approximately how many species have been identified on Earth?

about 1.7 million

Strategic Arms Limitation Talk (SALT) Treaty

Agreement signed by President Nixon in 1972 that resulted in the first arms reductions since the nuclear age began. Strategic Arms Reductions Treaty (START) of 1991: treaty between the United States and Russia that agreed to major reductions in their nuclear arsenals.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

Agreement that called for dramatic reductions of tariffs among the United States, Canada, and Mexico.

Tree plantations

Areas that trees are planted in specifically to be harvested; provide 25 percent of the world's industrial wood fiber

Isotope

Atom of the same element that differ in their number of neutrons

Illness

Impairment of functioning

Biosphere

Combination of all biomes, highest level of organization of living things

Executive Enumerated Powers

Commander-in-chief of armed forces; pardon power (except for impeachment); treaty power; appointment power; veto power

Gibbons v Ogden

Commerce clause case (1824). Decision greatly enlarged Congress' interstate commerce clause power by broadly defining the meaning of "commerce" to include virtually all types of economic activity. Pair with Lopez & Morrison cases (limiting commerce power).

Standing Committees

Committees that deal with proposed bills and also act in an oversight function. They are permanent, existing from one Congress to the next, such as the House Ways and Means and Senate Appropriations.

Solid Waste

Discarded, recycled, or abandoned material

Invisible Primary

Informal raising of support (and money) before first primaries

fuel cells

similar to batteries, generates electricity through combustion of hydrogen and oxygen = water

Crude Oil

thick, viscous liquid that can be pumped from the ground and purified into a variety of useful fuels

Electron

this particle is negative

neutron

this particle is neutral

Proton

this particle is positive

Ring of Fire

Extensive subduction zones in the Pacific Ocean basin, resulting in a ring of active volcanoes

Genetic bottleneck

Extreme reduction in genetic variation in pop due to breeding of closely related individuals

Zebra mussels are a mussel species from Japan that was introduced without negative consequences into the United States to improve water quality.

F

Fairness Doctrine

FCC regulation that required the media to air opposing opinions of the same issue; repealed in 1987.

Equal Time Rule

FCC rule requiring media stations to offer advertising time to all candidates if they offer it to one candidate.

Equal Time Rule

FCC rule that requires broadcast stations to sell campaign air time equally to all candidates if they choose to sell it to any.

Shays' Rebellion

Failed rebellion in 1786 by poor farmers in MA against state government & banks that were taking their farms. Showed how weak the central confederation government was vs. threats to private property and order. Major factor in creation of Constitutional Convention in 1787 (Elite theory)

Defamation

False and malicious (mean) writings ("libel") or speech ("slander") about a living person. Not protected speech under 1st Amendment but check out NY Times v. Sullivan (very difficult for "public figures" to prove defamation)

Agents of Socialization

Family (most important); TV/media (growing in importance); friends/peers; school (formal socialization). How we develop (absorb) opinions & beliefs.

Turbidity

Water Quality Indicator the amount of suspended material in water; used to measure cloudiness of water

pH

Water Quality Indicator the measure of acidity or alkalinity of a solution

Dissolved Oxygen

Water Quality Indicator the volume of oxygen gas (O2) that dissolves in water

Which of the following technologies has helped us to reduce the amount of emissions released by vehicles?

catalytic converters

Enzymes are named for the reactions they __________.

catalyze Ex. sucrase, protease, and lipase

Aerobic Respiration

cellular respiration that uses oxygen to release energy C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

Planned development

neighborhood or commercial center that is planned and built by a single entity.

Denitrification

process by which anaerobic bacteria turn nitrate ions into nitrogen gas 4NO3 + 2H20 -> 2N2 + 5O2 + 4OH

Cellular Respiration

process in which cells release energy stored in food Done by ALL organisms

Globalization

process in which countries all over world are related in terms of global market in goods

Speciation

process in which new species arise from other species

Combustion

process in which organic substance (fuels) combines with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water

Composting

process of gathering wastes, including kitchen and yard waste, in a manner that encourages decomposition

Desalination

process of making salt water drinkable by removing the salts

Agriculture

process of raising crops & livestock in single, sml area

Nitrification

process of which bacteria convert ammonia to nitrites & nitrates o 2NH3 + 3O2 → 2NO2- + 2H+ + 2 H2O o 2NO2- + O2 → 2NO3-

Remediation

process that attempts to clean up damage done to land; correcting environmental problem Two major types of sites that can be remediated: Superfund sites and brownfields

Nitrogen Fixation

process that converts nitrogen gas to usable form through lightning fixation or biological fixation; Most converts N2 to ammonia (NH3) at plant nodules of legumes 2N2 + 6H2O → 4NH3 + 3O2

Pesticide treadmill

process through which a farmer uses more pesticides, with increasing costs, as the effectiveness of pesticides decreases

Ammonification

process through which bacteria/fungi convert nitrogen within dead organisms into ammonium (NH4)

Assimilation

process through which plants absorb nitrate/ammonium ions from soil

Transpiration

process through which plants give off water through leaves

Wave action

process through which waves break on the shore Erosion occurs naturally through this

Condensation

process where gas changes to liquid

Anaerobic Respiration

process where kinds of organisms that can break down dead matter w/o oxygen C6H12O6 + 3NO3 + 3H2O -> 6HCO3 + 3NH4

Recycle

processing used materials into new materials Breaking down the original product by some physical or chemical means, retrieving the materials, and using them as raw materials to make new products

In the near future, the benefits of biofuel production may be enjoyed while reducing the impact on the global production of grain. One such promising approach is to ________.

produce biofuels from grasses instead of corn

Natural gas ________.

produces less carbon dioxide per energy unit than coal or oil

According to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), nuclear power __________.

produces significantly less emissions than fossil fuel combustion

What is the general name for the substance formed as an end result of a catalyzed reaction?

product

Which of the following is not a benefit of high biodiversity?

production of carbon dioxide

Cogeneration

production of two forms of energy from one source

Full-cost pricing

products that include external costs, especially negative externalities

Peer Review

scientific research is evaluated by experts in same field

Electricity is a __________ form of energy.

secondary

Ion Exchange

Drinking Water Treatment Process Exposes water to processes to exchange irons Removes metals Can be used to hard water

Aeration

Drinking Water Treatment Process Mixing of water frees dissolved gases

Filtration

Drinking Water Treatment Process Sending water through beds of sand or charcoal filters out additional particles

Circuit Courts

Intermediate federal appellate courts. Cover 13 "circuits" across America. Hear appeals from District Courts in their jurisdiction.

Democratic Party Coalition (modern)

Major supporters of Democratic Party = African-Americans, Jews, Women, Labor Union members, poor people

Coal Gasification

A synfuel of combustible gas made from coal

Biomass

Any organic material

Surface Ocean Currents

Continuous movement of ocean water; driven by winds

Insulators

Materials with greater resistance

Abiotic

Non-living

Pathogen

Organism that causes disease directly

7th Amendment

Right to jury in civil trials.

Symbiont

Two things that work together

Decibels

Units of sound volume

Focus

Where quake begins within earth's crust (hypocenter)

Biogas

gas released from biological materials like rotting organic matter

legislative court

A lower federal court created by Congress for specialized purposes. These justices have fixed terms of office, can be removed from office, and may have their salaries reduced while in office.

Bandwagon Effect

"Copy-cat" behavior. People often do things just because other people do them. In primary elections, it is when people support the candidate everyone else seems to be supporting (poll leaders). Leads to Primary Frontloading (states want to have the most impact in the primary process)

amicus curiae

"Friend of the Court"; may file briefs or even appear to argue their interests orally before the court.

Stare Decisis

"Let the decision stand"; the principle that cases should be decided in ways consistent with similar prior cases. Promotes consistency & fairness.

Stare Decisis

"The decision stands". A rule in deciding cases where judges follow precedent (how similar cases were decided in the past). Helps promote consistency and fairness in the legal process. Lower courts must follow precedent set by higher courts. Supreme Court can reject precedent if absolutely necessary (Example: Brown rejects precedent of Plessy).

US Constitution

"The supreme law of the land." Written in 1787 at Philadelphia Convention to replace Articles of Confederation and create stronger central government. Outlines structure & power of 3 branches of national government. Oldest written constitution still in use (but amended 27 times plus myriad informal amendments).

Superdelegates

"Unpledged Delegates" (usually important party members) at national party convention (about 20% of total delegates) who, unlike "pledged delegates" selected in primaries or caucuses, are not committed to a particular candidate. Used by party leaders to retain some control over candidate selection. Can be important in close races (like Obama vs. Hillary Clinton in 2008)

Biodiversity

# & variety of species living in area

Population Density

# of individuals in pop per unit area

14th Amendment

(1) All persons born in the U.S. are citizens; (2) no person can be deprived of life, liberty or property without DUE PROCESS OF LAW; (3) no state can deprive a person of EQUAL PROTECTION of the laws. Second of three "Reconstruction Amendments" passed after Civil War.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1824)

(1) CJ Marshall establishes doctrine of implied powers (Congress can create a national bank because it is necessary & proper to carrying out the enumerated power to coin money); (2) Supremacy clause prevents state (Maryland) from taxing the National Bank. Very important case enlarging power of federal government.

5th Amendment

(1) No Self-Incrimination (Miranda) (2) No Double Jeopardy (defendant cannot be tried again on the same, or similar charges) (3) No deprivation of life liberty or property without "due process of law" (fair treatment)

La Nina-Southern Oscillation (LASO)

*"Normal" year, easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the West coast of South America* Change in climate patterns in the Pacific where waters are colder than usual

El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

*Trade winds weaken & warm surface water moves toward South America. Diminished fisheries off South America, drought in western Pacific, increased precipitation in southwestern North America, fewer Atlantic hurricanes* change in climate patterns in the Pacific region every 3 to 8 years Ocean surface waters are warmer than usual in Dec/Jan due to changes in wind Pressure rises in Western Pacific (Indian Ocean, Indonesia, Australia), lowers in Central & Eastern Pacific Trade winds in South Pacific weaken Upwellings in Eastern Pacific are disrupted, as warm water is not pulled west; instead, warm water from the Western Pacific is pulled east Results: Wet summers in N.W. South American Droughts in Australia (brush fires) and S.E. Asia.

Privileges and Immunities

. Also a clause in the Fourteenth Amendment that protects citizens from abuses by a state.

State the steps of the carbon cycle (in order)

1) The atmosphere contains about 0.03% of carbon dioxide. During photosynthesis, plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to make carbohydrates,proteins and lipids. 2)Animals then obtain their supply of carbon by eating plants or other animals that have eaten plants 3)As plants and animals respire,molecules of carbon dioxide are released back into the environment. 4)Waste materials like faeces and their dead bodies are used as food sources by decomposers. Decomposers feed on dead organic matter. Carbon atoms then become incorporated into the decomposer's body. 5)Respiration of decomposers releases carbon dioxide back into the in atmosphere 6) In waterlogged soils where oxygen was in short supply,decomposers were not able to break down tissues completely in dead organisms. This partially decomposed material accumulated and eventually turned to a "solid" fossil fuel. Fossil fuels contain a lot of carbon 7) Combustion of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide back into the atompshere.

Department

A major administrative unit with responsibility for a broad area of government operations; usually indicates a permanent national interest in that particular governmental function.

Name two examples of competitive inhibition.

1. Penicillin blocks an enzyme that bacteria use to build cell walls. 2. Antabuse,a drug used to treat alcoholism, blocks an enzyme that breaks down alcohol.

Unconfined Aquifer

Aquifer free and open to surface of land; water can flow into it from surface of the land

Name three properties of enzymes

1. highly specific 2. not consumed in the reaction 3. can be affected by cellular conditions

Therm

100,000 BTU

Philadelphia Convention (1787)

12 states send delegates to revise the Articles of Confederation; Delegates soon agree to draft completely new Constitution with stronger federal government. Elite conspiracy?

Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act

1883 reform law that replaced the patronage/spoils system in the federal bureaucracy with a merit-based professional system. "Important" leadership positions in bureaucracy (Secretaries, Commissioners, Directors) & federal judges still appointed by president.

U.S. hydropower dam construction was greatest during the ________.

1930s-1960s

Chaplinsky v U.S.

1942 case establishing "fighting words" category of unprotected speech.

Mapp v Ohio

1961 case incorporating 4th Amendment (and exclusionary rule) into 14th Amendment DPC, binding on states.

War Powers Act

1973 act that states that a president can commit the military only after a declaration of war by the Congress, by specific authorization by Congress, if there is a national emergency, or if the use of force is in the national interest of the United States.

Buckley v Valeo

1974 campaign finance case declared some federal limits on campaign contributions in FECA violated First Amendment (ex. maximum spending limit and limits on candidates' spending their own money).

Cruzan v. Missouri

1990 case declining to extend the constitutional right to privacy to include the right to die (assisted suicide). Three states currently allow assisted suicide. It is a serious crime everywhere else.

Planned Parenthood v. Casey

1992 abortion case that applied new flexible test (instead of rigid trimester framework of Roe v Wade): Does state regulation of abortion place "undue burden" on women's right to an abortion? Court used test to uphold some regulations like waiting periods and parental notification for minors.

Proposition 209

1996 California initiative that banned all affirmative action programs.

Free Press Clause

1st Amendment Clause: Congress shall make no law abridging freedom of the press. No prior restraints unless major national security threat (Pentagon Papers Case). Major protection against libel (NY Times v. Sullivan).

Establishment Clause

1st Amendment clause: Congress cannot "establish" a religion. Accomodationists (establishment = government-funded religion) vs. Separationists (establishment = ANY involvement with religion); Lemon test

Free Speech Clause

1st Amendment clause; Congress can make no law abridging freedom of speech (including symbolic speech); Gitlow v. NY incorporates clause into 14th Amendment.

Free Exercise Clause

1st Amendment clause; Government cannot make a law prohibiting the free exercise of religion. Beliefs are 100% protected but religious practices are not exempt from neutral laws that affect everyone (ex., polygamy & illegal drugs)

Pioneer

1st community in succession

Pre-industrial

1st stage in Demographic Transition Model • Birth rates are higher due to infant & maternal mortality, lack of family planning, religious beliefs • Death rates are higher b/c disease, famine, drought, lack of health care & edu

American Party System

2 main parties (because of electoral rules) with other smaller and less powerful third parties (spoiler, splinter, extremist)

Artisan Aquifer

Aquifer under a layer of rocks/clay that causes it to build up pressure; Water will be forced up through well

Early developing / Transitional

2nd stage in Demographic Transition Model • Birth rates still high for same reasons, but death rates have dropped b/c increased (kinda stable) food supply & increased hygiene/sanitation/health care

Nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium

3 macronutrients that all plants need to survive

Sound Bites

30 or 60-second statements by politicians aired on the evening news shows or Sunday morning talk shows.

Little Ice Age

300-year mini-ice age from 1550 to 1850

What is the optimum temperature range for most human enzymes?

35-45 Celsius (Normal body temp = 37 Celsius)

Late developing / Industrial

3rd stage in Demographic Transition Model • Urbanization moves families from rural to urban • Status/edu of women improves, health care = more available, birth rates decrease, pop growth levels off

Soil

45% minerals, 5% organic matter, and 50% pore space for air and water

Developed / PostIndustrial

4th stage in Demographic Transition Model • Low birth rates & low death rates • Widespread use of birth control & health care

Bush v. Gore

5-4 Supreme Court declared that Florida vote recount violated equal protection clause (some votes would be examined more closely than others); ended Gore's challenge to 2000 election results. Power of judicial review (effectively decided 2000 election).

Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

5th Amendment self-incrimination clause requires government agents to warn suspects of their right to remain silent and/or contact an attorney before questioning them when they are in custody. Statements made without Miranda Warning are inadmissible in court (like the exclusionary rule for evidence)

what method of ratification is used and why?

9 out of 13 states must approve because the articles of confederation were considered unfair (article 7)

fuel assembly

A bundle of hollow metal rods containing uranium oxide pellets; used to fuel a nuclear reactor.

class-action suit

A case brought into court by a person on behalf of not only himself or herself but all other persons in similar circumstances.

Informal Amendment

A change made in Constitution not by actual written amendment. *Methods:* Legislation passed by Congress Actions taken by the President Decisions of the Supreme Court Activities of political parties Custom

Quasi-Legislative

A characteristic of independent regulatory agencies that gives them legislative powers to issue regulations.

Mandate

A claim by a victorious candidate that the electorate has given him or her special authority to carry out promises made during the campaign.

Full Faith and Credit Clause

A clause in Article IV of the Constitution which requires that each state respect the laws, records and court decisions of another state.

Executive Office of the President

A collection of agencies that help the president oversee department and agency activities, formulate budgets and monitor spending, craft legislation, and lobby Congress. *Includes:* National Security Council, Council of Economic Advisers Office of Management and Budget Office of National Drug Control Policy

Political Action Committee

A committee set up by a corporation or interest group to raise and funnels money to political candidates. Donation amounts to PACs are limited by FECA rules (hard money).

Committee of the Whole

A committee that consists of an entire legislative body; used for a procedure in which a legislative body expedites its business by resolving itself into a committee of itself.

Random Digit Dialing

A common method of randomizing poll sample to maximize accuracy.

Mineral Resources

A concentration of minerals in Earth's crust that can be extracted and processed relatively easily and affordably; includes both identified and unidentified resources

"Reagan Revolution"

A concept was to restore to state governments the responsibility for making and implementing policies. It is additionally a term popularly used to describe the broad spending cuts in social welfare programs instituted by the Reagan administration, beginning in 1981.

Electoral Dealignment

A lessening of the importance of party loyalties in voting decision (more independent voters, more split ticket voting, more divided government). Perhaps occurring now?

Trolling

A fishing hook-and-line method in which fishing lines with lures and bait are towed by a boat Generally sustainable practice that allows for release of bycatch

Trawling and dragging

A fishing method in which a cone-shaped net is dragged at various depths by a boat Not sustainable, as nets damage the sea floor and result in bycatch

Harpooning

A fishing method in which a fisherman stabs a fish with an aluminum or wood pole This practice can be considered sustainable because only individual fish are targeted, limiting bycatch.

Dredging

A fishing method in which a heavy frame with mesh bag is dragged on the ocean floor Not sustainable, as this practice damages ocean floor habitat substantially

Gilnetting

A fishing method in which a net hangs in the water suspended by floats; size of netting determines size of fish caught Not sustainable, as this practice results in significant amount of bycatch

Hook and Line

A fishing method in which fisherman uses a hook and line (and sometimes not even a pole) This is considered sustainable because can easily release bycatch and is done on a small scale.

Traps and Pots

A fishing method in which wire or wood traps are submerged and hold fish until fishers retrieve them Possibly sustainable, but often catches juveniles or bycatch

Federalism

A form of government in which power is divided between the federal, or national, government and the states.

White Primary

A form of restricting African American's 15th Amendment rights during the Jim Crow Era by only allowing whites to vote in the primary elections; giving African Americans only the opportunity to vote for white racist A or white racist B.

Plum Book

A list of good-paying (sweet) jobs that the new president can fill by appointment (agency directors and other VIPs)

Government Corporations

A government organization that, like regular corporations, provides a service to the public and typically charges for its services. The U.S. Postal Service is an example. Privatization would abolish GCs.

Categorical Grant

A grant ($) given to the states by the federal government for a specific purpose or program. The federal government tells the states exactly how to spend the money (no state discretion unlike block grants). Example = Medicaid. Most common type of federal grant because it gives Congress the most control over the states.

Political Party

A group of individuals with broad common interests who organize to nominate candidates for office, develop a party platform (policy goals), win elections, and run government

Political Party

A group of people joined together by common philosophies and common approaches with the aim of getting candidates elected in order to develop and implement public policy. It is characterized by an organization that is responsible to the electorate and has a role in government.

Elector

A group of people named by each state legislature to select the president and vice president.

Anti-Federalists

A group who opposed the ratification of the Constitution in 1787. They opposed a strong central government (tyranny) and supported states' rights. "I smell a rat!"

Subcommittees

A group within a standing committee that specializes in a subcategory of the standing committee's responsibility. (Ex. House Committee on Foreign Affairs has subcommittees on Asia, Europe, Africa, etc.)

What does the EROI (energy returned on energy invested) tell us about a potential energy source?

A high EROI ratio means an energy source is worth extracting based on the amount of energy needed to extract it.

Passive Solar Home

A home designed and constructed to maximize south-facing exposure without moving parts

Active Solar Home

A home including special technologies to collect and store sunlight energy using moving parts

Conference Committees

A joint committee appointed to resolve differences in the senate and house versions of the same bill

Injunction

A judicial order to a party to do or stop doing something (example: a restraining order to stay away from a specific person).

Judicial Restraint

A judicial philosophy in which judges play minimal policy-making roles, leaving that duty strictly to the legislatures.

War Powers Act

A law passed in 1973 after Vietnam fiasco requiring (1) president to notify Congress within 48 hours of sending troops into combat and (2) begin to remove troops after 60 days unless Congress approves of the action. Limited effort to reverse erosion of Congress' war powers since World War II (last formal declaration of war).

Federal Election Campaign Acts (FECA)

A law passed in 1974 for reforming campaign finances; created the *Federal Election Commission*, provided public financing for presidential primaries and general elections, limited presidential campaign spending, required disclosure, and attempted to limit contributions.

brief

A legal document submitted by lawyers to courts. It sets forth the facts of a case, summarizes any lower court decisions on the case, gives the arguments for the side represented by the lawyer filing the brief, and discusses decisions in other cases that bear on the issue.

Term Limits

A legal restriction that limits the number of terms a person may serve in a particular elected office. President limited by 22nd Amendment to 2 terms. No term limits on congressmen.

Socialism

A policial ideology that opposes capitalism and supports government control of major aspects of the economy (ex. electricity, health care).

Affirmative Action

A policy designed to correct the effects of past discrimination; requirement by law that positive steps be taken to increase the number of minorities in businesses, schools, colleges, and labor. *Supreme Court Cases:* Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978) Gratz v. Bollinger (2003)

Deregulation

A policy promoting cutbacks in the amount of Federal regulation in specific areas of economic activity.

Party Platform

A political party's statement of its goals and policies for the next four years, created at National Convention. Lofty rhetoric and specific legislative goals. Can cause splintering (example: southern whites abandoned Democratic Party in 1948 when it adopted a pro-civil rights plank.

Exit Poll

A poll of voters exiting the polls (voting locations) to attempt to predict the outcome of the election. May create a bandwagon effect.

Exit Poll

A poll taken of a small percentage of voters as they leave the polls; used to forecast the outcome of an election or determine the reasons for voting decisions.

Consumer Price Index (CPI)

A primary measure of inflation determined by the increase in the cost of products compared to a base year.

Filibuster

A procedural practice in the Senate whereby a senator refuses to relinquish the floor and thereby delays proceedings and prevents a vote on a controversial issue; see also *Cloture*.

chain reaction

A self-sustaining reaction when fission of nuclei of one generation of nuclei produces particles the fission of at least equal number of nuclei of the succeeding generation. It can be good in some ways and not so good in others.

Confined Aquifer

Aquifer under several layers of rock/clay; usually above bedrock Confining layer at the top—such as clay, which is impermeable—overlays the aquifer

Patronage System

AKA Spoils System. Filling government bureaucracy based on connections & political favors not merit (cronyism); ended by Pendleton Act (1883)

Arable

Able to be used for agriculture

13th Amendment

Abolished slavery. First of three "Reconstruction Amendments" passed after Civil War (1865-70)

24th Amendment

Abolishes poll taxes

Voter Turnout

About 50-60% of eligible voters in Presidential elections; much less in midyear elections (30-40%)

Indictment

Accusation by a grand jury; i.e., a formal finding by that body, that there is probable cause (reasonable grounds to make or believe an accusation against a named person to warrant his/her criminal trial.

Jus Soli

Acquisition of American citizenship at birth, because of birth in the United States; the "law of the soil," where born.

Jus Sanguinis

Acquisition of American citizenship at birth, because of the citizenship of one or both parents; the "law of the blood," to whom born.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Act that finally made the Fifteenth Amendment a reality. As a result of this act, any state not eliminating the poll tax and literacy requirements would be directed to do so by the federal government. It also resulted in the establishment of racially gerrymandered congressional districts in the 1980s and 1990s.

Family Medical Leave Act (1993)

Act that gave unpaid emergency medical leave for employees with a guarantee that their job would not be taken away in the interim.

Taft-Hartley Act (1947)

Act that outlawed the closed union shop and certain kinds of strikes, permitted employers to sue unions for violations of contracts, allowed the use of injunctions to stop union activities, and allowed states to adopt right: to: work laws, giving employers more rights regarding the establishment of union shops. Finally, the act gave the president the right to step in and prevent a strike by an entire industry, such as the steel or auto industry, if such an action would threaten the nation's health and safety.

Reapportionment Act of 1929

Act that provides for a permanent size of the House and for the number of seats, based on the census, each state should have.

Simpson-Marzzoli Act (1987)

Act that resulted in more than 2 million illegal aliens who were living in this country since 1982 being allowed to apply for legal status.

Electioneering

Activity that seeks to influence the outcome of an election. Independent electioneering (SuperPacs & 527s) is protected free speech and so cannot be limited by government.

Congressional Budget Office

Advises Congress on the probable consequences of its decisions, forecasts revenues, and is a counterweight to the president's *Office of Management and Budget*.

Urban

Agriculture that focuses on producing, processing, and distributing food in and around cities, which increases availability of fresh food to urban dwellers and increases the food supply

Biodynamic

Agriculture that subscribes to a spiritual world view in which the farm is a unified organism and must be treated holistically Manure and compost are key ingredients in biodynamic agriculture, as well as natural pest control

Ozone (O3)

Air Pollution Composed of 3 atoms of oxygen; created when nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOC) from emissions from cars and factories react with sunlight Secondary Pollutant

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

Air pollution Formed when fossil fuels, which contain sulfur, are burned Has the ability to dissolve in water vapor to form sulfuric acid and interact with the particulate matter and gases in the air to form other products Primary Pollution

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

Air pollution that includes Nitrogen dioxide, nitric oxide, nitrous acid, and nitric acid Nitrogen dioxide holds the greatest interest, and it forms from automobile emissions as well as other forms of transportation. It can contribute to ozone development and particulate matter pollution. Both primary and secondary pollution

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Air pollution that is a product of combustion of fossil fuels. It is colorless and odorless (and can be poisonous in large amounts) Motor vehicle exhaust contributes 56% of all emissions in the United States Primary Pollutant

Lead (Pb)

Air pollution was found in emissions from motor vehicles, but has been reduced substantially (95% from 1980 to 1999). Now found near lead smelters, waste incinerators, utilities, and lead battery manufacturers Primary Pollution

Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)

All energy absorbed by Producers

Electorate

All of the persons entitled to vote in a given election.

Constituents

All persons represented by a legislator or other elected officeholder.

Direct Action

Attempts to influence government by civil disobedience, and sometimes by militant or violent action. *Examples:* Demonstrations, marches, sit-ins, campus strikes, picketing

Class Action Lawsuit

Allows an entire class of people who have been hurt in a similar manner by the same person or corporation to join together in one legal suit. (Example: AT&T overcharging 10 million customers 1 cent a month for a year).

Line-Item Veto

Allows president to veto bad parts of a bill but keep the rest. Like a scalpel. Especially useful for cutting out pork from spending bills. Declared unconstitutional (impermissibly changed the detailed law-making process established in Article I)

Green Pricing

Allows utilities to profit from conservation programs and charge premium prices for energy from renewable sources

Wagner Act

Also called the National Labor Relations Act of 1935, it gave workers involved in interstate commerce the right to organize labor unions and engage in collective bargaining and prevented employers from discriminating against labor leaders and taking action against union leaders.

Whips

Also known as assistant floor leaders, they check with party members and inform the majority leader of the status and feelings of the membership regarding issues that are going to be voted on. Whips are responsible for keeping party members in line and having an accurate count of who will be voting for or against a particular bill.

Separation of Church and State

Also known as the "establishment clause," it is part of the First Amendment to the Constitution prohibiting the federal government from creating a state supported religion.

Virginia Plan

Also known as the Big State Plan. Wanted proportional representation in Congress (based on population).

Party Caucus

Also known as the party conference, it is a means for each party to develop a strategy or position on a particular issue.

Riders

Amendments to bills, often in the form of appropriations, that sometimes have nothing to do with the intent of the bill itself and many times are considered to be pork barrel legislation. Safety net: a minimum government guarantee that ensures that individuals living in poverty will receive support in the form of social welfare programs.

Impeachment

An action by the House of Representatives to accuse the president, vice president, or other civil officers of the United States of committing "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors."

Flat Tax

An alternative to the *progressive income tax* where individuals pay the same percentage regardless of how much they earn

Workfare

An alternative to the traditional welfare, where an individual is trained to work instead of receiving welfare

strict constructionist approach

An approach to judicial review which holds that judges should confine themselves to applying those rules that are stated in or clearly implied by the language of the Constitution.

activist approach

An approach to judicial review which holds that judges should discover the general principles underlying the Constitution and its often vague language, amplify those principles on the basis of some moral or economic philosophy, and apply them to cases.

Caucus (Congressional)

An association of congressional members who advocate a political ideology, regional, ethnic, or economic interest.

Devolution

An effort to shift responsibility of domestic programs to the states in order to decrease the size and activities of the federal government; associated with *Ronald Reagan*.

Policy Election

An election in which voters vote on a particular policy question (ban gay marriage, legalize marijuana). Often used to resolve a controversial issue. Only used (so far) at the state level. Three types of policy election are: recall, initiative, referendum.

527 Organization

An independent organization set up to influence the outcome of an election; can receive unlimited "soft money" donations but cannot directly advocate for a particular candidate or have any connection to a candidate. Rendered obsolete by Citizens United.

Defendant

An individual or group being sued by a plaintiff or charged with a crime by a prosecutor.

House and Senate Whips

Deputy leadership position. Connects leaders with "rank and file" members, and tries to encourage party unity & discipline

Obliquity

Angle b/t Earth's axis and plane of Earth's orbit The angle that Earth's axis makes in the plane of Earth's orbit

Trial Court

Any court of original jurisdiction that empowers a jury to decide the guilt or liability of an individual.

Bureaucracy

Any large, complex administrative structure; a hierarchical organization with job specialization and complex rules.

Third Party

Any political party that appears as an alternative to the two main parties of the Democrats and the Republicans. Often extremist, single-issue or candidate-centered. Not major feature of US political system because of winner-take-all electoral system. Can have spoiler effect (Nader in 2000) or are absorbed into major party (Tea Party in 2008).

Black Water

Any water containing human waste

Obscenity

Any work that, taken as a whole, appeals to a prurient interest in sex.

Open Primary

Anyone can vote in any party primaries (but can only vote in the primaries of one party). Less party control over process. May cause raider effect.

Blanket Primary

Anyone can vote in any party primaries (like open primary) but voters not limited to one party (can vote for example in Democratic presidential primary and Republican senate primary). Least amount of party control over process.Declared unconstitutional (violates party's freedom to associate)

How does enzyme concentration affect the reaction rate?

As enzyme concentration increases, reaction rate will increase to a point because there are more chances for a collision between the enzyme and substrate.

How does substrate concentration affect the reaction rate?

As substrate concentration increases, the reaction rate will increase to a point because there are more chances for an effective collision between the substrate and enzyme.

Casework

Assistance given to constituents by congressional members, answering questions or doing favors.

Casework

Assistance given to individual constituents by congressional members, like helping an elderly person figure out how to get Medicare benefits. Major incumbency advantage.

Congressional Caucuses

Association of members created to support a political ideology or regional economic interest (black caucus, women's caucus, blue dog democrats...)

Deterrence

Basic feature of American foreign policy to maintain massive military strength in order to prevent any attack upon this country or its allies.

Division of Powers

Basic principle of federalism; the constitutional provisions by which governmental powers are divided on a geographic basis.

Limited Government

Basic principle of the American system of government; that government is limited in what it may do, and each individual has certain rights that government cannot take away.

Gender Gap

Belief / observation that women are more likely to support Democratic / liberal candidates & issues than men. Women are more likely to support spending on welfare & education, and to oppose higher levels of military spending.

Keynesianism

Belief in aggressive government intervention to combat recession & promote economic growth, especially by massive federal spending ("stimulus")

Libertarianism

Belief in as much freedom and as little government as possible (tolerates some government to provide stability & security). Supports free market economy, no government regulation of morality, low taxes.

Social liberalism

Belief in government assistance to improve society, especially for the poor and minorities. Socially liberal policies include universal health care, public education, affirmative action, welfare programs

Economic Conservatism

Belief in limited government intervention in the free market. Supports tax and spending cuts, deregulation & privatization. Reaganomics or "trickle down economics."

Monetarism

Belief in limited government intervention to combat recession & promote economic growth. Major tool = increasing or decreasing money supply to avoid inflation & maintain price stability.

Economic Liberalism

Belief in strong government intervention in the economy to promote stability & prosperity (example, Keynesian fiscal policy)

Anarchism

Belief in the abolition of all government (maybe through violent means)

Elite Theory

Belief that American democracy is a sham; we really live in a plutocracy. The Constitution was written by rich white men for rich white men.

Pluralist Theory

Belief that American political system basically works; competing interest groups all get heard at different times and places in government. Federalism helps (more layers of government).

Black Fly

Biological Indicator of Water Quality Benthic Macroinvertebrate Found in range of water qualities, but often indicate too many nutrients in aquatic environment (including nitrates & phosphate pollution)

Flex-fuel boilers

Can burn wood chips, agricultural waste, or other biomass fuels

Endogamous

Capable of mating and reproducing with each other

Energy

Capacity to do work

Photovoltaic (PV) cells

Capture solar energy and convert it directly to electrical current by separating electrons from their parents atoms and accelerating them across a one-way electrostatic barrier formed by the junction between two different types of semi-conductor material

General Election

Election in which the winner becomes an elected government official.

Original Jurisdiction

Cases heard by the Supreme Court that do not come on appeal and that "affect ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party."

Formula Grants

Categorical grants distributed according to a particular set of rules, called a formula, that specify who is eligible for the grants and how much each eligible applicant will receive.

Hadley Cell

Cell that drives air around tropical regions

Ferrel Cell

Cell that moves air form 30 degrees to 60 degrees latitude

Photovoltaic Cells

Cells in solar energy that convert energy from the sun directly into electricity When exposed to sunlight, electrons flow from the p-layer to the n-layer and form an electrical current

Prior Restraint

Censorship enacted before the speech, publication, etc., is released to the general public.

Confederation Congress

Central government set up by Articles of Confederation (1781-89). No executive or judicial branches. Unicameral legislature with no power to tax or regulate interstate commerce (intentionally weak to prevent tyranny). One state one vote, supermajority (9/13) to pass important laws, unanimous vote to amend (our constitution is unconstitutional!)

Electoral Realignment

Changes in the two party system (either a new party replaces old party or coalitions that make up the two main political parties change over time). "Hard realignment" occurs in one critical election (ex., Republicans replace the Whigs in 1860), "soft realignment" occurs or over time (ex., African Americans switch from Republican Party to Democratic Party during Civil Rights Era)

Informal Amendment Process

Changing the meaning of the Constitution without changing the actual words (which requires a formal amendment through Article V process). Examples = Supreme Court opinions, laws, traditions.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

Chemical Equation for Cellular Respiration

6CO2 + 6H20 + light energy -> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Chemical Equation for Photosynthesis

Marbury vs. Madison

Chief Justice John Marshall famously announces the existence of the power of judicial review: the power of the Supreme Court to declare laws and actions of local, state, or national governments unconstitutional.

Chief Justice Earl Warren

Chief Justice from 1953-1969; led activist liberal court; known for cases expanding rights of criminal defendants (Mapp v Ohio, Gideon v Wainwright, Miranda v Arizona)

Supremacy Clause

Clause that states that "the Constitution and the laws of the United States... shall be the supreme law of the land."

Climatograph

Climatic diagram in which average precipitation and average temperature can be viewed together

Ocean thermal electric conversion (OTEC)

Closed-cycle system, heat from sun-warmed upper ocean layers is used to evaporate a working fluid, such as ammonia or Freon, which has a low boiling point

White House Chief of Staff

Closest presidential advisor ("Jafar"). PowerfulgGatekeeper in pyramidal system; does not require senate confirmation

The primary energy source that is most used in the United States for production of electricity is ________.

Coal

The world's most abundant fossil fuel is ________.

Coal

fossil fuels

Coal, oil, natural gas, and other fuels that are ancient remains of plants and animals.

Population

Collection of individuals of same species

Particulate Matter

Complex type of air pollution, consisting of small solid particles and liquid droplets suspended in the atmosphere, with variable size generally measured in microns Both primary and secondary pollutant

Don't Ask Don't Tell

Compromise gay policy in military from 1993; finally ended by Obama in 2011.

Sedition

Conduct/language inciting rebellion against authority of the state.

Legislative Oversight

Congress making sure the Executive Branch and the Bureaucracy is correctly executing (carrying out) laws.

Writ of Mandamus

Court order directing an official to perform a nondiscretionary or ministerial act as required by law.

Writ of Habeas Corpus

Court order requiring jailers to explain to a judge why they are holding a prisoner in custody.

Injunction

Court order that requires or forbids some specific action.

Special Courts

Courts created by Congress to deal with cases deriving from the delegated powers of Congress such as military appeals, tax appeals, and veteran appeals.

Sedimentation

Deposition of sediment in water

Extinction

Death of all members of species and speciation

Appropriations Committees

Decide how to spend money allocated to each spending category by Budget Resolution; 12 subcommittees for major areas of budget (ex. defense, energy, agriculture); major source of earmarking

DECON

Decontamination type of decommissioning of nuclear plants All parts of plant that are radioactive are cleaned & taken apart then shipped to low-level nuclear waste disposal site or stored on original site

Coriolis Effect

Deflection on moving objects due to Earth's rotation In Northern Hemisphere, objects are deflected to the right In Southern Hemisphere, objects are deflected to the left

Super Delegates

Democratic Party leaders and elected party officials who automatically are selected as delegates to the National Convention.

1968 DNC

Democratic party leaders (superdelegates) secure nomination of VP Hubert Humphrey even though he did not compete in any state primaries. Controversy led to the Fraser-McGovern Commission and related reforms.

Democratic Party

Demographics: Racial minorities, Jews, Women (gender gap), Labor Unions, Poor Ideology: Center-left coalition... support liberal economic & social policies (government aid, gay marriage, no death penalty, tax on wealthy). (liberalism is a dirty word in America)

Republican Party

Demographics: White, Protestants, Corporations, Rich Ideology: Conservative (cut taxes, cut spending, emd welfare, support traditional marriage...). Center-right coalition (more conservative than Democratic Party is liberal, especially with rise of Tea Party faction since 2008)

What happens in denitrification?

Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates in the soil back to nitrogen gas.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid; found in nucleus of cell, and essential for transmission of genetic info

Alleles

Different versions of genes

Patronage

Dispensing government jobs to persons who belong to the winning political party.

Latitude

Distance from equator

Apportionment

Distribution of representatives among the states based on the population of each state.

Solid South

Dominance by the Democratic Party in the South following the Civil War. The Republicans made strong inroads when Ronald Reagan was elected President in 1980 and after the Republicans gained control of the Congress in 1994.

Office of Management and Budget

EOP agency that helps the President prepare annual budget proposal and evaluates budget priorities and effectiveness of federal agencies (oversight)

Council of Economic Advisors

EOP agency; three economists who advise president about general economic date, issues and policy proposals. Must be confirmed by senate.

White House Office

EOP group that includes the President's most trusted personal advisors (led by White House Chief of Staff); members do not need senate confirmation

Secondary Consumer

Eats Primary consumers

Tertiary Consumer

Eats Secondary consumers

Omnivore

Eats both plants and animals

Primary Consumer

Eats producers

World Trade Organization

Economic organization to promote global wealth.

Mixed

Economy that relies on blend of gov & markets to determine allocation of goods/services & to set prices

Centrally Planned

Economy that relies on gov/another central authority to determine allocation of goods & services & to set prices

Market

Economy that relies on marketplace where buyers & sellers interact to determine allocation of goods/services & to set prices

Critical Election

Election in which existing patterns of party loyalty shift. Ex. Northern Democrats switch parties in 1860 to vote for Republican Party (Lincoln).

Net Primary Productivity (NPP)

Energy available to the next trophic level Is difference b/t gross primary productivity & cellular respiration

Power

Energy divided by time Rate at which work is done

__________ describes the ability to obtain a given result while using less energy input.

Energy efficiency

Biomass

Energy from plants and animals

Geothermal

Energy from the heat of the Earth

Nuclear Energy

Energy released from a nuclear reaction, including emission of radioactivity, fission, and fusion

Social Welfare

Entitlement programs such as Social Security and programs such as Aid to Dependent Children paid for by the federal government.

Baker v. Carr

Equal protection clause requires "one man, one vote" principle for redistricting (legislative districts must be roughly equal in population)

Jim Crow Era

Era in the South after Civil War (1865) until 1950s. African Americans were freed from slavery and could legally vote (Amendments 13, 14, 15) but were still subjected to discriminatory state laws enforcing segregation and kept from voting by laws (ex. poll taxes, literacy tests) and by violence (KKK)

Doctrine of Implied Powers

Established by CJ Marshall in McCulloch v. Maryland. Congress has the power to make all laws that are "necessary and proper" for carrying out its enumerated powers. So it can create a National Bank to carry out its power to coin money. Major cause of growth of federal power.

17th Amendment

Established the direct election of senators (instead of being chosen by state legislatures)

Roe v. Wade (1973)

Establishes a woman's constitutional right to an abortion (in limited circumstances). Court held that abortion is part of the right to privacy, which itself is part of the concept of liberty in the 14th Amendment ("substantive due process"). Major goal for conservatives to overturn Roe.

Exclusionary Rule

Evidence obtained in violation of 4th Amendment is not admissible in criminal trial. (Weeks v. U.S., Mapp v. Ohio)

Congressional Committee System

Evolved as a way for Congress to handle large and complex work-load; divides up law-making into major subject areas; major responsibility for debating & marking up bills + oversight of execution of laws (the bureaucracy)

Hot spot

Exceptionally hot regions in mantle

Commerce Power

Exclusive power of Congress to regulate interstate and foreign trade.

Prohibited Powers

Expressly bar government from specific actions, e.g. state governments cannot coin money, no ex post facto laws or grant titles of nobility.

Even-aged

Forest in which trees are all same age, generally same height

Uneven-aged

Forest that has trees of all different ages and heights

Old-growth Forests

Forests that have not been logged in recent history Characterized by variety of ages, trees in various stages of decay, woody debris, shade-tolerant species under uneven canopy, minimal anthropogenic effects

Closed Primary

Form of the direct primary in which only declared party members may vote; see *Open Primary*.

Interstate Compact

Formal agreements, largely in the form of financial arrangements, which are entered into between states, only with the approval of Congress.

Writ of Appeal

Formal request to have a court review the findings of a lower court.

Which of the statements below accurately describes nuclear fusion reactors?

Fusion reactions require very high temperatures.

What are greenhouse gases?

Gases in the atmopshere such as carbondioxide that absorb some of the escaping heat and send it back to the earth's surface.

Local Party Organization

Get-out-the vote activities (grassroots organization). Can be very unorganized. The initial point of entry for those seeking involvement in politics (volunteers, organizers, or candidates)

Listed Waste

Hazardous wastes that appear on the F-List (from manufacturing & industrial process), K-list (specific industries), P- and U-lists (from commercial chemical products)

Noble gases

He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn are examples

Department Secretary

Head of one of the 15 cabinet-level agencies ("Secretary" of Justice is called Attorney General). Divided loyalty between President and agency they command. Must be confirmed by Senate.

Attorney General

Head of the Justice Department and the chief law enforcement officer of the United States

National Party Organization

Headed by President and/or National Chairperson. Main function (limited) is to hold the national convention to select the presidential candidate & write the party platform.

Heating Systems

Indoor Pollutant Includes stoves, heaters, fireplaces, and chimneys that release carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and particulate matter

Exclusionary Rule

Holds that evidence gained by illegal or unreasonable means cannot be used at the court trial of the person from whom it was seized; see also *Inevitable Discovery*. *Constitutional Connection:* Fourth Amendment *Supreme Court Cases:* Mapp v. Ohio (1961)

Fighting Words Doctrine

Holds that the government can limit free speech if it can be proved that the result of speech will cause physical violence. *Supreme Court Cases:* Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire (1942)

Comparable Worth

Holds that women should be paid salaries equal to men for equivalent job responsibilities and skills.

Budget Committee

House & Senate standing committees that begins budget process in Congress by setting overall budget size and amounts that will be spent on different topics (ex. defense, education)

Mineral Reserves

Identified deposits of minerals currently profitable to extract Identified resources that can be mined profitably under current economic conditions and with current technologies

Altitude

How high something is

Rule of 4

How the Supreme Court decides whether to hear a case. Requires four or more justices to "grant certiorari" (agree to hear an appeal). Supreme Court agrees to hear <1% of cases.

Anthropogenic

Human induced

Which of the following is true?

Humans may have been causing extinctions thousands of years ago, but our impact has recently increased.

Which of the following statements is true about hydropower?

Hydropower cannot expand much more in the future in the United States.

Demographic determinism

Hypothesis in demography that states that human population dynamics are inevitably disastrous

Pocket Veto

If a bill is proposed within 10 days of congress adjourning and the president does not sign it , it will die (un-overrideable veto).

Biological Contaminants

Indoor Pollutant Includes anything living or associated with life, including bacteria, mold, mildew, pollen, dust mites, rats, mice, cat and dog saliva and dander, and cockroaches, and associated feces Human effects: Allergic reactions, Asthma, Sneezing, Watery eyes, Coughing, Shortness of breath, Dizziness, Lethargy, Fever, Digestive problems

Precautionary Principle

If there is a link b/t hazard and potential cause, even if scientific data cannot indicate the cause, action must be taken to prevent the hazard Responds to perceived correlations

House Ways and Means Committee

Important House standing committee responsible for initiating all taxation bills.

Household chemicals

Indoor Pollutant Includes cleaning, disinfecting, degreasing, and hobby products

Defendant

In a civil suit, the person against whom a court action is brought by the plaintiff; in a criminal case, the person charged with the crime.

Chief Justice John Marshall

In office from 1801-1835 (longest serving CJ). Supported increased power of federal government. Decided McCulloch v. Maryland, Gibbons v. Ogden, and Marbury v. Madison.

Rule of Four

In order for a case to be heard by the Supreme Court, four justices must agree to hear the case.

First Law of Thermodynamics

In physical & chemical changes, energy cannot be created/destroyed, only transformed

Universal Waste

Includes batteries, pesticides, mercury-containing thermostats & thermometers, and fluorescent bulbs

Congressional Incumbency

Incumbent= current office-holder running for re-election. Incumbent reelection rates VERY high (90+%); higher in House than Senate b/c Senate has stronger challengers. Incumbents lose because of scandal, general anti-incumbent anger...

Independent Regulatory Commissions

Independent agencies created by Congress to regulate important aspects of the nation's economy. Commissioners appointed by President but not removable except "for cause" (to protect independence). Most independent and least accountable part of the federal bureaucracy.

Strict Constructionists

Individuals who believe in a conservative interpretation of the Constitution.

Radon

Indoor Pollutant Colorless, odorless, radioactive gas, which breaks down in uranium under homes and becomes trapped in the home Human effects: lung cancer

Formaldehyde

Indoor Pollutant Colorless, pungent gas that is used in building materials and dry cleaning (for permanent press) and is a byproduct of combustion

Environmental Tobacco Smoke

Indoor Pollutant Includes smoke from cigarettes, tobacco, or pipes and the exhaled smoke from the smoker (often called secondhand smoke) Human effects: Eye, nose, and throat irritation, Aggravation of asthma symptoms in children, Reduced lung function, Lung cancer, Lower respiratory tract infections

Civil Disobedience

Intentional breaking of a law to protest against the law. Thoreau vs. Mexican-American War, Rosa Parks & MLK vs. Jim Crow segregation.

Korematsu v. United States (1944)

Internment of Japanese-Americans during WWII does not violate 14th Amendment Equal Protection Clause (gets strict scrutiny but national security is a good enough reason to justify the racial discrimination).

How is cellulosic ethanol different from traditional corn-based ethanol?

It can be made from the nonfood portions of plants and from wood

What is unique about the Mediterranean climate area biome?

It contains a high number of unique species.

How does an increase in temperature affect enzyme function?

It will increase to a point because addition of heat will speed molecules up and increase the likely-hood of successful collisions between enzyme and substrate. (Cold temps slow reaction rate down.) However, after the optimal temp is reached, the enzyme (protein) will begin to denature with additional heat and the active site will become nonfunctional and the enzyme will lose its 3D globular shape. Remember H-bonds are weak and are easily broken.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

Its director, appointed with the consent of the Senate, is responsible for the preparation of the massive federal budget, which must be submitted to the Congress in January each year. Besides formulating the budget, the OMB oversees congressional appropriations.

Patriot Act (2001)

Law responding to 9/11. Expands anti-terrorist powers (wiretapping, surveillance); 4th Amendment concern for civil liberties.

Marshall Court

John Marshall's tenure as Chief justice of the Supreme Court, whose leadership resulted in the landmark decisions of Marbury v. Madison, McCulloch v. Maryland, and Gibbons v. Ogden. These cases shifted power to the judiciary and federal government.

Selective Incorporation Doctrine

Judicial doctrine that applies the Bill of Rights (one right at a time) to state and local governments by incorporating them into the concept of liberty in the 14th Amendment's Due Process Clause (which is binding on the states)

Precedent

Judicial use of prior cases as the test for deciding similar cases.

diversity cases

Jurisdiction conferred by the Constitution on federal courts to hear cases involving citizens of different states. The matter, however, must involve more than $50,000, and even then the parties have the option of commencing the suit in state court.

Hatch Act (1939)

Law that prohibits government employees from engaging in political activities while on duty.

Thermal

Kinetic Energy Energy in atomic & molecular vibration

Radiant

Kinetic Energy Energy in electromagnetic radiation

Sound

Kinetic Energy Energy in longitudinal waves

Mechanical

Kinetic Energy Energy in motion of objects

Electrical

Kinetic Energy Energy of moving electrons

Political Action Committees

Known as PACs, they raise money from the special interest constituents and make contributions to political campaigns on behalf of the special interest group.

Pendleton Act

Known as the Civil Service Act of 1883, it set up merit as the criterion for hiring, promoting, and firing federal employees.

Derelict Land

Land degraded by mining operations & not reclaimed

Biome

Large area with specific climate and characteristic plants/animals that have adaptations for conditions

Writ of Certiorari

Latin for "to be made more certain," the process in which the Supreme Court accepts written briefs on appeal based on the "rule of four" justices voting to hear the case.

Stare Decisis

Latin for judicial precedent, this concept originated in England in the twelfth century when judges settled disputes based on custom and tradition.

Line Item Veto

Law giving president power to veto portions of budget bill; purpose = reduce size of national deficit; declared unconstitutional (violates separation of powers)

Voter Turnout

Low in America compared to other western democracies (50-60% for presidential elections; 40-50% for midterms)

constitutional court

Lower federal courts created by Congress which exercise the judicial powers delineated in Article III of the Constitution.

District Courts

Lowest level of federal courts; where federal cases begin and trials are held.

Cellulosic ethanol

Made from woody plant tissue; if found a way to produce it economically - it would have considerable environmental, social, and economic advantages over using edible grains or sugar crops for transportation fuel

Cells

Made of hot air that rises and cold air that cools and descends; Control the flow of air, which contributes to overall climate

Political Participation

Main form = voting. Also joining political party, volunteering on political campaign, campaign contributions, running for office, protests...

Americans With Disabilities Act (1990)

Major anti-discrimination law for disabled; requires access (ramps, braille, etc.); unfunded mandate

Title IX

Major anti-gender discrimination law that applies to universities and schools that accept federal funding. Controversial because many universities cut male sports programs so as not to violate Title IX.

Realism

Major foreign policy ideology. Act in the world only to protect and benefit yourself. (Contrast with idealism)

Republican Party Coalition (modern)

Major supporters of Republican Party = WASPs, business people, the rich

Undernutrition

Malnutrition consisting of consumption of too few calories or too few of one specific nutrient

White House Staff

Managed by the White House Chief of Staff, who directly advises the president on a daily basis, it includes the more than 600 people who work at the White House, from the chef to the advance people who make travel arrangements. The key staff departments include the political offices of the Office of Communications, Legislative Affairs, Political Affairs, and Intergovernmental Affairs. It includes the support services of Scheduling, Personnel, and Secret Service and the policy offices of the National Security Affairs, Domestic Policy Affairs, and cabinet secretaries.

Gatekeepers

Media executives, news editors, and prominent reports who decide what to present and how to present it.

Conductors

Materials with less resistance

Concurrent Resolution

Measure passed by both houses of a legislature that does not have the force of law nor require the chief executive's approval; often used to express the legislature's opinion or for internal rules or housekeeping.

Continuing Resolution

Measure that, when signed by the President, allows an agency to function on the basis of appropriations made the prior year.

Incumbent Advantages

Name recognition, campaign contributions, credit-claiming (pork & casework).

National Committee

National party organization that, with Congressional leaders and President, runs party affairs between national conventions, (DNC and RNC, each is headed by a chairperson).

The most cleanly burning fossil fuel available, producing the least pollutants, is ________.

Natural Gas

Attack Ad

Negative ad attacking opposing candidate (ex., swift boat veterans, willie horton); proliferating with independent SuperPAC spending (you ain't seen nothin' yet!)

Competition

Neither species benefits

Neutralism

Neither species benefits or is harmed

Steam Reforming

Process in which steam is used to separate molecules of methane (CH4) into their component carbon and hydrogen atoms Separates hydrogen from carbon in methane CH4(g) + H2O → CO +3H2(g) + energy

Cogeneration

One of the fastest growing sources of new energy; the simultaneous production of both electricity and steam or hot water in the same plant

Feed-in tariffs

Requiring utilities to buy surplus power from small producers at a fair price; generally essential to individual solar installations

Are all competitive inhibitors "bad"?

No. Some are used to regulate enzyme reactions in living organisms.

Naturalization

Process by which persons acquire citizenship.

Presidential Nomination Reform

Nomination process is too long and too expensive. One reform idea is to have a single national primary on one day (but this would require runoff election and would hurt less well known candidates who need time to establish their candidacy)

Stationary Sources

Non-moving sources of pollution EX: power plants, commercial facilities

Congressional Budget Office (CBO)

Non-partisan legislative support agency (economists) to analyze President's Budget Proposal & how much programs and budget items will cost. Goal is to aid the Congressional budget process.

Executive Agreement

Non-treaty agreement between the U.S. president and other nations that does not require Senate ratification (but is not binding on future presidents). Since 1939, executive agreements have comprised more than 90% of the international agreements (because senate ratification is a real drag!)

Confederation

Nonbinding union of sovereign states (example = European Union, America under Articles of Confederation).

NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Cold War military alliance (USA + Western Europe vs. USSR).

The type of energy that holds neutrons and protons together in the nucleus of an atom is called __________.

Nuclear energy

Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear process in which energy is released as light atomic nuclei fuse to form heavier atomic nuclei

Nuclear Fission

Nuclear process in which energy is released when heavy atomic nuclei are split into lighter atomic nuclei

Pigeonholing

Occurs when a committee ignores a bill and doesn't report it out. Also known as "tabling" or "death by committee." Major cause of bill death.

Grass Roots

Of or from the common people, the average voter; used to describe opinion and pressure on public policy.

New Jersey Plan

Offered at the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia, it urged the delegates to create a legislature based on equal representation by the states.

Virginia Plan

Offered at the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia, it urged the delegates to create a legislature based on the population of each state.

In the United States, ________ is the leading source of energy.

Oil

Fairness Doctrine

Old FCC rule requiring media stations to provide different viewpoints for any controversial political issue

Isolationism

Old as Washington, a belief that America should not seek to become engaged in foreign affairs.

Joint Chiefs of Staff

One General from each of the 4 armed service branches (army, navy, air force, marines) and, since 1/2012, the National Guard. The JCS are key military advisors to the President.

Fighting Words Doctrine

One major category of unprotected speech (basically verbal assault); Exception created in Chaplinsky v. NH (1942)

Potentially Renewable

Resources that are generally renewable, but can become nonrenewable if not used wisely

Separation of Powers

Originally developed by Montesquieu in The Spirit of Natural Laws written during the Enlightenment and James Madison in Federalist No. 48, this important doctrine resulted in the establishment of three separate branches of government: the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, each having distinct and unique powers.

Which of the following statements about trade in endangered species is false?

Overharvesting affects animals more than plants.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Overrules Plessy v. Ferguson (no stare decisis). Racial segregation violates 14th Amendment Equal Protection Clause ("separate is inherently unequal")

President as Party Leader

POTUS is the symbolic leader of his party. Acts as party's chief spokesperson to the public & sets party's legislative agenda (bully pulpit)

Boyle's Law

PV = k where P = pressure, V = volume, K = constant

Executive Agreement

Pact made by the president with the head of a foreign state; a binding international agreement with the force of law but which (unlike a treaty) does not require Senate consent.

Thirty-Second Spots

Paid political ads 30 seconds in duration

Natural Rights

Part of Locke's philosophy; rights that are God given such as life, liberty, and property.

Free Exercise Clause

Part of the *First Amendment* guaranteeing to each person the right to believe whatever that person chooses in matters of religion. *Supreme Court Cases:* Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972) Employment Division v. Smith (1990)

Establishment Clause

Part of the *First Amendment* prohibiting either the establishment of a religion or the sanctioning of an existing religion by the government; see also *Free Exercise Clause*. *Supreme Court Cases:* Engel v. Vitale (1962) Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971) Lee v. Weisman (1992)

Younger Dryas

Period of global cooling that occurred 12,000 years ago

Standing Committees

Permanent committees in House and Senate that handle bills dealing with a particular subject area. Examples: Defense, Budget, Education.

Lame Duck

Person holding office after his or her replacement has been elected to the office, but before the current term has ended. Lame Duck Presidents may find it hard to influence Congress (why work with a guy who is about to leave?)

National Chairperson

Person responsible for the day-to-day activities of the party, usually hand-picked by the presidential nominee.

Organic phosphates

Pesticide including malathion and parathion Derived from nerve gas (German research during WW2) Breaks down in environment (water soluble) but greater acute toxicity than in chlorinated hydrocarbons

Fungicide

Pesticide that kills, repels, controls fungi

Herbicide

Pesticide that kills, repels, controls plants

Rodenticide

Pesticide that kills, repels, controls rodents

Initiative

Petition process by which a certain percentage of voters can put a proposed constitutional amendment or statute on the ballot for popular approval or rejection.

Election Timeline

Phase 1: Invisible Primary (year prior to election year) - exploratory committees, straw polls, media exposure... Phase 2: Front-Loaded Primaries, including Super Tuesday (Jan-Feb of election year) Phase 3: Remaining primaries & caucuses (March-June of election year) Phase 4: Nominating Convention (July/August) Phase 5: The General Election Campaign (from Labor Day) Phase 6: Election Day (November)

What happens to phosphorus that erodes from rock and soil?

Phosphorus unites with Oxygen to make phosphates

The base of the marine food web is

Phytoplankton

Locus

Place where the pathogen enters the body

New Jersey Plan

Plan at Philadelphia Convention for equal representation in new Congress (1 state 1 vote). Also known as "small state plan." Opposite of the Virginia "big state" Plan. Becomes basis of representation in the Senate.

Genetically Modified organisms (GMO)

Plants & animals that have had their traits modified by scientists

Legumes

Plants with seed pods

Hyperpluralist Theory

Pluralism gone wrong; belief that government is paralyzed by too many interest groups demanding things too many things from government

Peak oil

Point at which global oil extraction is maximized

"New Federalism"

President Ronald Reagan's effort to restore to state governments the responsibility for making and implementing policies.

Which of the following descriptions of primary extraction is accurate?

Primary extraction may leave as much as two-thirds of the total oil deposit below ground.

Vertical Federalism

Principle that describes the obligations established by the Constitution between the states and the national government.

Risk

Probability that hazard will lead to injury

Cloture

Procedure that may be used to limit or end floor debate in a legislative body; requires a three-fifths vote of the Senate.

Draft

Process by which people enter compulsory service in the military.

Closed loop recycling

Recycling process in which a product is recycled to become the same type of product Little degradation in the properties of the product

Civil Rights

Refers to positive acts of government that seek to make constitutional guarantees a reality for all; e.g., prohibition of discrimination.

Gender Gap

Refers to the regular pattern by which women are more likely to support Democratic candidates; women tend to be significantly less conservative than men and are more likely to support spending on social services and to oppose higher levels of military spending.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Regulates air and water pollution, pesticides, radiation, solid waste, and toxic substances. It is the main environmental regulatory agency.

Executive Orders

Regulations & orders from the President to an agency about how to execute a law. They are one of the ways presidents can try to control the bureaucracy.

Dose-response relationship

Relationship between an administered dose and the effect on an organism

Leaching

Removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards through soil When traveling water can carry substances with it As water passes through soil, the water dissolves and carries with it materials that may be mixed with the soil

United Nations

Replaced the League of Nations after WWII. Global organization to maintain peace and facilitate diplomacy.

Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)

Required by NEPA (National Environment Policy Act) Is complex prediction of environmental changes filed for proposed federal action

Ethics in Government Act

Requires financial disclosure for elected public officials and placed 1 year restriction on former government officials' lobbying activities (the revolving door problem)

Acid Mine Drainage

Result of rainwater seeping through waste materials called tailings, which creates strong acids & dissolved toxic metals that move into nearby soil & water the low pH (acidic) liquid that flows out of coal or metal mines

Reclamation

Returning mined land as closely as possible to its original topography and vegetation cover

RNA

Ribonucleic acid; found mostly in cytoplasm of cell & responsible for transmitting generic information w/ DNA to cytoplasm

Congressional Demographics

Rich highly educated white male protestant lawyers & businessmen! Women VERY underrepresented! (<17%)

2nd Amendment

Right to arm bears. Supported by National Rifle Association interest group & Republican Party.

Crust

Rigid Surface of earth Rigid and consists of continental crust, composed of lighter granitic rocks, and oceanic crust, which is composed of denser basaltic rocks

Ore

Rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine Rock that contain 1+ desired metals that could be extracted affordably & w/ current technologies

Delegate

Role played by elected representatives who vote the way their constituents would want them to, regardless of their own opinions.

Closed Rule

Rule in the House of Representatives that prohibits any amendments to bills or says that only members of the committee reporting the bill may offer amendments

Case or Controversy Requirement

Rule of judicial self restraint to limit power of judicial review; the Court will only consider real controversies including real, adverse parties (no advisory opinions)

Contour strips

Runs perpendicular to the slope of the land to prevent erosion Traps soil and slows erosion by water

________ has more natural gas reserves than any other country.

Russia

SAFSTOR

Safe Storage type of decommissioning of nuclear plants, plant is locked up for 60 years while radioactive components decay to stable elements After 60 years, plant is taken apart in process similar to DECON

Federalist 51

Separation of powers & checks & balances protects against tyranny

The New Deal

Series of liberal (Keynesian) economic laws enacted by FDR to combat Great Depression. Includes Social Security System & federal minimum wage law. Birth of Democratic Party as liberal party (soft electoral realignment)

Constituent Services

Services a congressperson provides for his/her constituents (ex., helping with government claims like social security & veterans benefits)

Articles of Confederation

Set up the 1st independent American government (1783-88). Nonbinding "league of friendship" among sovereign states with weak central government to help with common defense & cooperation (like the European Union). Replaced by our current constitution in 1788.

Rally Effect

Short-term patriotic increase in president's popularity and power during times of serious international crisis or war (e.g. Bush after 9/11)

Motor Voter Act of 1993

Signed into law by President Clinton, it enables people to register to vote at motor vehicle departments.

Passive heat absorption

Simplest and oldest use of solar energy; using natural materials or absorptive structure with no moving part to simply gather and hold heat

Unicameral Legislature

Single-house legislature

Brownfield

Site contaminated form industrial or business use

Incrementalism

Small changes in policy over long periods of time; usually in reference to budget-making--that the best indicator of this year's budget is last year's budget plus a small increase.

Micro-hydro generator

Small enough to provide economical power for a single home

Individual

Smallest level of organization of living things; A single organism

Criminal Law

That body of law passed by both the federal and state governments, that defines crimes and provides for their punishment.

C Horizon

Soil horizon that's area of transition b/t parent material below & soil above

D Horizon

Soil horizon that's bedrock; is parent material from which soil is made

B Horizon

Soil horizon that's considered the subsoil or zone of accumulation where minerals/nutrients leach into from O & A horizons

A Horizon

Soil horizon that's considered the topsoil & contains inorganic/organic material called humus Layer that supports agriculture (thicker = healthier = better for agriculture)

O Horizon

Soil horizon where organic matter from animals & plant roots & leaves is located; often dark colored

Mollisols

Soil order Prevalent in US Found in grasslands & tend to be in climates that are semi-humid to semi-arid Youngest of all soil types & have dark surface horizon

Oxisols

Soil order found in subtropical & tropical rain forest Heavily weathered by water that leaches minerals out of soil & are not fertile Few minerals remain after leaching Have nonexistent soil horizons

Ultisols

Soil order important in SE US Contains clay minerals (most often kaolinite) & known for red color, but can also appear purple & orange

Entisols

Soil order that forms on hillsides and deltas New & poorly developed Many soils that do not fit well into other soil orders are classified as this

Solar Power Tower

Solar Plant that focuses solar energy on receiver using sun-tracking mirrors, which can concentrate solar energy as must as 1500 times normal intensity of sun

Solar Dish

Solar Plant that tracks the sun, pointing straight at it during the day, sometimes receiving 2000+ times normal intensity of sun

Parabolic Trough

Solar Plant that uses shape of parabola to focus sun 30 - 100 times its normal intensity along focus of trough, which heats water to power steam turbine

Asthenosphere

Solid but flowing mantle underneath lithosphere

kerogen

Solid, waxy mixture of hydrocarbons found in oil shale rock

Connecticut Compromise

Solves big state-little state debate over representation in federal legislature at Philly Convention. Created bicameral legislature with equal representation for states in Senate and proportional representation in House (seats based on population).

Hazard

Something that can cause harm

Species diversity is most concentrated in

South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia.

Select Committees

Specially created congressional committees that conduct special investigations. The Watergate Committee and Iran-Contra investigators were select Senate committees.

Invasive species

Species not native to ecosystem, but can thrive & displace native species

R-selected

Species that can produce many offspring, each of which has sml chance of surviving to maturity

K-selected

Species that produce fewer offspring, each of which has a relatively high probability of surviving to maturity

Discretionary Spending

Spending set by the government through annual appropriations bills, including operating expenses and salaries of government employees.

Risk Communication

Stage in risk analysis when policy makers find ways to address the hazard and risk with the public

Common Law

That body of law made up of generally accepted standards of rights and wrongs developed over centuries by judicial decisions rather than in written statutes.

Renewables Portfolio

Standards to require power suppliers to obtain a minimum percentage of their energy from sustainable sources

Lawrence v. Texas (2003)

State laws making sodomy (gay sex) a crime violate equal protection clause (fails rational basis test because only possible reason for law is homophobia)

15th Amendment

States cannot deny any person the right to vote because of race. Third of three "Reconstruction Amendments" passed after Civil War. First Voting Rights Amendment (with 19, 24 & 26)

26th Amendment

States cannot deny the right to vote based on age (18+)

19th Amendment

States cannot deny the right to vote based on gender

Full Faith & Credit Clause

States must recognize laws & judicial decisions of other states (ex., marriage, child support payments); public policy exception for gay marriage?

Dual Federalism

System of federalism that strictly separates federal power (ex. foreign relations) and state power (ex. protect against crime). Each level of government is dominant within its own sphere. Probably how the Founders thought America would work (enumerated federal powers + reserved state powers). Also known as "layer-cake federalism."

Cooperative Federalism

System of federalism where federal & state governments help each other perform governmental duties. Also known as marble-cake federalism. E.g., After hurricanes federal and state agencies work together to provide relief. Can cause confusion and/or conflict among among different levels of government. Best explanation of how federalism works today (instead of dual federalism)

Checks and Balances

System of overlapping the powers of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, to permit each branch to check the actions of the others and thus no branch of government may dominate the other; see *Separation of Powers*.

Estuaries are often referred to as nursery areas due to the number of organisms that use them for breeding.

T

Estuaries contain a mix of fresh and salt water.

T

Tropical moist forests have high species diversity because they have highly developed, diverse niche opportunities and habitats.

T

Reuse

Taking old products and using them again, keep waste out of landfills •Reusing goods in the way they were intended to be used and repurposing them

Poll Tax

Tax on voting. Used to discourage African Americans from voting during the Jim Crow era. Also used to exclude poor whites. Declared unconstitutional by 24th Amendment.

Transform

Tectonic plate boundary type where tectonic plates slide horizontally past one another

Convergent

Tectonic plate boundary type where tectonic plates slowly collide (oceanic-continental, oceanic-oceanic, continental-continental)

Divergent

Tectonic plate boundary type where tectonic plates slowly move apart from one another at spreading centers and new crusts form

Select Committees

Temporary congressional committees appointed for a specific purpose, such as impeachment investigations or the "Super Committee" on the Budget

Conference Committee

Temporary joint committee created to reconcile any differences between the two houses' versions of a bill.

President Pro Tempore

Temporary presiding officer of the Senate.

Executive Office of the President (EOP)

Ten organizations that advise the President. Includes the Office of Management and Budget, the Council of Economic Advisors, and National Security Council. Top positions must be confirmed by Senate.

Imperial Presidency

Term developed by historian *Arthur Schlesinger Jr.*; refers to presidents who dominate the political and legislative agenda.

Sampling Error

The % margin of error of a survey. Randomized polls accurate to 3%.

Supremacy Clause

The Federal constitution, laws, and treaties are the supreme law of the land. States cannot interfere with federal power (ex. McCulloch v. Maryland).

Executive Privilege

The President's self-declared power to keep executive communications confidential, especially if they relate to national security. Informal amendment to Constitution (by tradition). Can lead to conflict with other branches (Watergate).

Treaty Power

The ability of a president to negotiate treaties with foreign nations (requires ratification by 2/3 senate vote). Overshadowed by Executive Agreements.

Administrative Discretion

The ability of an agency to determine how it will execute (carry out) laws. Major source of independent power for agencies. (Ex. The FDA decides how to determine safety of food & drugs, the U.S. Attorneys decide whether or not to prosecute suspects)

Appeasement

The act of making concessions to a political or military rival.

Court Packing

The act of placing members of the same political party on the bench so that opinion of the court will be consistent with that of the political party; associated with *Franklin Roosevelt*.

McCarthyism

The act of seeking out subversives without cause or need (seen during the 1950s with Senator Joseph McCarthy in terms of the fear of Communism).

Lobbying

The act of trying to influence a politician or bureaucrat. Usually lobbyists are highly paid insiders with access to people in power (revolving door). Major weapon of corporate interest groups.

Negawatts

The amount of energy saved through conservation

Counter-Majoritarian Difficulty

The argument that judicial review is problematic because it allows unelected judges to overrule the decisions of elected representatives, thus undermining the will of the majority.

Military-Industrial Complex

The assumption that there is an alliance between the military and industrial leaders.

Spin

The attempt of politicians to cast their words & actions in the most flattering light (propaganda, distortion)

Appellate Jurisdiction

The authority of a court to review decisions of inferior (lower) courts; see *Original Jurisdiction*.

Loose Construction

The belief, first expressed by *Alexander Hamilton*, that the government can do anything that the Constitution does not specifically prohibit; see also the *Elastic Clause*.

Biofuels

The biggest recent news in biomass energy (examples: ethanol and biodiesel)

Outputs

The binding decisions that a political system makes, whether in the form of laws, regulations, or judicial decisions.

Work

The capacity to move an object over a distance

Define the carbon cycle.

The carbon cycle is a cycle that shows how carbon atoms are passed from one organism to another and to their environment as they live,breathe,eat die and decay.

Devolution Revolution

The effort to reduce the size & power of the federal government by returning (devolving) power to the states. Associated with economic conservatives, President Reagan & the Tea Party.

Burger Court

The description given the United States Supreme Court from 1969 to 1986 (led by *Chief Justice Warren Burger*). It was expected that the "Burger Court" would become a conservative court under Warren Burger and reverse many of the liberal rulings of the earlier *Warren Court*.

Rehnquist Court

The description given the United States Supreme Court from 1986 to the present (led by Chief William H. Rehnquist). It is marked by its conservative rulings, cutting back on the rights of the accused and expanding the concept of federalism.

Warren Court

The description of the United States Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice Earl Warren) from 1953 to 1969 which became the symbol of judicial activism and which handed down many landmark decisions on desegregation, civil rights, First Amendment freedoms, and the rights of criminal defendants

Political Participation

The different ways an average citizen gets involved in the political process ranging from conventional means of influencing government to more radical unconventional tools that have influenced our elected officials.

Effective Dose-50% (ED50)

The dose that affects 50 percent of the population (with a response other than death)

Lethal Dose-50% (LD50)

The dose that is lethal to 50 percent of the population

Gerrymandering

The drawing of district boundaries by the state legislature to benefit a party, group, or incumbents. Major types are political & racial.

Speaker of the House

The leader of the majority party and presiding officer of the House of Representatives. Key role in assigning bills to committee and members to committees & setting party's legislative agenda

Civil Rights Act of 1964

The legislative act that removed racial barriers in all places vested with a public interest. *Constitutional Connection:* Fourteenth Amendment Fifteenth Amendment

Deregulation

The lifting of government rules & restrictions on business, industry, and professional activities; major goal of Republicans

Nuclear reactor

The location within a nuclear power plant where nuclear chain reactions occur

Appellant

The losing party in a court case who appeals the case to an appellate court.

district courts

The lowest federal courts where federal cases begin. They are the only federal courts where trials are held.

National Convention

The meeting of party delegates every four years to choose a presidential ticket and write the party's platform. Brokered Convention occurs if no candidate has won a majority of delegates in state primaries & caucuses.

Narrowcasting

The modern media trend for TV and radio shows to target very narrow ideological audiences (ex. conservatives watch Glenn Beck and Bill O'Reilly); results in greater political polarization

Favorite Son

The presidential candidate backed by the home state at the party's nominating convention.

Separation of Powers

The principle of dividing governmental powers among different branches of government to protect against tyranny (Federalist 51).

Flexible Construction

The principle, established by Chief Justice Marshall in 1819 in *McCulloch v. Maryland*, that the Constitution must be interpreted flexibly to meet changing conditions.

Ratification

The procedure followed by the states to approve the Constitution and/or its formal amendments.

Marking Up

The process by which a congressional committee debates, amends, and/or rewrites bills.

Nomination Process

The process by which a political party nominates ("selects") a candidate to run in a general election.

Political Socialization

The process by which individuals acquire (absorb) a sense of political identity (beliefs & behaviors). Key agents of socialization include family, media, peers. Process can be informal (family) or formal (APGOPO)

Congressional Districting

The process by which state legislatures draw congressional districts for states with more than one representatives; see *Gerrymandering*.

Reapportionment

The process in which a state legislature redraws congressional districts based on population increases or declines.

Coevolution

The process in which changes in the traits of one population lead to changes in another species

Dematerialization

The process in which fewer materials are used in the creation of a product

Hydrology

The study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water throughout the Earth Pertaining to water cycling in the environment

Why does reaction rate level off after a point with an increase in enzyme concentration?

The substrate becomes limiting factor and not all enzyme molecules can find substrate and the maximum rate of reaction occurs. There is more enzyme than substrate.

Stay

The temporary delay of punishment, usually in capital offenses

Primary Frontloading

The tendency of states to move their primaries & caucuses earlier in the calendar in order to maximize their impact on nomination process (bandwagon effect).

Iron Triangle

The three-way alliance among legislators, bureaucrats, and interests groups to make or preserve policies that benefit their respective interests.

senatorial courtesy

The tradition by which the Senate will not confirm a district court judge if the senator who is from that state and of the president's party objects.

Steam produced from the heat generated by nuclear fission is used to turn the blades of the_____ in a nuclear power plant.

Turbine

Which of the following is a drawback of the run-of-river approach to hydroelectric power?

This approach is not very reliable from season to season.

Which of the following is a drawback associated with the use of biomass energy?

Unsustainable wood harvesting can lead to deforestation, soil erosion, and desertification

Declaration of Independence

Thomas Jefferson's statement of political liberalism (limited government to protect life liberty and pursuit of happiness; right to revolution).

Incumbents

Those elected officials who are running for new terms of office.

Concurrent Powers

Those powers which are exercised independently by both the national and state governments. Those powers shared by both levels of governments, i.e., state and national. *Examples:* Maintain law & order Levy tax Provide for the general welfare

Funded Mandates

Those regulations passed by Congress or issued by regulatory agencies to the states with federal funds to support them.

Council of Economic Advisors

Three economic experts to help president understand and develop economic policy; must be confirmed by senate

Lemon Test

Three-prong test used to determine the constitutionality of a government action under the *Establishment Clause.* *Constitutional Connection:* First Amendment *Supreme Court Cases:* Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971)

Bioaccumulate

To accumulate, as a substance in an individual organism

Federalist 10

Topic = factions (interest groups); minority factions controlled by majority; majority faction controlled by greater size of USA + virtuous leaders

Unwritten Constitution

Traditions, precedent, and practice incorporated into our form of government that adds to the Constitution's elasticity and its viability. Political parties, the president's cabinet, political action committees, and the federal bureaucracy are important examples.

Clear-cutting

Tree harvesting technique where loggers cut down all trees in a plot and burn the remaining material

Strip cutting

Tree harvesting technique where loggers cut down trees in narrow strips that are left to reseed

Shelter wood cutting

Tree harvesting technique where loggers remove poor-quality trees, and remaining (healthy) trees reseed

Selective cutting

Tree harvesting technique where loggers remove selected trees

Motor Voter Act (1993)

Tried to increase voter turnout by allowing voter registration at same time as getting or renewing driver's license. Increased the registration rate, but not the voter turnout rate (people still apathetic or not motivated to vote)

In terms of species diversity and complexity, a coral reef would be similar to which terrestrial biome?

Tropical rainforest

Source separation

Type of Recycling Separation of products from MSW for recycling at their source of generation, often a household)

Centralized Resource Recovery Plant

Type of Recycling Plant Location at which MSW can be separated at a principal location Capital-intensive process in which separation occurs at one location, reducing need for cooperation

Biodiesel

Type of biomass energy Animal fat / vegetable oil that is refine to remove glycerin; meant to replace diesel

ENTOMB

Type of decommissioning of nuclear plants where plant is encased in concrete or another substance until radioactive components decay to stable elements

Which of the following countries has the most nuclear power plants?

U.S.

Which of the following is true regarding nuclear power plants?

U.S. public opinion regarded nuclear power as unsafe after Three Mile Island and Chernobyl.

Entropy

Uncertainty or randomness

Amp

Unit of measure of electric current Amount of electricity passing by given point per unit in time

9th Amendment

Unenumerated Rights Amendment. Citizens have unenumerated rights in addition to those stated in the Constitution. Not been developed by Supreme Court (too open ended)

US v. Morrison (2000)

Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) unconstitutional because it exceeded Congress' commerce clause power. With Lopez v. United States, two recent cases checking commerce clause growth of federal power (unchecked since New Deal). Next up: Obamacare.

Party Platforms

Voted on by the delegates attending the National Convention, they represent the ideological point of view of a political party.

Ticket Splitting

Voting for one party for one office and for another party for other offices. Frequent among independent voters; leads to divided government.

E-waste

Waste from electronics Includes: Cadmium (used in batteries), Mercury (used in electric thermostats), Lead (used in glass monitors), PCBs (widely used until 1970s in electrical equipment of all kinds)

Municipal Solid Waste

Waste from residences and businesses that includes durable good, non-durable goods, containers and packaging, food wastes and yard trimmings, and miscellaneous inorganic wastes

Characteristic Waste

Wastes that can ignite, corrode, react, or are toxic Wastes that don't fit into other categories

Ammonia

Water Pollutant Colorless gas with strong smell Originates at pig & poultry farms, where it can run off the land into surface water

Lead

Water Pollutant Exists naturally in environment & can enter water supply from natural deposits Erodes/older plumbing corrodes Can delay physical & mental development in kids, and can cause kidney problems & high blood pressure No safe level in water

Sodium

Water Pollutant Exists naturally in environment & dissolves easily in water Water treatment systems & effluent from sewage also contribute to this 1 long-term effect of exposure is high blood pressure

Altrazine

Water Pollutant Ingredient in herbicides & can run off crops & enter water supply Can cause cardiovascular problems & reproductive problems

Mercury

Water Pollutant Liquid metal that exists naturally in environment Enter water from natural deposits, discharge from factories, runoff from landfills & agricultural lands 1 long term effect of exposure = kidney damage

Arsenic

Water Pollutant Mineral that exists along fault lines & used in industrial processes Linked to number of forms of cancer (bladder, lung, skin, kidney, liver, prostate cancer) Also has non-cancerous side effects (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea)

Uranium

Water Pollutant Radioactive mineral that exists naturally in environment & can erode from natural deposits to enter water supply Raises risks of cancer & creates toxicity in liver

Nitrates

Water Quality Indicator A type of nutrient Sources: Fertilizer runoff from farms, lawn fertilizer, leaky septic tanks, animal waste

Temperature

Water Quality Indicator Measurement in degrees Celsius Sources: controlled mainly by sunlight and temperature of surrounding land

Fecal Coliform

Water Quality Indicator present in mammal and bird feces

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Water Quality Indicator the amount of oxygen used by microorganisms in aerobic oxidation

Nonpolar covalent bond

a covalent bond where the electrons are shared equally

Spoiler Effect

When a 3rd party candidate takes enough votes away from one of the main party candidates to make him/her lose the election. Ex., Ralph Nader & Green Party may have caused Al Gore to lose 2000 election to George Bush.

Reporting Out

When a committee finishes the mark-up of a bill and sends it to the senate or house for debate, consideration, and final passage.

Redistricting Process

When a state legislature or independent commission draws new House district lines (if gain/loss of seats after reapportionment process based on census every ten years)

Why does reaction rate level off after a point with an increase in substrate concentration?

When enzymes are saturated with substrate, all of the active sites are engaged and the maximum rate of reaction occurs.

How does a change in pH affect enzyme activity?

When pH goes up or down out of the optimal range, H-bonding is disrupted with the addition or removal of H+ ions and the 2° & 3° structure is destroyed and the protein denatures.

What happens in decay?

When plants and animals die,their bodies are decomposed by decomposers to form ammonium compounds in the soil. Animal wastes are also decomposed.

Divided Government

When policymaking institutions of government (President, Senate, House) are divided among the parties (e.g., Democratic President, Republican Congress). Requires more compromise; can lead to gridlock.

Non-Preferential Primary

Where voters choose delegates who are not bound to vote for the winning primary candidate.

Solar radiation makes several other energy sources possible, including ________.

Wind Energy

What is the important of plants in the carbon cycle?

Without plants,the carbon stays in the atmosphere and cannot be reused and incorporated into the bodies of animals.

Concurring Opinion

Written explanation of the views of one or more appellate judges who support a decision reached by majority of the court but disagree with the grounds for that decision.

Dissenting Opinion

Written explanation of the views of one or more judges who disagree with a decision reached by a majority of the court.

Federalist Papers

Written in 1788 by Madison, Hamilton, and Jay to support ratification of the Constitution. Fed 10 (factions) & Fed 51 (separation of powers, checks & balances)

Deficit

Yearly shortfall between revenue and spending.

How can you "overcome" a noncompetitive inhibitor?

You increase the substrate concentration so that it will out compete the inhibitor for the enzyme's active site.

Logrolling

You support my bill, I'll support yours. Trading favors by legislators to help pass their bills.

Hydrosphere

Zone that includes all waters on Earth (including oceans, lakes, rivers, stream, water vapor)

Ion

a charged particle

Methane

a chemical compound with the formula CH4. Main component of natural gas

Polar covalent bond

a covalent bond where one element has a slight positive charge and the other has a slight negative charge; the unequal sharing of electrons

brief

a document containing the legal written arguments in a case filed with a court by a party prior to a hearing or trial.

What is enzyme cooperativity?

a kind of allosteric regulation where an enzyme becomes more receptive to bonding with additional substrate molecules after one substrate molecule attaches to an active site; ex once hemoglobin bonds one oxygen molecule, it is easier for the other three to bond

Ohm's Law

a law that relates electric current, voltage, and resistance Total current (in amps shown as I) that will flow in circuit can be calculated by dividing voltage (V) applied to circuit by total resistance (R) I = V/R

What is a competitive inhibitor?

a molecule that competes with the substrate to bind in the active site of an enzyme.

Milankovitch Theory

a theory to explain variations in climate are a result of 1) eccentricity, shape of Earth's orbit around the sun; 2) obliquity, the angle that Earth's axis makes in the plane of Earth's orbit; 3) precession, the change in the direction of Earth's axis of rotation Developed by Milutin Milankovitch

What disabled the emergency power generators at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant in Japan and led to the reactor meltdowns?

a tsunami

Kwashiorkor

a type of undernutrition resulting from a lack of protein Accompanied by: • Thin legs & arms • Swollen abdomen • Weak & passive demeanor

Superfund Sites

abandoned sites w/ hazardous waste

Resistance

ability of a substance to prevent electrical flow

Sustainability

ability to maintain function, state of being, processes

Disease

abnormal condition or impairment of health

Hotspot

area of high levels of biodiversity that is threatened by human activities

Wetlands

areas that are completely saturated w/ water during at least part of the year; may have standing water or saturated soil Includes: marshes, swamps, bogs, fens Ecosystem Services: Habitat, Filters water, recharge aquifers, provide flood & erosion control

What happens in leaching?

as rain water passes through the soil on its way to rivers, it carries with it dissolved nitrates and other soil nutrients.

Leachate

as trash decomposes, liquid that is formed that seeps out of garbage

rule of four

at least four justices of the supreme court must vote to consider a case before it can be heard.

methane hydrate

at methane seeps, high water pressure and low temperature "freezes" the bubbling methane into icy material

Marbury v. Madison

case in which the Supreme Court first asserted the power of judicial review by finding that the congressional statute extending the Court's original jurisdiction was unconstitutional. Through the supremacy clause.

Competitive Exclusion Principle

biological principle that states that specific niche in environment can be occupied by only 1 species at time

Carbamates

broad-spectrum pesticide, including carbaryl (Sevin) widely used and are less persistent than chlorinated hydrocarbons, but still can affect the nervous system and cause birth defects Derived from nerve gas, but less toxic

Bioaccumulation

buildup of chemical within bodies of organisms

One way the oil industry is decreasing the environmental impacts of drilling is __________.

by directional drilling

Biodiesel ________.

can be used in vehicles with diesel engines without engine modification

Toxic

capable of causing adverse health effects

What can be used to lower the amount of energy to start a chemical reaction?

catalyst

Evolution

change in allele frequencies (genetic material) over time

Secondary Succession

changes in community begging w/ disturbance; soil is already present in the beginning

Primary Succession

changes in community beginning with new/barren habitat; must begin with bare rock

Succession

changes in community over time in terms of numbers & distribution of species

+1

charge of ions in first family

-2

charge of ions in the 16th (or 6th) family

Symbiotic Relationship

close, long term interaction b/t species

The process in which biomass is combined with coal and burned in a high-efficiency boiler is called __________.

co-firing

The three fossil fuels that we use today to meet our energy needs are __________.

coal, natural gas, and crude oil

civil law

codes of behavior related to the conduct and relationship between individuals or groups.

criminal law

codes of behavior related to the protection of property and individual safety.

Which of the following methods for conservation allows businesses and homes to make use of wasted heat from traditional heating and cooling systems?

cogeneration

Eco-justice

collection of movements, some of which are anti-consumerist, that fight global inequities in terms of distribution of wealth and environmental problems

Groups/families

columns on the periodic table

Metalloid

combination of metal and nonmetal characteristics

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

combines the use of a variety of biological, cultivation, and natural pesticide controls specifically managed to address the needs of an individual farm and/or crop GOAL: to learn more about pests and to decrease amount of pesticides

Evapotranspiration

combo of transpiration & evaporation

Julie has decided to become more environmentally friendly and turns off all her lights when they are not in use and unplugs all her electronic devices at night. This is an example of __________.

energy conservation

Solar

energy from sunlight

Carrying capacity

community that given ecosystem can sustain over long term; can be calculated by averaging high & low of population

Hydrocarbons

compounds made up of chains of carbon atoms with hydrogen bonded to them

Sustainable Development

concept that sustainable methods for meeting humans needs & wants are possible

Sick building syndrome

condition in which the occupants or residents of a building become acutely sick because of the building, but no specific illness or cause can be found

Building-related illness

condition in which the occupants or residents of a building become acutely sick with a diagnosable illness attributed to indoor air pollutants in the building

calorie

energy to increase temperature of 1g of water by 1 degree C

Peroxyacyl Nitrates (PANs)

products of a reaction between peroxyacyl radicals and nitrogen dioxide that uses UV light as a catalyst

Gift economy

economy in which goods and services are regularly given without a promise of monetary payment

Greenhouse Effect

effect that is produced as a result of greenhouse gases allowing radiation from the sun to enter the atmosphere, but not to leave

Although hydroelectric dams generate electricity without producing greenhouse gases, they ________.

eliminate farmland, wildlife habitats, and sometimes even villages in regions that are flooded

Energy Efficiency

employing technology to use less energy

Biofuels and nuclear power may prove useful as ________.

energies to bridge the time between fossil fuel depletion and new renewables

How are phosphates incorporated into the organic molecules in aquatic plants and animals?

fish scales

The process currently used to generate nuclear power is __________.

fission

Electricity from nuclear power plants is produced via ________.

fission of uranium atoms by bombarding them with neutrons

The giant panda is considered to be a _________________ species.

flagship

anabolic reactions

form bonds between molecules; requires an input of energy Ex. dehydration synthesis

water power

form of stored solar energy: climate dictates flow of water and sun determines climate, applicable for hydroelectric + hydro pump

Li3N

formula for lithium (Li) and nitrogen (N)

NaCl

formula for sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl)

Globally, more than 80% of all primary energy for today's economies comes from ________.

fossil fuels

Double Bond

four electrons are shared between elements

Coal can be converted into a cleaner burning gas by combining it with oxygen and steam at a high temperature through the process of __________.

gasification

Sluice gate

gate used in a channel used to control rates of water flow

Silica Gel

gel made out of silica, which can cause insects to dehydrate One of the least toxic pesticides

Active solar systems

generally pump a heat-absorbing, fluid medium (air, water, or an antifreeze solution) through a relatively small collector, rather than passively collecting heat in a stationary medium like masonry

Pesticide Cons

genetic resistance, ecosystem imbalance, pesticide treadmill, persistence, bioaccumulation and biomagnifications, can runoff, can kill unintended species

Tectonic Plates

giant slabs on rock that sit on asthenosphere

Effects attributed to Chernobyl ________.

include increased incidence of thyroid cancers

nonrenewable energy

includes nuclear and geothermal energy, nuclear requires material & geothermal requires heat from Earth

The objective of a species recovery plan is to

increase an endangered species population until it is no longer endangered.

Biomagnify

increase in strength of a substance as it's absorbed by organisms further up the food chain

The heavy levels of soot from the electrical plant upwind of Soweto, along with dust from gigantic mine dumps from gold and coal mines, created particulate pollution more than three times the recommended level. This would be expected to result in ________.

increased incidence of lung disease

Kilowatt-hour

kilowatts x hours

Hydropower uses the __________ energy of water to generate electricity.

kinetic

Xeriscaping

landscaping using native plants, which minimize the need for additional water

Sand

larger soil particles (0.05 - 2.0 mm)

Judiciary Act of 1789

legislative act that established the basic three-tiered structure of the federal court system. Federal district courts at the bottom, then circuit courts, then the Supreme Court.

Frequently the chemical reactions of life are organized into _____________ pathways where the chemical reactions are divided into___________.

metabolic; many small steps

Natural gas is primarily composed of ________.

methane

Which fossil fuel is produced as a by-product that occurs when bacteria decompose organic material under anaerobic conditions?

methane

Both pyrolysis and gasification are ways of producing ________ from ________.

methane and diesel fuels; biomass

What is the induced fit model of enzyme action?

more accurate model of enzyme action than lock and key model; occurs when the substrate binds to the active site, the enzyme undergoes a conformation change in shape leading to a tighter fit between enzyme and substrate; this conformational change brings the chemical groups into position for the reaction

In general, funding for recovery programs is given to species that are

most well known.

Urbanization

movement of human beings to cities

Infiltration

movement of water through soil

Freeganism

movement that emphasizes avoiding the consumer economy through using wasted products and services

Anti-consumerism

movement that rebels against consumerism or the equation of happiness with consumption of goods and services)

Mobile sources

moving sources of pollution EX: Cars, planes

One of the problems with finding new fossil fuel deposits in developing countries is that ________.

multinational companies often move in to harvest the new deposit, and very little money or resource remains in the country

Endemic species

native species found in 1 particular place

Climax

natural & stable community that is the endpoint of succession

liquefied natural gas

natural gas that has been converted to liquid form for transport or storage

geothermal energy

natural heat from interior of the Earth, converted to heat buildings & make electricity

Mineral

naturally occurring, inorganic solid w/ specific chemical & crystalline structure Two ways to form: crystallization in magma or evaporation from supersaturated solution

Ecological Benefits of Forests

o Producing oxygen & sequestering (storing) carbon o Developing soil o Providing habitat for many species o Reducing surface water runoff in watersheds, which prevents erosion o Creating shade & windbreaks o Reducing severity of floods o Aiding in recharge of aquifers

What is feedback inhibition? Why is it necessary?

occurs when a final product in a metabolic pathway inhibits an earlier step to prevent the accumulation of a product in a cell

What is irreversible inhibition? Name two types of irreversible inhibition.

occurs when an inhibitor irreversibly binds to an enzyme 1. competitive inhibitor- binds to active site 2. allosteric inhibitor - binds to allosteric site and permanently changes the shape of the enzyme

Biomagnification

occurs when toxic substances that are present in small amounts in organisms low in food chain are concentrated in larger amounts in organisms high in the chain

Natural gas is ________.

often associated with coal and petroleum deposits

senatorial courtesy

process by which presidents generally defer selection of district court judges to the choice of senators of their own party who represent the state where the vacancy occurs.

Land preservation

process in which an area of land is protected and kept in its current (usually undeveloped) state

Volt

potential difference, or difference in energy per unit charge as a charge moves between two paths in a current = Watts/Amps

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

potentially toxic gases emitted by certain organic solids and liquids organic compounds that can evaporate readily from solid or liquid form

judicial review

power of the courts to review acts of other branches of government and the states

noise pollution

presence of unwanted noise

Water pollution

presence of unwanted substance in water

air pollution

presence of unwanted substances in air

Soil conservation

preserving soil from being eroded & degraded by pollution

Survivorship

probability of individuals in pop surviving to particular ages

Sink

process & location that acts to remove/absorb substance in system

Natural Resources

resources existing in nature

Manufactured Capital

resources such as tools/factories

Orographic Effect

result of air ascending 1 side of mountain, cooling, condensing, & bringing precipitation to other side of mountain as it descends

What happens to phosphate when plants and animals die?

returns to lake

Magnetic Reversals

reversals in magnetic field of earth

Perceived benefit

rewards that human beings think may occur from an action or activity

Upwelling

rise of cold, nutrient rich water to the surface of the ocean

Niche

roll organism play in environment

Period

rows on the periodic table

Pesticide Pros

saves lives from insect-transmitted disease increases food supply and safety of food increases profits for farmers

Open System

system that can exchange matter w/ environment

Closed system

system that cannot exchange matter w/ environment

Economy

system that produces, distributes, & consumes goods/services

Progressive Tax

tax based upon the amount of money an individual earned, such as an income tax. Became legal as a result of the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution.

photovoltaics

technology that converts sunlight directly into electricity, uses solar panels to capture energy

What biome is characterized by moderate temperatures and abundant precipitation?

temperate rainforest

solicitor general

the fourth-ranking member of the Department of Justice; responsible for handling nearly all appeals on behalf of the US government to the Supreme Court.

Covalent bond

the sharing of electrons between two or more elements

Ionic bond

the transfer of electrons from one element to another; a bond between two oppositely charged elements

Many developed nations have their economies closely tied to imported fossil fuels. One important consideration for those nations is that ________.

their economy can be disrupted by the events and decisions made in fuel exporting nations

The temperature boundary in freshwater lakes is the

themocline

High Energy Intensity

there's high cost in converting energy into GDP

Low Energy Intensity

there's low cost in converting energy into GDP

Single Bond

two electrons are shared between elements

Chronic acidification

type of acid deposition that occurs over a long period of time

Episodic acidification

type of acid deposition that occurs over a short period of time

Sustainable forest management

type of forest management that attempts to meet needs of today & anticipate needs/availability of forest resources for tomorrow

Hydrogen bonds

type of molecular attraction in which a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an electronegative atom (e.g., O, N, F) in one molecule is attracted to an electronegative atom in a different molecule or in another part of the same molecule

Marasmus

type of undernutrition resulting from lack of protein and calories accompanied by thinness & gnawing hunger; active & alert

Reproductively isolated

unable to interbreed under normal circumstances to produce fertile offspring

Aquifer

underground layer of porous rock in which water collects

Watt

unit of power = joule/second = Amps x Volts

wind power

use of wind mills to create power, form of stored solar energy b/c sun dictates wind patterns

Secondary extraction of petroleum ________.

uses solvents, water, or steam

What is the optimum pH range for most human enzymes?

usually pH 6-8, but there are exceptions like the enzymes in your stomach

Gross National Product

value of everything produced by nation's residents, no matter where they live

Southern Oscillation

variation in air pressure b/t tropical eastern & western Pacific ocean

Soil profile

vertical cross-section of soil from the surface of Earth to the parent material underneath

Second Law of Thermodynamics

when energy is transformed, some useful energy is degraded into a less useful form, like heat

Tailings

waste material remaining after smelting, which can be up to 80 percent of the original substance

Gray Water

wastewater from sinks, showers, and laundry, which can be treated and reused for landscape water

tidal power

water power derived from ocean tides, does have impacts on ocean ecosystem

Runoff

water that falls as precipitation on surface & flows over surface to water bodies; surface movement of water

Precipitation

water that falls from clouds in form of rain, snow, sleet, hail

Rural Domestic and Livestock

water that is used for livestock 9.05 bill gallons/day

Public Supply

water that's used in homes & public uses, like fighting fires, watering public parks, supply public swimming pools w/ water 43.3 bill gallons/day

Greenhouse Gases

water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and chlorofluorocarbons These absorb infrared radiation emitted by Earth's surface & re-radiate some of infrared energy in all directions

Reproductive strategy

way a species uses its energy to produce offspring, helps determine fertility rates

The main reason that there are relatively few invertebrates categorized as endangered species is because

we consider other groups, such as mammals, to be more interesting and desirable.

Lithosphere

zone includes Earth's crust & upper mantle

One of the promises made by the government in 1994 was "free electricity." Since 2003 the government has provided a small amount of electricity free to each household. Beyond that, a household must pay for the electricity that it uses. Many people would prefer a flat‑rate pricing system, where each household throughout greater Johannesburg would pay the same rate each month. This would mean that ________.

with less incentive to keep electric usage low, environmental issues related to the generation of electricity would worsen

Tidal Station

works like a hydropower dam, with its turbines spinning as the tide flows through them

Atmosphere

zone includes all gases (mostly nitrogen & oxygen) that exists above Earth's surface

Consent of the Governed

A derivative of the doctrine of natural rights; a philosophy, later adopted by Jefferson when he drafted the Declaration of Independence that puts the authority of the government in the people's hands.

Class Action Suit

A lawsuit filed on behalf of a group of persons with a similar legal claim against a party or individual.

Bills of Attainder

A legislative act, illegal without a judicial trial, that inflicts punishment on an individual or group for the purpose of suppressing that person or group.

Certificate

A method of putting a case before the United States Supreme Court; used when a lower court is not clear about the procedure or the rule of law that should apply in a given case and asks the Supreme Court to certify the answer to a specific question.

Blanket Primary

A nominating election in which voters may switch from one political party's primary to another on an office-to-office basis; see *Direct Primary*.

Conservative

A person who believes government power, particularly in the economy, should be limited in order to maximize individual freedom; see also *Liberal*.

Ambassador

A personal representative appointed by the head of a nation to represent that nation in matters of diplomacy.

Elite Theory

A perspective holding that society is ruled by a small number of people who exercise power in their self-interest; see also *Pluralism*.

Cooperative Federalism

Described as various levels of government which are seen as related parts of a single governmental system, characterized more by cooperation and shared functions than by conflict and competition; also called *Marble Cake Federalism*.

Creative Federalism

Developed during *Lyndon Johnson*'s administration, it was characterized by the *Great Society* programs, which placed a major responsibility on federally funded programs.

Constitutional Courts

Federal courts created by Congress under Article II of the Constitution. *Examples:* Court of Appeals U.S. Court of International Trade

Categorical Grants

Federal grants to states and local communities that are earmarked for specific purposes only, such as pollution control, schools, or hospitals. Also known *Grants-in-Aid*.

Block Grants

Federal grants to the states and local communities that are for general use in a broad area, such as community development.

Amicus Curiae Brief

Friend of the court; interested groups may be invited to file legal briefs supporting or rejecting arguments of the case.

Cabinet

Government departments headed by presidential appointees to help establish public policy and operate a specific policy area of governmental activity.

Coattail Effect

Influence that a popular candidate for a top office (e.g., President or governor) can have on the voters' support of other candidates of his/her party on the same ballot.

Committee Chairman

Member who heads a standing committee in a legislative body; selection relies heavily on party loyalty.

Concurrent Jurisdiction

Power shared by federal and state courts to hear certain cases.

De Facto Segregation

Segregation that exists "in fact," not as a result of laws or governmental actions, i.e., administered by the public; see de jure segregation, segregation.

De Jure Segregation

Segregation that exists as a result of some law or governmental action. *Examples:* Jim Crow Laws