the ULTIMATE
Muller v. Oregon
(1908) Authorized states to pass laws setting maximum working hours.
Gideon v. Wainright
(1963) Required states to provide public defenders for indigent defendants in felony cases.
Joint Committees
Congressional committees to discuss & supervise certain topics, with membership drawn from both houses. (ex., Committee on Library, Taxation)
At-large
Election of an officeholder by the voters of an entire governmental unit (e.g., a State or county) rather than by the voters of a district, a subdivision of that area.
Safe Seat
Electoral office, usually in the legislature, for which the party or incumbent is strong enough that reelection is almost taken for granted.
Faithless Elector
Electors that don't vote for the person they promised to vote for; Occurred 156 times (never affected outcome of election) Major problem with Electoral College
Fiscal Federalism
Federal government using money (grants) to influence & control states.
Voting Rights Act (1965)
Federal law protecting against racial discrimination in voting. Major accomplishment of civil rights movement vs. Jim Crow. Bans all discriminatory voting procedures. Requires ballots to be printed in minority languages. Section 5 = federal policing of states with history of discrimination (still necessary?)
Unfunded Mandates
Federal laws that require states to meet certain regulatory standards, but provide no money to help the states comply. Congress enacted a law in 1995 to curtail the practice.
Unfunded Mandates
Federal laws that require the states to do things without providing the money to do so. Examples: ADA (wheelchair ramps), NCLB (AIMs testing)
Trophic Level
Feeding position in food chain
Grants-In-Aid Program
Financial aid granted by federal government to the states with the funds available subject to certain conditions and to be used for certain purposes.
oil shales
Fine-grained sedimentary rock rich in solid organic material called kerogen. When heated, the kerogen liquefies to produce a fluid petroleum fuel.
Federal Election Campaign Act
First major federal law (1971) to regulate federal elections. Created Federal Election Commission (FEC). Required disclosure of sources of campaign funds (transparency), set limits on contributions to candidates (individuals = $1000, PACs = $5000), spending limits for candidates, limits on independent expenditures.
Electricity
Flow of electrons
work
Force x Distance
Describe amendment procedure
2/3 of both houses must agree to propose amendment or call convention and then must be ratified by 3/4 of states (article 5)
Discharge Petition
A procedure to bring a bill to the floor of the legislative body when a committee has refused to report it.
Cloture
A procedure used in the senate to limit debate on a bill (end a filibuster); requires 60 votes.
Electrolysis
A process in which electric current is used to separate water molecules into their component hydrogen and oxygen atoms Separates hydrogen from oxygen in water through 2H2O(l) → 2H2(g) + 02(g)
Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)
A proposed amendment to the United States Constitution, aimed at ending discrimination against women; defeated in 1982.
New Democrat
A term created by the Democratic Leadership Council in 1992, it denotes a more conservative, centrist Democrat.
litmus test
A test of ideological purity used by recent presidents in selecting and senators in confirming judges to nominate to federal courts.
Hyperpluralism
A theory of government and politics contending that groups are so strong that government is weakened; see also *Pluralism.*
Party Eras
A time period characterized by national dominance by one political party. There have been four major party eras in American history: the era of good feeling, the Republican era following the Civil War, the Democratic era following the election of Franklin Roosevelt, and the Republican era following the election of Richard Nixon.
Measurement Error
An error in collecting polling data. Example = response bias or confusing questions.
Religious Right
An evangelical conglomeration of ultraconservative political activists, many of whom support the Republican Party.
Convention Bump
An increase reflected in presidential preference polls immediately following a party's nominating convention.
Humidity
Amount of Water vapor in air
Critical (Realigning) Elections
An election that signals a party realignment through voter polarization around new issues. *Examples:* 1800, 1828, 1860, 1896, 1932, 1964
concurring opinion
An opinion by one or more justices who agree with the majority's conclusion but for different reasons that they wish to express.
Formal Amendment Process
Article V; the (very difficult) process of adding or deleting words to the constitution (27 times since 1788); propose by 2/3 vote of Congress or Constitutional Convention (never used); ratify by 3/4 vote of state legislators or state convention (only used once)
Grand Jury
Body of 12 to 23 persons convened by a court to decide whether or not there is enough probable cause (sufficient evidence) to justify bringing a person to trial.
Mutualism
Both species benefit
Sugar cane-based ethanol is a major component in the energy resources of ________.
Brazil
How does the burning of coal contribute to acid rain?
Burning coal releases sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
Genetic drift
Change in allele frequency in pop due to chance event
South Dakota v. Dole (1987)
Congress is allowed to attach "strings" (conditions of aid) to money given to states (raise drinking age to 21 to get highway funds). Major tool of fiscal federalism.
Statutory Law
Law enacted by a legislative body.
Sunshine Laws
Law requiring agency meetings and decision-making process to be open to the public. One way of making agencies more accountable to Congress and the public.
Freedom of Information Act (1966)
Law requiring that the federal executive branch and regulatory agencies to make information available to journalists, scholars, and the public unless it falls into one of several confidential categories; also known as *Sunshine Laws*.
Bill of Attainder
Laws that punish individuals or groups without a trial. These laws are always unconstitutional.
Core
Layer of earth at center, composed of outer liquid layer and inner solid layer Twice as dense as mantle; hot; iron-nickel composition
Symbolic Speech
Forms of free speech guaranteed under the First Amendment to the Constitution, such as wearing a black armband to protest a governmental action or burning an American flag in protest for political reasons.
Which of these is a major reason that we have used fossil fuels rather than their alternatives?
Fossil fuels are much cheaper than most alternatives.
Elastic Clause
Found in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution, it gives Congress the power to make "all laws necessary and proper" to carry out the other defined powers of Congress; also known as the *Necessary and Proper Clause*.
Which of the following countries has the highest percentage of electricity generated from nuclear power plants?
France
North American Free Trade Agreement
Free trade agreement among USA, Canada & Mexico. Goal = promote economic prosperity & cooperation. Easier perhaps to achieve at regional level than global level (World Trade Organization).
1st Amendment
Freedom of religion (establishment & free exercise clauses), speech, press, assembly, and petition.
"Peace Dividend"
Funds allocated to national defense that might be spent on domestic needs because of the end of the Cold War.
Electoral College
Group of persons (presidential electors) chosen in each State and the District of Columbia every four years who make a formal selection of the President and Vice President.
Community
Group of populations
Civil Liberties
Guarantees of the safety of persons, opinions, and property from the arbitrary acts of government.
What type of bond forms between and enzyme and substrate at the active site?
H-bonds
Amicus Curiae Brief
Literally, a "friend of the court" brief, filed by an individual or interest group to present arguments / points of view in addition to those presented by the immediate parties to a case (lobbying). Solicitor General files Amicus Briefs for U.S. government.
Continental Drift
Idea that continents were joined as 1 large land called Pangaea & moved over time to current position Evidence: fit of continents, similar rock types, similar fossils, glacial deposits Hypothesized by Wegener
Engle v. Vitale (1992)
Mandatory nondenominational school prayer violates Establishment Clause (see also Santa Fe School District v. Doe striking down student-led prayer at school football games)
Republic
Representative democracy. Sovereignty rests with the people, as opposed to a king or monarch.
Initiative
Some states allow citizens to come up with their own ideas for laws to put on an election ballot. If the proposition passes it becomes a law. Requires many voter signatures to get on the ballot. Most direct form of democracy (citizen law-making)
Appropriations
Money used by Congress or a state legislature for a specific purpose.
Subsidies
Partial or full financial aid from the government
Turbidity
Particle matter suspended in water
National Convention Delegates
Party members that vote at the National Convention to select the party candidate for president. Pledged delegates follow the wishes of voters in primaries and caucuses. Unpledged "superdelegates" vote for whoever they want.
Loam
Perfect agricultural soil with equal portions of sand, silt, and clay
Ideological Party
Political Party based on a particular set of beliefs, a comprehensive view of social, economic, and political matters. *Examples:* Libertarian Party
Judicial Appointment Factors
Political ideology (litmus test); acceptability to Senate (not too radical); judicial experience; diversity
Talking Heads
Politicians who use sound bites or other means to present a superficial look at a policy position rather than an in-depth approach in explaining their views.
Bipartisan
Politics that emphasizes cooperation between the major parties.
Pardon Power
Power of the president to forgive a federal offense without penalty or grant release from a penalty already imposed. Based on kingly power to intervene in judicial process in exceptional cases.
Veto Process
President may veto any bill by returning it to Congress with explanation. Congress can override with 2/3 vote in both houses (very hard to do)
Line Item Veto
Presidential power to strike, or remove, specific items from a bill without vetoing it in its entireity; passed by Congress in 1996 and declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1998. *Supreme Court Cases:* Clinton v. City of New York
Impoundment
Presidential refusal to allow an agency to spend funds that Congress authorized and appropriated; essentially ended under the *Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974*.
ATP
Primary source of energy in cellular reactions
Drain tile suction
Radon Reduction Technique • If a house has drain tiles, suction can be applied to these tiles to draw radon-containing water away from the home.
Eutrophication
Rapid algal growth (algal bloom) caused by an excess of nitrogen & phosphorus, blocks sunlight, causing the death/decomposition of aquatic plants, decreasing dissolved oxygen (DO), suffocating fish Condition in which bodies of water contain excess nutrients, usually as result of sewage/fertilizers
Open loop recycling
Recycling process in which a product is recycled and becomes a different type of product The properties of the product may be degraded during this process
Thermocline
Region where temperature changes drastically
General Election
Regularly scheduled election at which the voters choose public officeholders.
Green Remediation
Remediation techniques that follow best practices, including minimizing total energy use (and maximizing use of renewable energy); minimizing air pollutants, including greenhouse gas emissions; minimizing water use; reducing, reusing, and recycling materials; and protecting the land and ecosystems
Deforestation
Removal of trees from forests by logging or burning
Model
Representation of process or object
Potential Energy
Stored energy or energy due to position
Mutagen
Substance that causes a genetic mutation
Teratogen
Substance that causes a malformation in embryonic development
Super Tuesday
The Tuesday on which a number of primary votes take place, with a heavy concentration of Southern states voting.
Foreign Policy
The actions and stands that a nation takes in every aspect of its relationships with other countries; everything a nation's government says and does in world affairs.
Direct Incitement Test
The advocacy of illegal action is protected by the First Amendment unless imminent action is intended and likely to occur. *Supreme Court Cases:* Brandenburg v Ohio (1969)
Extradition
The constitutional provision which allows a state to request another state to return fugitives.
Bully Pulpit
The Presidency is a "bully pulpit" - a good position from which to inspire Congress & the nation, with the help of the media, to follow his political agenda. Example = FDR's fireside chats, Obama's televised State of the Union Address...
Removal Process
The President may remove any appointed federal officer whenever he wants for any reason. However, the Supreme Court has upheld Congressional limits on removal power for Independent Commissioners (can only be removed "for cause").
Senate Leaders
The heads of the minority and majority parties in the Senate. Less powerful than the Speaker, they set legislative agenda for their party and help set the daily Senate agenda.
Bitumen
The heaviest, thickest form of petroleum.
Docket
The list of cases that the Supreme Court has agreed to hear (granted certiorari to) in a term (usually 70-100 cases)
Inherent Powers
The powers of the national government in foreign affairs that the Supreme Court has declared do not depend on constitutional grants but rather grow out of the very existence of the national government.
Pork Barrel Legislation
The practice of legislators obtaining funds through legislation that favors their home districts.
Honeymoon Period
The short period (days or months) following an election when a president's popularity and ability to influence Congress is at its highest.
General Purpose Grants
The smallest category of federal grants which may be used by states and local communities mostly as they wish; see also *Block Grants*.
Kinetic Energy
energy of motion
biofuel
energy recovered from biomass (plant material & animal waste)
British Thermal Unit (BTU)
energy to increase temp of 1lb of water by one degree F
Nuclear power plants ________.
experienced the most growth in the United States during the 1970s and 1980s
Theory
explanation that has been tested & supported by wide variety of observations & that new info in unlikely to discredit
Monoculture
farm focuses on just one organism; all resources are focused on producing it efficiently
constitutional courts
federal courts specifically created by the US Constitution or by Congress pursuant of its authority in Article III.
Survivorship curve
graphical rep of organism's probability of surviving until current age
Cancer Cluster
greater occurrence of cancer in a geographic area over time
The main reason for the current high rate of animal extinctions is
habitat destruction worldwide.
pastoralism
herding of animals that have been domesticated/partly domesticated
stare decisis
in court rulings, a reliance on past decisions or precedents to formulate decisions in new cases.
Municipal Solid Waste Landfill
landfill that receive household waste as well as nonhazardous materials
Karst Topography
landscape influenced by dissolution of underlying carbonate rocks w/ water, results in caves & sinkholes
Smokestack
large, tall chimney through which combustion gases and smoke are released
The element commonly used as a fuel in commercial nuclear power plants is
Uranium
Phosphates
Water Quality Indicator A type of nutrient Sources: Fertilizer, organic pesticides, and detergents
Other Industry
Water used in mining & production of steel/paper products 23.2 bill gallons/day
Climate
Weather averaged over long term (usually 30 years)
jurisdiction
authority vested in a particular court to hear and decide the issues in a particular case.
Cap rock
barrier of impermeable rock to prevent oil from seeping out
run-of-the-river flow
a hydroelectric generation plant where little or no water storage is provided
What is Hubbert's peak?
a prediction, based on rates of extraction and new discovery, of when a country's or global oil production will be at a maximum and then start to fall
Dust Bowl
a prolonged agriculture disaster in the United States due to improper agricultural practices and natural drought cycles
Coal mining exposes rock surfaces and greatly accelerates the process of __________.
acid drainage
What is the minimum input of energy that will start a chemical reaction?
activation energy
Gene flow
addition/subtraction of genetic info from group b/c of movements of breeding individuals b/t groups
Slash-and-burn
agriculture that involves burning a forest or field of vegetation and using the resulting ash as fertilizer—this is an ancient technique that pre-dates modern fertilizers
Precision
agriculture that uses technology, such as global positioning software (GPS) and remote sensing, to customize crop selection and chemical inputs to the system
"supreme law of the land"
anything part of constitution or created under US authority (article 6)
Technology
application of science to human problems/needs
External benefits
benefits that are received by those not immediately involved in economic transaction
The total number of living species is probably
between 3 million and 50 million
What are enzymes?
biological catalyst
catabolic reactions
break bonds between molecules; gives off energy Ex. hydrolysis
Volcano
break in earth's crust through which magma, gases, and ash escape Usually occur at plate boundaries, but can occur at non-plate boundaries where crust is thin and hot spot exists
trial courts
court of original jurisdiction where cases begin.
appellate courts
court that generally reviews only findings of law made by lower courts.
legislative courts
courts established by Congress for specialized purposes, such as the Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims.
how is amendment repealed?
create another amendment repealing previous (article 5)
Surface retort
critical process in oil shale mining; involves crushing & heating the shale, which generates solid & hazardous waste from crushed shale & water that can wash toxic organic substances into soil
Erosion
physical movement of materials that are weathered
A major barrier preventing more widespread use of biodiesel is ________.
political and economic inertia and current lack of abundant fueling stations
Evaporation
liquid changes to gas at temp below boiling
Why is phosporus an important biological molecule?
makes up ATP and NADP; nucleic acids and phospholipids in membrane
The biome that is most at risk due to over-harvest of organisms might be the
marine biome.
Name three examples of irreversible allosteric inhibitors.
nerve gas, sarin, and many insecticides are cholinesterase inhibitors
control rods
neutron-absorbing rods that help control the reaction by limiting the number of free neutrons
Two poles have the same charge
nonpolar bond
Background extinction
normal, low-level rate of extinction of species b/c of naturally changing environment conditions
what is the difference about the phosphorus cycle as compared to the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles?
not in atmosphere
The source of energy for nuclear power is ________.
nuclear fission
Where is the nuclear waste from nuclear power plants in the United States currently being stored?
on-site at nuclear power plants
The fact that there is a high sulfur content in the coal burned in South African power plants means that the ________.
power plants contribute to acid deposition
Dumpster Diving
practice of reducing consumption of goods through taking goods that have been disposed of by others
The location of specific biomes can be predicted based on
precipitation and temperature.
Population dynamics
study of how populations change over time
Endocrine Disruptor
substance that mimics hormones in the body, causes changes to reproductive cycles and growth patterns and metabolism and development
What happens in nitrification?
the ammonium compounds formed during decay are converted into nitrites by Nitrosomonas. The nitrites in the soil are then converted into nitrates by Nitrobacter.
Energy
the capacity to do work
Power
the rate of energy flow to get work done.
Mixed Waste
radioactive & hazardous substances that are housed together
Acid Precipitation
rain, snow, fog that has low pH (acidic) due to presence of transformed sulfur & nitrogen compounds
The energy bill passed by the U.S. Congress in 2007 ________.
raised the CAFE standard to 35 mpg for vehicles by the year 2020
Productivity
rate at which new biomass is produced
Albedo
ratio of reflected to incident light
Species richness
total number of species in area
sustainable society
society whose processes/function can continue forever
Metal
soft, shiny, ductile, malleable, good conductor
Alfisols
soil order in semi-arid to humid regions, often in hardwood forests Very fertile & imp to food production Typically have not been heavily leached unlike ultisols
Gelisols
soil order that is limited geographically to poles & to mountainous regions where permafrost is close to surface Decomposition occurs very slowly, so there is a high amount of organic matter
Clay
soil particles that are very small (less than 0.002 mm in diameter) particles are negatively electrically charged, and help retain positive ions such as potassium (crucial for plant growth). Does not allow water to pass through easily (smallest particle size), so it holds water (has highest water-holding capacities of soil)
solar energy system
solar power tower- uses mirrors to concentrate sunlight into central tower, heats up fluid and stores energy for the grid
Sublimation
solid changes directly to gas; water moves from solid form (ice) on surface to gaseous form in atmosphere
Hazardous Waste
solid waste that is toxic, carcinogenic, or mutagenic Have at least ¼ characteristics: • Are ignitable under certain conditions (waste oil and solvents) • Are corrosive (battery acids) • Are reactive (lithium-sulfur batteries) • Are toxins (mercury or lead)
Non-point Source
source of pollution is many or specific, but can't be traced
invasive species
species intro to ecosystem accidentally or purposefully that disrupt native pop & ecosystems
Name two examples of noncompetitive inhibition.
1. Some anti-cancer drugs inhibit enzymes involved in DNA synthesis and this disrupts cancer cell formation 2. Cyanide poisoning - Cyanide is an irreversible inhibitor of Cytochrome C, an enzyme used in cellular respiration and stops production of ATP.
Marbury v. Madison
(1803) Established principle of judicial review (the Court's power to rule an act of Congress unconstitutional). The Court did not again invoke this power until the Dred Scott decision in 1857.
McCulloch v. Maryland
(1819) Established that the federal government's power must be considered supreme within its sphere and that states do not have the power to interfere with the exercise of federal powers.
Gibbons v. Ogden
(1824) Interpreted Congress's right to regulate interstate commerce to include all forms of business, not just the exchange of goods.
Barron v. Baltimore
(1833) Established a precedent on whether the United States Bill of Rights could be applied to state governments.
Dred Scott v. Sanford
(1857) Effectively nullified the Missouri Compromise and declared slaves to be property, not citizens.
Slaughterhouse Cases
(1873) Drew a distinction between state and federal citizenship and ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment does not guard against all instances of state discrimination. In its ruling, the Court considered the amendment's original purpose; to protect citizenship rights of freed slaves.
Munn v. Illinois
(1877) Allowed states to regulate private businesses when "public interests" are involved; has since been modified.
Plessy v. Ferguson
(1896) Ruled that segregation is legal as long as accommodations were "separate but equal."
Cumming v. County Board of Education
(1899) Ruled that laws establishing separate schools for whites are constitutional even if there are no comparable schools for blacks.
Northern Securities Company v. United States
(1904) The first case in which the Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890) was successfully invoked to break up a business monopoly.
Standard Oil Company of New Jersey v. United States
(1911) Authorized the federal government to break up trusts for "unreasonable restraint of trade."
Schenck v. United States
(1919) Set the "clear and present danger" standard for restricting free speech, especially applicable during wartime; upheld the Espionage Act (1917).
Near v. Minnesota
(1925) Recognized the freedom of the press by roundly rejecting prior restraints on publication, a principle that was applied to free speech generally in subsequent jurisprudence.
Gitlow v. New York
(1925) Ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution had extended the reach of certain provisions of the First Amendment—specifically the provisions protecting freedom of speech and freedom of the press—to the governments of the individual states.
Schechter v. United States
(1935) Declared the National Recovery Administration (part of FDR's New Deal) unconstitutional on the basis that the NRA gave the executive branch regulatory powers that belonged exclusively to Congress.
Dennis et. al. v. United States
(1951) Upheld the Smith Act (1940), which made it a crime to advocate overthrowing the government.
Brown v. Board of Education
(1954) Declared segregation in schools unconstitutional, overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).
Roth v. United States
(1957) Defined obscene publications as those that attract "prurient interests" and lack any "redeeming social importance."
Mapp v. Ohio
(1961) Extended the federal exclusionary rule to states; this rule prohibited illegally obtained evidence from being presented in courts.
Baker v. Carr
(1962) Granted federal courts jurisdiction over state apportionment systems to assure that all citizens' votes are granted equal weight.
Engel v. Vitale
(1962) Ruled school prayer unconstitutional on the basis that it violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.
Abington School District v. Schempp
(1963) Declared school-sponsored Bible reading in public schools in the United States to be unconstitutional.
Griswold v. Connecticut
(1965) Ruled that the Constitution protected a right to privacy.
Miranda v. Arizona
(1966) Required police to make suspects aware of their rights to remain silent and to have an attorney present during questioning--the so-called Miranda rights.
Loving v. Virginia
(1967) Declared laws against interracial marriage unconstitutional.
New York Times Company v. United States
(1971) Overturned the Justice Department's order to restrict free press in the interests of national security (the Justice Department aimed to block publication of the so-called Pentagon Papers). The ruling firmly protected freedom of the press.
Lemon v. Kurtzman
(1971) Ruled that Pennsylvania's 1968 Nonpublic Elementary and Secondary Education Act, which allowed the state Superintendent of Public Instruction to reimburse nonpublic schools (most of which were Catholic) for the salaries of teachers who taught secular material in these nonpublic schools, secular textbooks and secular instructional materials, violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.
Furman v. Georgia
(1972) Ruled on the requirement for a degree of consistency in the application of the death penalty.
Miller v. California
(1973) Involved what constitutes unprotected obscenity for First Amendment purposes.
Roe v. Wade
(1973) Ruled unconstitutional all laws outlawing abortion (except in the third trimester) on the basis that these laws violate the Fourteenth Amendment's implied right for women to make private decisions about their bodies and reproductive capabilities.
Gregg v. Georgia
(1976) Reaffirmed the United States Supreme Court's acceptance of the use of the death penalty in the United States.
University of California v. Bakke
(1978) Allowed universities to admit students on the basis of race in order to counter discrimination.
Bowers v. Hardwick
(1986) Authorized states to regulate sexual interaction conducted in private between consenting adults.
Webster v. Reproductive Health Services
(1989) Allowed states to restrict access to abortion services significantly.
Texas v. Johnson
(1989) Invalidated prohibitions on desecrating the American flag enforced in 48 of the 50 states.
Judiciary Committee
Key Senate committee that is responsible for recommending presidential judicial appointments to the full Senate for approval.
Criminal Law
Laws dealing with offenses against society (murder, rape, arson). Prosecuted by the government, violation results in fines or prison sentences
Civil Law
Laws dealing with private rights of individuals (defamation, breach of contract, negligence). Violation results in damages or injunction.
Constitutional Law
Laws relating to the interpretation of the Constitution.
Ex Post Facto Laws
Laws that punish conduct that was not illegal when it was performed. These laws are always unconstitutional. Also known as a retroactive law.
Mantle
Layer of earth b/t crust & core Dense; hot; solid rock; iron-magnesium-calcium composition;
Soil Horizons
Layers of soil
Committee Chairperson
Leader of a congressional committee. Usually the longest serving member of the majority party on that committee (seniority rule). A very powerful position - Controls the committee calendar, agenda, and hearings. Can pigeonhole (table) a bill by refusing to schedule debate on it.
Brief
Legal document submitted to the court setting forth the facts of a case and supporting a particular position.
Substantive Due Process
Legal process that places limits related to the content of legislation and the extent government can use its power to enact unreasonable laws.
Superfund
Legislation that mandated the cleanup of abandoned toxic waste dumps and authorized premarket testing of chemical substances. It allowed the EPA to ban or regulate the manufacture, sale, or use of any chemicals that could present an "unreasonable risk of injury to health or environment," and outlawed certain chemicals such as PCBS.
New Deal
Legislation that provided a safety net for all members of society, such as Social Security, under Franklin Delano Roosevelt during the Great Depression.
Joint Committee
Legislative committee composed of members of both houses of Congress. *Examples:* Joint Committee on the Library Joint Committee on Printing
Joint Resolution
Legislative measure that must be passed by both houses and approved by the chief executive to become effective; similar to a bill, with the force of law, and often used for unusual or temporary purposes.
Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971)
Lemon Test for Establishment Clause (1) Primary purpose and effect of law must be secular; (2) Law cannot create "excessive entanglement" of government with religion (subjective standard)
Explain how nitrogen fixation occurs during thunderstorms.
Lightning provides the energy to convert nitrogen into nitrogen oxides. These gases dissolve in rain droplets to form nitrates that plants can use.
Matching Funds
Limited federal funds given to presidential candidates that match private donations raised during the campaign
Reduce
Limiting the consumption of products, decreases amount of trash & resources needed overall Includes producing and buying fewer goods and services, buying long-lasting products that do not need to be replaced frequently, and buying smaller sizes of items
22nd Amendment
Limits the president to two terms.
State Party Organization
Links local level to national level. State committee (still mostly volunteer but might have an office, some paid positions). Major jobs are (1) to hold primary elections to select candidates; (2) to support state level candidates in general elections; and (3) to influence platform of National Party.
Synfuel
Liquid fuel created from fossil fuels such as coal or methane
Procedural Due Process
Literal meaning of 5th & 14th Due Process Clauses: Government cannot deprive you of life, liberty or property without holding certain procedures (trial, lawyer, right to question witnesses). Many elements of PDP are specifically protected by 5th, 6th, 7th & 8th Amendments.
Biotic
Living
Caucus
Locally held meeting in a state to select delegates who, in turn, will nominate candidates to political offices.
Epicenter
Location on Earth's crust directly above focus
Dealignment
Marks a period when a significant number of voters choose to no longer support a particular political party; see *Crtitical Election.*
Horse-Race Journalism
Media tends to cover elections like a sporting event because it generates excitement (who is ahead, who is behind) & it is easy to do (poll data). HRJ is bad because it reduces time spent on analysis of issues & it can create a bandwagon effect in coverage of elections ("Romney looks like he will win this one...")
White House Press Secretary
Member of White House staff that controls flow of information from president, holds daily press briefings, tries to spin/control media
Remediation
Method of land conservation Cleaning up or correcting an environmental problem with the land, to clean up human-caused pollution problems
Mitigation
Method of land conservation Limiting the impact of land pollution; limiting the ability of a problem to occur on land To lessen/prevent problem (law)
Reclamation
Method of land conservation Refers to minded or drained/flooded lands, and includes stabilization and re-vegetation of land
Restoration
Method of land conservation To return land to its natural state Get ride of invasive species of other natural/human-made problem (NOT pollution)
Preservation
Method of land conservation land is kept in an undisturbed, natural state
Smelting
Mining process of melting ore to remove desired substances from associated water materials called tailings Produces air pollution by emitting gases like hydrogen fluoride, sulfur dioxide, & nitrogen oxides; can release toxic metals like arsenic & lead; can release heavy metal like lead, chromium, cadmium, etc.
Heap Leaching
Mining process where cyanide solution is sprayed on piles to dissolve gold
Hydraulic Mining
Mining process where land is blasted w/ water to remove soil & leave minerals
Dredging
Mining technique using draglines & chain buckets to scrap underwater mineral deposits
Open-Pit Mining
Mining technique using heavy machinery to dig holes to remove ores as well as materials like sand, gravel, stone
Strip Mining
Mining technique using heavy machinery to strip away soils/rock and then cut away mineral resources
Surface Mining
Mining that is safer, cheaper, and less hazardous to works compared to subsurface mining
Congressional District System (Electoral College)
Minority state system for allocating electoral college votes (used in ME & NE). The winner of each congressional district is awarded that district's electoral vote, and the winner of the state-wide vote is awarded the state's remaining two electoral votes. More accurately reflects voter will, but reduces states' influence in electoral process.
Power tower
Mirrors, driven by electric motors, track the sun and focus light on a heat absorber at the top; transfer medium is heated to temperatures as high as 500 degrees Celsius (1,000F), which then drives a steam-turbine electric generator
Campaign Tactics
Mobilize party base (ideologues) Focus on key interest groups (group benefit voters) Focus on candidate's personality / experience (image voters) Spin the last four years (retrospective / nature-of-the-times voters)
Linear Growth Model
Model is arithmetic, w/ constant rate of change
Demographic Transition Model
Model shows how countries can transition from high birth/death rates to low ones through industrialization
Logistic Growth Model
Model that increases initially very slowing during lag phase, begins to increase exponentially until pop reaches carrying capacity during the stationary phase when birth rates = death rates
Geometric Growth Model
Model's rate of change increases at an increased rate
Exponential Growth Model
Model's rate of change increases exponentially
The ______ is the substance that slows down the neutrons in a nuclear reactor so they are at the proper speed to break apart nuclei and sustain nuclear fission.
Moderator
Soft Money
Money that is not subject to campaign finance limits and regulation by the FEC. All money before FECA was soft money. FECA shut down unlimited contributions to candidates so soft money flowed to political parties. McCain-Feingold shut down soft money contributions to political parties so now unlimited contributions flow to 527s and Super-Pacs.
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
More efficient bulbs, consuming 90% less energy and lasting hundreds of times as long as ordinary lightbulbs
Winner-Take-All System (Electoral College)
Most common state system for allocating electoral college votes (candidate with the most votes wins all of the electoral votes of that state). Used in all but 2 states. Maximizes states' influence in electoral process but completely ignores votes for losing candidates (undemocratic).
Citizens United v FEC
A 2010 decision by the United States Supreme Court holding that independent expenditures are free speech protected by the 1st Amendment and so cannot be limited by federal law. Leads to creation of SuperPACs & massive rise in amount of third party electioneering (Citizens for a Better Tomorrow, Tomorrow)
Fraser-McGovern Commission
A Democratic Party commission after 1968 that made changes to delegate selection process for National Convention to make the nomination process more democratic (by using primaries & ending superdelegates) and introduced affirmative action policy in delegate selection (more women & minorities).
amicus curiae
A Latin term meaning "friend of the court." Refers to interested groups or individuals, not directly involved in a suit, who may file legal briefs or oral arguments in support of one side.
Seniority Rule
A congressional custom that gives the chair of a committee or subcommittee to the member of the majority party with the longest continuous service on the committee.
General Revenue Sharing
A controversial program, in effect between 1972 and 1986, in which the federal government returned federal tax money to state and local governments to spend without restrictions.
Policy
A course of action decided upon by government, or by any organization, group, or individual, that involves a choice among competing interests.
Majority Opinion
A court opinion reflecting the views of the majority of the judges; sets forth the decision of the court and an explanation of the rationale behind the court's decision.
Crop Rotation
A crop conservation technique that includes cycling through different crops on the same land introduce different root structures, plant residues, nutrients like nitrogen, produced by legumes, into soil
Rock Cycle
A cycle through which rocks change and are remade into other rocks by external processes such as weathering, erosion, deposition, lithification, and internal processes, such as melting, cooling, and crystallization Volcanic Eruption → Cooling → Igneous Rock → Weathering/Erosion/Deposition → Sediment → Pushed into earth (high pressure) → Sedimentary Rock → Pushed into earth (high heat/pressure) → Metamorphic Rock → Pushed deeper into mantle through tectonic activity, melting → Magma → Volcanic Eruption
Precedent
A decision in a previous court case that is used as the basis for a decision in a similar case.
Marbury v. Madison
A decision of the Supreme Court written by Chief justice John Marshall in 1803 which interpreted the Constitution as giving the Supreme Court the power to declare an act of Congress unconstitutional. This decision is the foundation of the federal judiciary's power of judicial review.
Lame Duck
A defeated office holder after that person has lost their reelection, but is still in office until the newly elected official is sworn in.
Federal Budget
A detailed financial document containing estimates of federal income and spending during the coming fiscal year. *Key Agencies:* Office of Management and Budget Congressional Budget Office Budget Committees Ways & Means Committee (House) Appropriations Committee (House)
Executive Order
A directive, order, or regulation issued by the president; based on constitutional or statutory authority and have the force of law.
Clear and Present Danger Test
A doctrine adopted by the Supreme Court of the United States to determine under what circumstances limits can be placed on First Amendment freedoms of speech, press or assembly. *Supreme Court Cases:* Schenck v. United States (1919) Abrams v. United States (1919) Gitlow v. New York (1925)
Continuing Resolution
A emergency budget extension measure that Congress passes when a full budget law has not been completed by the beginning of the new fiscal year (October 1). Avoids government shutdown.
Government Accountability Office
A federal legislative agency that audits (investigates) other agencies of the federal government and reports it's findings to Congress (makes sure they are not spending more money than the government has appropriated for them).
Matching Requirements
A federal requirement that state or local governments must put up some of their own funds in order to get federal money.
Checks and Balances
A major principle of the American system of government. Helps maintain separation of powers so that no one branch gets too powerful. Explained in Federalist 51. Examples: President vetos laws; Senate confirms appointments & treaties; Congress impeaches president & judges...
Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTUs)
A measure of turbidity
Party Caucus (historical)
A meeting of important party members to select party candidates. Attacked as corrupt and anti-democratic so not used anymore.
Literacy Test
A method to deny blacks right to vote during the Jim Crow Era by requiring reading or civics test in order to vote. Could be selectively applied. Rationale: only the educated should vote. Prohibited by the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Political Ideology
A more or less consistent set of beliefs about what policies government should pursue.
Buffer strips
A narrow zone or strip of land, trees or vegetation bordering an area, that prevents wind erosion Also increases diversity in planting (as short grasses, shrubs, and tall trees are often used) Types includes shelterbelts and wind breaks, which both reduce wind erosion
Constitution
A nation's basic law, creates political institutions, assigns or divides power in government and often provides certain guarantees to citizens. Can be written or unwritten.
Issue Network
A network of people in Washington, D.C.-located within interest groups, on congressional staff, universities, think tanks, and the media-who regularly discuss and advocate public policies.
nuclear fission
A nuclear reaction in which a massive nucleus splits into smaller nuclei with the simultaneous release of energy
Lobbyist
A person who is employed by and acts for an organized interest group or corporation to try to influence policy decisions and positions in the executive and legislative branches.
Liberal
A person whose views favor more government involvement in business, social welfare, minority rights, & increased government spending; see also *Conservative*.
in forma pauperis
A petition filed with the U.S. Supreme Court by an indigent person. The normal $300 filing fee is waived for such petitions.
Judicial Activism
A philosophy of judicial decision-making that argues judges should use their power broadly to further justice, especially in the areas of equality and personal liberty.
Judicial Activism
A philosophy of judicial decision-making whereby judges allow their personal views about public policy (liberal or conservative) to guide their decisions. Activist judges are comfortable declaring laws unconstitutional.
Judicial Restraint
A philosophy of judicial decision-making whereby judges give significant deference to the decisions made by elected representatives in the legislative and executive branches. Restrained judges are uncomfortable declaring laws unconstitutional.
Push Poll
A type of poll that attempts to influence opinions secretly using a poll (would you vote for McCain if you knew that he had a black, illegitimate child?)
Federalist Papers
A series of articles written by John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison urging the adoption of the Constitution. *Key Ideas:* Federalist 10 - Factions, Tyranny of the Majority Federalist 39 - Federalism Federalist 51 - Checks and Balances Federalist 70 - Presidency Federalist 78 - Judicial Review
American Political Culture
A set of basic, foundational values and beliefs about government that is shared by most citizens. Key elements: democracy, equality before the law, limited government, capitalism & private property
Probable Cause
A set of facts and circumstances that would induce a reasonably intelligent and prudent person to believe that a particular person had committed a specific crime; reasonable grounds to make or believe an accusation.
Medicaid
A shared program between the federal and local governments that covers hospital and nursing home costs of low: income people
Party Dealignment
A shift away from the major political parties to a more neutral, independent ideological view of party identification.
Referendum
A state level method of direct democracy that gives voters a chance to approve or disapprove proposed legislative action or a proposed amendment. Occurs when a state wants the voter's opinion on a controversial issue.
Unitary State
A state ruled by one central government. This is the system used by most countries. Compare with federal state.
Swing State
A state that could go either way in a presidential elections (unlike "safe states"). Target of a lot of attention in elections. Also known as "battleground states" or "purple states" (Ohio, Florida in 2008)
Damages
A sum of money paid in compensation for loss or injury in a civil case
Coal liquefaction
A synfuel made from coal that can be refined to gasoline
Unitary system
A system of government in which power is concentrated in the central government.
Federalism
A system of government in which power is divided between one central government and several regional governments (dual or cooperative). Used in USA and a few other countries. Most countries have unitary governments.
Regressive Tax
A tax that is imposed on individuals regardless of how much they earn, such as a sales tax.
Direct Tax
A tax that must be paid by the person on whom it is levied.
Condition of Aid
A technique of fiscal federalism used by Congress to control states. Requires states to do something in order to get the money (ex. South Dakota v. Dole, raise drinking age 21 to get highway money).
Regulatory Federalism
A term used to describe the emergence of federal programs aimed at, or implemented by, state and local governments.
Literacy Test
A test administered as a precondition for voting, often used to prevent African Americans from exercising their right to vote; suspended in most states under the *Voting Rights Act of 1965*. *Constitutional Connection:* Fourteenth Amendment Fifteenth Amendment
Petit Jury
A trial jury of 12 that sits at civil/criminal cases.
State of the Union Address
A yearly report by the president to Congress required by Constitution describing the nation's condition and recommending programs and policies (bully pulpit to set legislative agenda )
Caddis fly
Biological Indicator of Water Quality Benthic Macroinvertebrate Not one of best indicator species, but serve key role in environment by consuming algae and being food for number of species of fish
Stonefly
Biological Indicator of Water Quality Benthic Macroinvertebrate generally indicate good water quality Food for trout & found in fast moving waters at stream riffles
Aquatic Worm
Biological Indicator of Water Quality Benthic Macroinvertebrate live in substrate of streams Lrg numbers of aquatic worms may indicate poor water quality
Which alternative energy source makes the largest contribution to world energy production?
Biomass
Worldwide, the most widely used renewable energy resource is ________.
Biomass
Constitution
Body of fundamental law, setting out the basic principles, structures, processes, and functions of a government and placing limits upon its actions; may be written or unwritten.
Risk Analysis
Broad field of study that incorporates risk assessment, risk management, and risk communication
Photochemical Smog
Brown or orange-brown smog Exists in major cities that are in warm, sunny climates & generally newer in terms of development Requires sunlight Created by reactions b/t unburned hydrocarbons & nitrogen oxides from fossil fuel-burning automobiles, creating secondary pollutants like ozone, formaldehyde, PAN Hydrocarbons (or VOCs) + O2 + NO2 + UV light → CH3COOONO2 (PAN)
Department of State
Cabinet-level agency in charge of foreign policy & international affairs. (Secretary Clinton)
Department of Defense
Cabinet-level agency in charge of the armed forces and military policy. HQ = The Pentagon. (Secretary Panetta)
Electoral College Reform
Constitutional Amendment (won't happen) Proportional allocation of electors (reduces importance of state) Tell electors to vote for winner of national popular vote?
Commander-in-Chief
Constitutional power of the president - "supreme commander" of the nation's armed forces. Important to keep military under civilian control, leads to conflict with Congress over war power (War Powers Act)
Impeachment Process
Constitutional process for removing executive officers & judges for "treason, high crimes & misdemeanors" (whatever Congress thinks is impeachable). Two stages: (1) House decides to impeach (accuse) target (simple majority); (2) Senate holds trial to convict (2/3 majority). Andy Johnson and Bill Clinton were impeached but not convicted. Nixon resigned as Articles of Impeachment were being drafted!
Political Question
Constitutional question that judges refuse to answer because to do so would encroach upon the authority of Congress or the president.
Procedural Due Process
Constitutional requirement that a government proceed by proper means.
Electoral College
Constitutional system for electing president and vice president. Each state has electors = to number of senators + representatives (DC also has 3 because of 23rd Amendment). Citizens of state vote for candidate. Winner gets all electoral college votes (except Maine & Nebraska which uses proportional system). Winner of majority of electoral college votes becomes president. If no majority then President picked by House from top 3 candidates.
National Security Counsel
Consults with the president on matters of defense and foreign policy.
Overnutrition
Consumption of too many calories or too many of one specific nutrient
A _________ is composed of metallic alloys, and slows fission in a nuclear reactor by absorbing neutrons.
Control Rod
Reformer
Converter that strips hydrogen from fuels such as natural gas, methanol, ammonia, gasoline, ethanol, or even vegetable oil
Photosynthesis
Converting the energy in sunlight into food; Producers take in carbon dioxide, water and light energy to yield glucose and oxygen
Government Corporation
Corporation set up and run by the government; provides a service to the public (ex. US Postal Service)
Marginal Cost
Cost of producing 1 additional unit of product
External costs / externalities
Costs that are incurred in the process but not reflected in cost of product
Iron Triangle
Creation of powerful (iron) relationship of mutual benefit & support among congressional committee, government agency and regulated interest group(s). Can lead to corruption and "agency capture" (where the agency is controlled by the target of regulation). Problem exacerbated by revolving door.
Substantive Due Process
Creative/activist interpretation of 5th and 14th Due Process Clauses. "Liberty" protected by the DPC includes substantive "fundamental rights" like rights protected by Bill of Rights (leads to incorporation doctrine) and other rights like the right to privacy.
Ex Post Facto Law
Criminal law applied retroactively to the disadvantage of the accused; prohibited by the United States Constitution.
Chief Justice John Robers
Current Chief Justice (appointed by Bush in 2005); moved court in conservative direction; known for pro-corporation cases (Citizens United)
Weather
Current, daily conditions of atmosphere
Nitrogen Cycle
Cycling of nitrogen through the biosphere Nitrogen fixation -> nitrificaiton -> assimilation -> ammonification or denitrification
Gridlock
Describes people's perception that Congress and the president are in a state of disagreement that results in little legislation passing.
President's Budget Proposal
Detailed budget outline prepared by President & OMB. Sets priorities in discretionary spending & proposes changes to entitlement programs. Start of annual budget process.
Fuel Cells
Devices that use ongoing electrochemical reactions to produce an electric current; similar to batteries except that rather than recharging them with an electrical current, fuel is added to power the chemical reaction
political question
An issue that the Court refuses to consider because it believes the Constitution has left it entirely to another branch to decide. Its view of such issues may change over time, however.
Misdemeanor
An offense that is less than a felony with punishment ranging from a fine to a short jail term.
Writ of Certiorari
An order by the Supreme Court saying that it will hear a certain case (rule of 4). Granted in cases that raise important constitutional questions or where circuit courts have reached different opinions on a particular issue.
Open Rule
An order from the House Rules Committee that permits a bill to be amended on the floor (allows "death by amendment")
writ of certiorari
An order issued by the Supreme Court granting a hearing to an appeal. A vote of four justices is needed to issue the writ. Only about 3 or 4 percent of all appeals are accepted.
Interest Group
An organization of people sharing a common interest or goal that seeks to influence the making of public policy.
Tar sands
An underground sand deposit permeated with a thick, asphalt-like oil known as bitumen. The bitumen can be separated from the sand by heating.
How can dams cause species die off due to an increase in the temperature of rivers downstream?
Downstream waters can become unnaturally warm because of the reduced amount of water released.
Watershed
Drainage basin for water
Disinfection
Drinking Water Treatment Process Adding chlorine (UV light, ozone) to remove pathogens
Flocculation
Drinking Water Treatment Process Adding to water coagulating compounds, such as alum or iron salts, allows particles to attach to coagulator and be removed
Sedimentation
Drinking Water Treatment Process Allowing water to stand undisturbed encouraging large particles to settle out of water and be removed
Absorption
Drinking Water Treatment Process Using an absorptive surface, like charcoal, can remove additional organic compounds that may cause odors
Biomass
Dry weight of all living things on earth
Primary Election
Election to select party's candidate for each office. It is now the main way of selecting party candidates. Most democratic method and simpler than caucus. Greatly weakens the power of party leaders and increases power of ordinary voters.
Grassroots Activism
Electioneering and issue advocacy by ordinary & unpaid citizens (the roots of American political system). Examples include Tea Party, youth activism in Obama 2008. Compare with "Astroturf Activism" - fake grassroots efforts (paid for by political interests).
Independent Expenditures
Electioneering by third parties (527s or SuperPacs) to help a candidate get elected (without coordinating with candidates). Protected by Supreme Court in Citizens United as free speech and so cannot be limited by federal law.
Presidential Primary
Elections held in individual states to determine the preference of the voters and to allocate the number of delegates to the party's national convention.
Faithless Elector
Elector who does not vote for the candidate they promised to vote for. These have never determined outcome of presidential election but is a major problem with electoral college system
Single-Member Plurality District (SMPD)
Electoral district with only one representative (single member). The representative is whoever wins a plurality of the votes in a general election (no run-off elections). Senate and House districts are SMPDs. Discourages third parties, leads to two-party system.
Multi-Seat District
Electoral districts in which voters choose more than one representative.
Commerce Clause
Art. 1, Sec. 8 of the Constitution (enumerated power). Congress has the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations, among the several states ["Interstate Commerce Clause"], and with the Indians. Interpreted by the Supreme Court very broadly (Gibbons v. Ogden) until Lopez & Morrison.
Which energy source has the lowest energy returned on investment (EROI)?
Ethanol
Judicial Review
Authority given to the courts to review the constitutionality of acts by the executive, the legislature, or the states; established in *Marbury v. Madison*.
Jurisdiction
Authority vested in a particular court to hear and decide the issues in any particular case.
John Locke
Father of political liberalism (limited government to protect life liberty & property; right to revolt if government becomes a tyranny); he greatly influenced Jefferson & the Declaration of Independence.
Independent Executive Agencies
Federal agencies that aren't large or important enough to get department status. Directors appointed by President w/ advice & consent of Senate. Ex. NASA, CIA, EPA
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
Federal agency created to enforce the *Civil Rights Act of 1964*, which forbids discrimination on the basis of race, creed, national origin, religion, or sex in hiring, promotion, or firing.
Federal Communications Commission
Federal agency that regulates the radio, television, wire, satellite and cable communications.
Dual Federalism
Federal and state governments each have defined respinsibilities within their own sphere of influence; also called *Layer Cake Federalism*.
Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF)
Federal block grant to provide cash assistance for poor families ("welfare program"). Each state can design its own program. Replaces Aid to Families With Dependent Children (AFDC) which was a categorical grant.
Department of Justice
Federal department responsible for enforcing federal laws (includes FBI, Civil Rights Division, Antitrust Division, Drug Enforcement Administration...)
Defense of Marriage Act (1996)
Federal law defining marriage as man-woman & declaring that no state is forced to recognize same-sex marriage (unconstitutional exception to full faith & credit clause?)
Independent Regulatory Agencies
Federal regulatory agencies that are are administratively independent of both the president and Congress. *Examples:* Federal Trade Commission Securities and Exchange Commission
Mandatory Spending
Federal spending required by law that continues without the need for annual approvals by Congress.
District Courts
Federal trial courts. Limited jurisdiction (primarily to hear cases involving constitution and/or federal law). Must follow Supreme Court & their Circuit Court precedents (stare decisis). Federal government represented by U.S. Attorney's Office.
Supreme Court
Final federal appellate court ("court of last resort"). Hears appeals from Circuit Courts (certiorari petition / rule of 4). Only hears "important" constitutional cases.
Bill of Rights
First ten amendments to the Constitution; major source of civil liberties; applies to states via selective incorporation doctrine; promised to Anti-Federalists to secure ratification of Constitution
Calorie
Food Calorie = 1000 calories
Vice President
Back-up president. Only constitutional role = President of Senate & casts tie-breaker vote in Senate. Typically selected to increase odds in election (Biden experience & foreign policy; Palin youth & Tea Party)
Chemosynthesizers
Bacteria that have developed the ability to make their own food at deep ocean vents by turning carbon into organic matter using energy from inorganic compounds CO2 + O2 + 4H2S → CH2O + 4S + 3H2O
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act
Banned soft money donations to political parties (loophole from FECA); also imposed restrictions on 527 independent expenditures (issue ads only, not direct advocacy for a candidate). Declared unconstitutional by Citizens United case. Also known as McCain-Feingold Act.
23rd Amendment
Gives Washington DC electoral college votes as if it were a state (DC still has no representation in Congress)
Freedom of Information Act
Gives all citizens the right to inspect all records of federal agencies except those containing military, intelligence, or trade secrets; increases accountability of bureaucracy
Necessary and Proper Clause
Gives congress the power to do anything that is necessary and proper to carry out an enumerated power. Also known as the "elastic clause." Leads to implied powers doctrine (McCulloch v. Maryland)
Continuous Body
Governing unit such as the Senate whose seats are never all up for election at the same time.
Entitlement Programs
Government benefits that certain qualified individuals are entitled to by law, regardless of need. *Examples:* Social Security Medicare
Civil Service
Government bureaucracy; non-elected agents ("worker bees") that work for executive agencies to execute the law; hierarchical organization, job specialization, detailed rules & procedures, administrative discretion. Massive growth since New Deal & WWII (2.5m people = nation's largest employer)
8th Amendment
Government cannot inflict cruel and unusual punishment. Meaning of "cruel" based on "evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society." Categorical bans on death penalty: juveniles, retarded, non-murder crimes...
Prior Restraint
Government censorship of written material (preventing publication). Almost impossible due to 1st Amendment (only when major threat to national security). See Pentagon Papers Case (NY Times v. US)
U.S. Attorneys
Government lawyer that represents the US government at the district court level (trials).
Affirmative Action
Government or business policies favoring a historically disadvantaged minority group (university admissions, hiring decisions); raises 14th Amendment equal protection problems (reverse discrimination); limited by Bakke v. University of California (race can be "plus factor" in admissions but no racial quota system)
Deficit Spending
Government practice of spending more than is taken in from taxes.
Interim Government
Government set up to serve during the transition from a previous government.
Social Conservatism
Government should protect "traditional" (Christian) views on marriage, gender roles, & social issues. Oppose gay marriage, legalization of drugs, abortion.
Block Grants
Grants ($) given to the states by the federal government for a general purpose (like education or road-building). Unlike categorical grants, states have discretion to decide how to spend the money. Example = Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) (States develop and implement welfare programs using federal money).
Sulfurous Smog
Gray smog Exists in cities that use coal for heat; they are located in cold, moist climates & generally older in terms of development Does not need sunlight
Electrokinetic remediation
Green Remediation type Process in which electrical current is passed through a contaminated site attracting heavy metals, which can then be removed Can be used on: lead, chromium, nickel, mercury, copper, zinc
Ultraviolet remediation
Green Remediation type Process in which pollutants are exposed to ultraviolet radiation, which can break down toxins; most effective in liquids Can be used on: water with pollutants
Bioremediation
Green Remediation type Process of using bacteria, fungi, microbes, or plants to break down hazardous wastes into nonhazardous wastes Bacteria/enzymes help destroy toxic & hazardous waste or convert them to more benign substances Can be used on: Hydrocarbon products, crude oil compounds, some pesticides, some industrial solvents
Phytoremediation
Green Remediation type Process of using plants to break down hazardous wastes into nonhazardous wastes Can be used on: Some pesticides, lead, some heavy metals
Ultrasound remediation
Green Remediation type Process through which pollutants in groundwater break down from exposure to ultrasound Can be used on: heavy metals
The Cabinet
Group of important advisors to the President (Heads of Department agencies, VP and other VIPs chosen by president). Created by Washington, example of an informal amendment to the Constitution based on custom / tradition.
Which of the following statements about ethanol is true?
Growing corn for ethanol requires substantial inputs of fossil fuel energy.
Stunted growth
Growth that's not in keeping with average rates for height, weight, and head size Results from chronic undernutrition
Geothermal energy
High-pressure, high-temperature energy that exists just below the earth's surface; around the edges of continental plates or where the earth's crust overlays pools of magma (molten rock) close to the surface - experienced in the form of hot springs, geysers, and fumaroles
Passive houses
Highly insulated, virtually airtight buildings heated primarily by passive solar gain and by the energy released by people, electrical appliances, cooking, and other ordinary activities
Asbestos
Indoor Pollutant a mineral used for insulation in homes and businesses Human effects: lung cancer, mesothelioma, asbestosis, and other ailments concerned with the respiratory system
Pesticides
Indoor Pollutant products that kills, repel, control pests Includes insecticides, termiticides, rodenticides, fungicides, and disinfectants sold as sprays, liquids, sticks, powders crystals, balls, and foggers
Grandfather Clause
Jim Crow era state laws that discouraged African Americans from voting by saying that if your grandpa couldn't vote, then neither can you. The newly-freed slaves grandpas couldn't vote, so neither could they. Declared unconstitutional in 1915.
What happens in nitrogen fixation?
Nitrogen fixing bacteria like Azotobacter and Clostridium live in the soil and convert the nitrogen gas in the atmosphere (inactive state) to nitrates (active state) Nitrogen fixing bacteria make nitrogen available to plants in a form they can absorb. Plants use nitrogen from the soil to make proteins and DNA. Other kinds of nitrogen fixing bacteria called Rhizobium live in the roots of legumes and the nitrogen gas is converted into nitrates and used directly inside the plant to make protein.
Watergate Scandal
Nixon's "friends" broke into Democratic National Committee HQ during 1972 election, then Nixon tried to cover up White House involvement. Example of media muckraking (Woodward & Bernstein). Led to resignation of Richard Nixon.
4th Amendment
No "unreasonable" searches and seizures. Exclusionary rule (Weeks v. US, Mapp v. Ohio)
Republican Party
One of the two major modern American political parties. It emerged in the 1850s as an antislavery party and consisted of former northern Whigs and antislavery Democrats. Now the party is conservative (pro-life, anti-affirmative action, anti-too much government intervention, anti-taxing on the rich, pro-death penalty)
conservative/strict constructionist bloc
One of three groups of justices in the 1970s and 1980s, including Chief justice Warren Burger, who took a consistently conservative position on issues.
Divided Government
One party controls the executive, and the other party controls one or both houses of Congress.
Primary Election
One way for a state party to select delegates to send to the National Convention. Can be closed, open or blanket. Now used by most states instead of caucus (cheaper, quicker, more democratic).
Party Caucus (modern)
One way for a state party to select delegates to send to the National Convention. Consists of a series of meetings (local, county, state) among party members (no "open caucuses").
Fecal-Oral Contact
One way transmissible disease can be passed from infected to uninfected Includes indirectly through contaminated water & food Locus: mouth
Vector-borne Transmission
One way transmissible disease can be passed from infected to uninfected Includes insects Locus: bit of vector
Direct Physical Contact
One way transmissible disease can be passed from infected to uninfected Includes sexual contact, locus is cut in skin or through mucous membranes Transmission involves bodily fluids (like semen that carry disease)
Indirect Contact
One way transmissible disease can be passed from infected to uninfected Includes touching contaminated surface, locus is also cut in skin or through mucous membrane Diseases can be spread indirectly by fomites (objects that carry agent of infection) including needles, clippers, clothing, food, water
Droplet Contact
One way transmissible disease can be passed from infected to uninfected Respiratory Route Locus: Respiratory system An uninfected person breathes in droplet nucleus (travels through air as droplet nucleus covered by coating of mucus) through mouth/nose, & virus enters lungs
Plaintiff
One who brings a court action against another (the complainer)
Closed Primary
Only registered party members can vote in the party primaries. Maximum party control over process, used in most state primaries.
Anti-Federalists
Opposed the adoption of U.S. Constitution because it gave too much power to the national government at the expense of the state governments and it lacked a bill of rights. *Key Individuals:* Patrick Henry George Mason Richard Henry Lee
Humus
Organic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganisms
Decomposer
Organism that breaks down remains of organisms into simpler, inorganic substances
Detrivore
Organism that eat dead matter
Consumer
Organisms that eat other organisms
Heterotroph / Consumer
Organisms that must eat other organisms for energy
Producer / Autotroph
Organisms that preform photosynthesis First level of food chain / web
Ecosystem
Organization of living things that consists of all living and nonliving things in the area as well as interactions b/t them
Super-PAC
Organization set up after Citizens United to engage in independent electioneering. Can receive unlimited donations but cannot coordinate with a candidate. Causing amount of money spent on elections to skyrocket (SuperPacs have spent $85 million so far in Election 2012)
Senatorial Courtesy
Policy that gives senators the right to be notified by the chief executive of pending political nominations, usually judicial. Once informed, the approval of the senators from the state from which the judge comes is obtained and the appointment process moves on. This courtesy does not apply to Supreme Court justice nominations.
Regulatory Policy
Policy that results in government control over individuals and businesses. Examples of regulatory policy include protection of the environment and consumer protection.
Redistributive Policy
Policy that results in the government taking money from one segment of the society through taxes and giving it back to groups in need. It includes such policies as welfare, Aid to Families with Dependent Children, tax credits for business expenses or business investment, and highway construction made possible through a gasoline tax.
Grassroots Politics
Political action on the local level by ordinary citizens (the roots): fundraising, volunteering, get-out-the-vote activities (knocking on doors); important function of local party organization
Partisan
Political opposition drawn along party lines.
Reservoir
Porous rock that stores oil
Gravitational
Potential Energy "Stored" in object's position
Mechanical
Potential Energy Stored by tension
Chemical
Potential Energy Stored in atomic & molecular bonds
Nuclear
Potential Energy Stored in nuclei of atoms
Diatomaceous Earth
Powder made up of ground shells of diatoms, which can cause insects to dehydrate One of the least toxic pesticides
Boric Acid
Powder prevalent in ant control products, which has a low toxicity One of the least toxic pesticides
16th Amendment
Power of Congress to tax income
Legislative Veto
Power of Congress to veto executive decisions & actions; declared unconstitutional in INS v. Chadha (1983) (violates separation of powers)
Congress' Enumerated Powers
Power to tax, borrow & coin money, regulate foreign & interstate commerce, establish army, declare war, make all laws necessary & proper for carrying out the enumerated powers (elastic clause)
Congressional Oversight
Power used by Congress to gather information useful for the formation of legislation, review the operations and budgets of executive departments and independent regulatory agencies, conduct investigations through committee hearings, and bring to the public's attention the need for public policy.
House Rules Committee
Powerful House standing committee that reviews all bills coming from other House committees before they go to the full House (gatekeeper function); sets time limit for debate decides whether amendments can be added (open or closed rule).
10th Amendment
Powers not expressly given to federal government by the Constitution are reserved to states or the people. Also known as "reserved powers amendment" or "states' rights amendment"
Implied Powers
Powers of the national government that flow from its enumerated powers and the *"Elastic Clause"* of the Constitution.
Reserved Powers
Powers retained by the states, as dictated by the 10th Amendment.
Concurrent Powers
Powers that are given to both federal and state governments. Ex., the power to tax and create courts. Exclusive powers are given only to one level of government (ex., the power to declare war)
Enumerated Powers
Powers that are granted specifically to the three branches of the federal government under the Constitution; also known as *Expressed Powers*.
Expressed Powers
Powers that congress has that are specifically listed in the Constitution; also known as the *Enumerated Powers*.
Delegated Powers
Powers which are granted to, and exercised ONLY by the national government. The delegated powers are specifically listed in the U.S. Constitution at Articles I, II, III; also known as *Expressed Powers*.
Diplomatic Immunity
Practice in international law under which ambassadors and other diplomatic officials have special privileges and are not subject to the laws of the state to which they are accredited.
Earmarking
Practice of congressmen of securing ("appropriating") federal money ("pork") for projects that will benefit their constituents. Major incumbent advantage & source of budget increases
Privatization
Process of ending government services and allowing the free market (private firms) to provide the service. Purpose = reduce government spending & provide more efficient services. Example = abolishing the postal service. Supported by Republicans.
Photosynthesizers
Producers that convert sunlight into own food
Medicare
Program that covers hospital and medical costs of people 65 years of age and older as well as disabled individuals receiving Social Security.
US Term Limits v Thornton
Prohibited state legislatures from imposing term limits of their Representatives and Senators (Court held that the Constitution's Qualifications Clause is the only limit on congressional service)
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Prohibits discrimination based on race or gender in employment or public accommodations (restaurants, hotels). Created EEOC to enforce. Based on Congress's interstate commerce clause power (discrimination impacts interstate commerce). The most important federal civil rights law.
Salinity
Proportion of salt in solution
Equal Rights Amendment
Proposed constitutional amendment requiring full equal treatment for men and women (ex. allow women special forces). Proposed by Congress in 1972 but never ratified
Libel
Publication (written) of statements that wrongfully damage another's reputation; see slander. *Constitutional Connection:* First Amendment *Supreme Court Cases:* New York Times v. Sullivan (1964)
White House Management Styles
Pyramidal (with Chief of Staff) or Spokes and Hub style (less reliance on Chief of Staff)
Presidential Election Campaign Fund
Qualified presidential candidates can receive matching federal funds in primary and set amount to spend on general elections (but cannot raise & spend additional money). Attempt to limit campaign spending & corruption but rejected by Obama in 2008 (too easy to raise more money by contributions)
Sound Bites
Quote or "snippet" from politician's speech used by media to represent whole speech. Used by candidates to spread message (slogan); Used by media to avoid serious (boring) discussion of issues.
Suspect Classification
Racial or national origin classifications created by law and subject to careful judicial scrutiny
Block wall suction
Radon Reduction Technique Reduces radon by depressurizing the block wall.
Sump hole suction
Radon Reduction Technique Removes water from a basement and caps the sump pump so radon cannot enter the basement
sub-membrane suction system
Radon Reduction Technique Used if home has crawl space and involves covering soil underneath home w/ high-density plastic & using vent pipe/fan to guide radon from under plastic sheet to outdoors
Subslab suction
Radon Reduction Technique • Active method reduces radon by inserting suction pipes in the floor slab to remove gas from under the house and put it in the outside air • Passive method uses pressure differentials and air currents to remove radon from under a house to vent to the outside
Degradable
Resources that break down over shorter amts of time & include biodegradable waste that originates from plants/animals
Renewable
Resources that can be replenished at rate =/> rate at which used
Non-Renewable
Resources that cannot be replenished at rate they are used
Non-degradable
Resources that virtually never break down & have indefinite life spans
Equal Protection Clause
Section of the *Fourteenth Amendment* that guarantees that all citizens receive "equal protection of the laws"; has been used to bar discrimination against blacks and women.
Scientists search for fossil fuels in many ways. Sending a sound wave into the ground (by exploding dynamite, thumping the ground with a large weight, or using an electric vibrating machine) and measuring its return to the surface at receiving stations is called ________ surveying.
Seismic
Trial Balloons
Selective leaks aimed at testing the political waters
Senatorial Courtesy
Senate will not confirm a presidential nomination for a position within a state (ex., District Court Judge) without the consent of the senior senator of the President's party from that state. Informal amendment to appointment process (by tradition)
Solicitor General
Senior Justice Department attorney. Decides what cases the government will appeal to the Supreme Court, files amicus briefs with the Supreme Court in cases the government is interested in, and represents the United States before the Supreme Court.
Carcinogen
Substance that causes cancer
Federalists
Supporters of the new constitution in 1787. Supported a strong central government. Hamilton, Washington, Marshall. Became first political party (vs. Jefferson's Democratic-Republicans)
US v. Lopez (1995)
Supreme Court declared Gun Free School Zones Act exceeded Congress's Interstate Commerce Clause power and was therefore unconstitutional. First federal law declared to exceed commerce clause since the 1930s (Devolution Revolution?)
U.S. v. Nixon
Supreme Court intervenes in battle between President Nixon and Congress (impeachment process). President cannot use executive privilege as an excuse to withhold evidence in impeachment process. Leads to Nixon's resignation.
Topography
Surface features
Type III
Survivorship curve Likelihood of death is very high at young ages, & most of individuals in pop die off quickly within 1st part of life The few that survive to adulthood have high probability of surviving for some time
Type I
Survivorship curve Younger organisms have high probability of survival & almost all individuals reach middle age, but after middle age there is an increasing probability of death
Type II
Survivorship curve probability of death is equally likely in all age groups
Stabilization Ponds
Sustainable Waste Water Practice Series of ponds that are easy to operate & require little energy Moderately effective in removing solids Series Includes: Anaerobic pond, Primary facultative pond, Maturation Pond Disadv: Use lrg area of land, attract mosquitoes, require regular removal of sludge
Free Water Wetland
Sustainable Waste Water Practice Water flows through free water wetland from inlet to outlet over surface w/ vegetation & water ADV: Passive manner, do not require large inputs of energy and it can be done in most climates; Can be created on undeveloped / under construction land DISADV: Do take up lrg areas of land; can attract mosquitoes
Civil Law
That body of law relating to human conduct, including disputes between private persons and between private persons and government not covered by criminal law.
Judiciary Act of 1789
The congressional act which set the scope and limits for the federal judiciary system.
Due Process/Due Process Clause
The constitutional guarantee that "no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law." *Constitutional Connections:* Fifth Amendment Fourteenth Amendment
Double Jeopardy
The constitutional prohibition against a person being put on trial more than once for the same offense. *Constitutional Connection:* Fifth Amendment
How do enzymes lower the activation energy in synthesis reactions?
The enzyme brings the substrate closer and orients it in the correct position for the reaction.
How do enzymes lower activation energy in hydrolysis reactions?
The enzyme puts strain on bonds in the substrate that need to be broken.
Logrolling
The exchange of political favors for support of a bill.
Capital Punishment
The execution of an individual by the state as punishment for heinous offenses. *Constitutional Connection:* Eighth Amendment
Political Socialization
The factors that determine voting behavior such as family, religion, and ethnic background.
courts of appeals
The federal courts that have the authority to review decisions by federal district courts, regulatory commissions, and certain other federal courts. Such courts have no original jurisdiction; they can hear only appeals.
Cabinet Departments
The fifteen largest and most influential agencies of the federal bureaucracy (e.g., Department of State, Treasury, Justice...) Headed by Secretary or Attorney General (Department of Justice)
Jacksonian Democracy
The first major opening up of American suffrage (voting rights) by Jackson's new Democratic Party in 1830s. Franchise extended to all white men (not just rich white men). Achieved by state legislation not constitutional amendment.
Articles of Confederation
The first national constitution of the United States that created a government lasting from 1781 to 1789; replaced by the current Constitution.
Shared Powers
The fused or overlapping powers and functions of the separate branches of government.
National Nominating Conventions
The governing authority of the political party. They give direction to the national party chairperson, the spokesperson of the party, and the person who heads the national committee, the governing body of the party. They are also the forums where presidential candidates are given the official nod by their parties.
National Committee
The governing body of a political party made up of state and national party leaders.
Independent Executive Agency
The government not accounted for by cabinet departments, independent regulatory agencies, and government corporations; its administrators are typically appointed by the president and serve at the president's pleasure. *Examples:* NASA
Price Supports
The government's price guarantees for certain farm goods. The government subsidizes farmers to not grow certain crops and also buys food directly and stores it, rather than let the oversupply in the market bring the prices down.
Descriptive Representation
The idea that politicians can only represent people like them (ex. only women can represent women, blacks represent blacks, etc.)
Watergate
The illegal entry and phone monitoring of the Democratic headquarters by members of the Republican Party.
Separate But Equal
The judicial precedent established in the Plessy v Ferguson decision that enabled states to interpret the equal protection provision of the Fourteenth Amendment as a means of establishing segregation.
Original Jurisdiction
The jurisdiction of courts to hear a case for the first time (trial). Trial courts (District Courts in federal system) assess the facts in a case and the issue the first decision (guilt, innocence). Supreme Court has OJ over disputes between 2 states.
Appellate Jurisdiction
The jurisdiction of courts to hear appeals from lower trial or appellate courts. Appellate courts determine whether cases were decided correctly by the court below. Circuit courts have mandatory AJ (they have to hear appeals from District Courts). Supreme Court has discretionary AK (they can choose to hear appeals from Circuit Courts and State Supreme Courts).
Direct Primary
The most widely used method of making nominations in American politics; an intra-party nominating election at which those who vote choose a party's candidates to run in the general election.
Fiscal Federalism
The national government's use of fiscal policy to influence states through the granting or withholding of appropriations.
dissenting opinion
The opinion of the justices on the losing side.
Appellee
The party opposing an appeal from a lower court to an appellate court.
Party Machine
The party organization that exists on the local level and uses patronage as the means to keep the party members in line. Boss Tweed and Tammany Hall are examples.
plaintiff
The party that initiates a suit in law.
Plaintiff
The party who brings a civil action to court for the purpose of seeking a monetary remedy.
Congressional Oversight
The power of Congress to oversee how laws are carried out ("watchdog function" to prevent fraud & waste). Carried out through committee hearings & investigations, approprations process (how much are we spending on that program again?), GAO..
Police Powers
The power of a government to make laws protecting the health, safety and welfare of citizens (example: traffic laws, criminal laws). In America, police powers are reserved to the states by the 10th Amendment.
Eminent Domain
The power of a government to seize private property for public use, usually with compensation to the owner. *Constitutional Connection:* Fifth Amendment
Appointment Power
The power of the President & Senate to appoint important government officers (federal judges, agency directors, etc.). President nominates candidate, which then must by confirmed by simple majority in the Senate (check on President's power). Subject to senatorial courtesy rule for local appointments (district judges)
Judicial Review
The power of the Supreme Court to declare laws and actions of local, state, or national governments unconstitutional. Established in Marbury v. Madison (informal amendment to Constitution)
Natural selection
The process in which organisms with adaptive characteristics are more likely to survive and pass on their traits to their offspring; a primary mechanism of evolution
Gerrymandering
The process in which state legislatures create congressional districts, many of which are oddly shaped and favor the political party in power in the state making the changes.
Agenda Setting
The process of forming the list of matters that policymakers intend to address.
Referendum
The process whereby a legislative proposal is voted upon by popular vote.
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
The region within 200 miles of U.S. shores
Desegregation
The removal of racial barriers either by legislative acts or by judicial action.
Speaker of the House
The representative from the majority party in the House of Representatives who presides over House meetings, recognizes speakers, refers bills to committees, answers procedural questions, and declares the outcome of votes.
Poll Tax
The requirement of a person to pay for the right to vote.
Jurisdiction
The right & power to make decisions in a particular area. Federal courts are courts of limited jurisdiction. Before a federal court can hear a case it must establish that it has the power to hear this type of case (primary jurisdiction is to hear cases involving the federal constitution and/or federal law).
Franking Privilege
The right of congresspeople to send job-related mail to their constituents without paying postage. Incumbency advantage.
judicial review
The right of federal courts to declare laws of Congress and acts of the executive branch void and unenforceable if they are judged to be in conflict with the Constitution.
Executive Privilege
The right of the president to withhold information from Congress or refuse to testify. *Supreme Court Cases:* U.S. v. Nixon (1974)
Habeas Corpus
The right to challenge the legality of your detention by government (to have a judge determine whether or not the government can detain you). This right can be temporarily suspended by Congress in times of rebellion or unrest.
6th Amendment
The right to counsel in criminal trials. Gideon v. Wainwright held that states must provide indigent defendants with a free lawyer ("public defender"). Right to jury in criminal trials.
Incorporation Doctrine
The selective application of the protections of the federal Bill of Rights to the states. *Supreme Court Cases:* Gitlow v. New York (1925)
Party Realignment
The signaling resulting from a national election or a major shift in the political spectrum and characterized by the start of a party era. Party regulars: enrolled party members who are usually active in the organization of a political party and support party positions and nominated candidates.
Articles of Impeachment
The specific charges brought against a president or a federal judge by the House of Representatives.
Oral Arguments
The stage in Supreme Court proceedings in which attorneys for both sides appear before the Court to present their positions and answer questions posed by the justices. Good theater (for law nerds).
Prosecutor
The state or federal government attorney in a criminal case.
________ strongly influence(s) the amount of energy generated from hydropower.
The volume of water released and the height of the fall
Fundamental Niche
Theoretical role that organism can occupy w/o limiting factors
Substantive Representation
Theory of representation that says that anyone can represent any group (ex. a rich white guy can represent the interests of poor black people). Compare to Descriptive Representation.
Transmissible Disease
These types of disease can be passed from organism to organism and are typically caused by bacteria, viruses, protists, fungi, or other pathogenic organisms Also called infectious or communicable diseases
Non-transmissible Disease
These types of disease cannot be passed from organism to organism Also called noncommunicable diseases
what groups were in favor of ratification and why?
federalists because they were merchants and lawyers who needed a national government to control commerce and regulate the economy (article 7)
The primary difference between a bog and a fen is
fens are fed by groundwater, bogs are fed by rainfall.
Which of the following is a benefit of using nuclear power?
few greenhouse gasses are emitted
Biomass energy is energy contained in ________.
firewood and other plant material
Thermohaline Circulation
global circulation of water, shaped by differences in temp & salinity
Biological Community
group of populations living in certain area, which consists of plants, animals, fungi, microorganisms, other living things
Idealism (foreign policy)
Use American power to promote democracy and peace around the world. Associated with Woodrow Wilson & Jimmy Carter. (Compare with realism)
Concentrating solar power (CSP) system
Use long trough-shaped parabolic mirrors to reflect and concentrate sunlight on a central tube containing a heat-absorbing fluid
Filibuster
Use of unlimited time for debate in the Senate to kill bills by making (or threatening to make) long speeches. No filibuster in House (House Rules Committee places time limits on all debates). Broken by cloture motion (60 votes)
Clear & Present Danger Test
Used in Schenck v. US (1919) to determine whether speech is unprotected "incitement" to illegal activity. Replaced by stricter "imminent lawless action" test in Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969)
Red Tape
Used to describe the difficulty it takes to get answers from a bureaucratic agency.
Property assessed clean energy (PACE)
Uses city bonds to pay for renewable energy and conservation expenses
Gross Domestic Product
Value of final goods/services produced over time period in county
Slander
Verbal defamation of a person's character.
How is the energy produced by nuclear fission used to produce electricity?
Water in the containment vessel is kept under high pressure and heat from the fission reactions that heat it to well over boiling. This is then used to boil another loop of water, which turns a turbine that drives a generator and makes electricity.
Hard Water
Water that has a high concentration of dissolved minerals
Irrigation
Water that is used for farm crops 137 bill gallons/day
Thermoelectric Power
Water used in electric power plants, primarily for cooling 195 bill gallons/day
ranking of all laws of constitution in order of importance
constitutional laws, federal laws, state laws (article 6)
Hydrologic Cycle
cont cycle that moves water through atmosphere, on surface of earth, below surface Evaporation & transpiration (evotranspiration) & sublimation -> Condensation -> Precipitation -> Runoff & infiltration
Oil shale deposits ________.
contain organic kerogen which can be processed into petroleum
wind turbines
a device that converts kinetic energy from the wind into electric power
Age-structure diagram (population pyramid)
a diagram that breaks down the divisions of age into cohorts and according to sex
B20 represents ________.
a diesel fuel blend of 20% biodiesel to 80% petrodiesel
A self-amplifying reaction and a nuclear explosion in a nuclear power plant are prevented in large part by ________.
control rods that absorb extra neutrons
Historically, the greatest threat to grasslands has been
conversion to farmland.
Barrage
dam constructed near the mouth of a tidal body of water affected by tides; as the tide rises and falls, water moves through tunnels in the dam
Perceived Harm
damage that human beings think may occur from an action or an activity
Life Table
data table arranged by individual's current age that shows probability of surviving until next birthday
Habitat fragmentation usually leads to a
decrease in biodiversity.
What is the effect of humans on the carbon cycle?
deforestation-the indiscriminate removal of trees. Trees use carbon dioxide from the air. Therefore no trees,more carbon stays in the atmosphere combustion of fossil fuels-more carbon released in the atmosphere-adding a source of carbon to the atmosphere rearing of animals-animals' urine and faeces enrich the soil with nutrients
Desertification
degradation of once-fertile land into nonproductive desert; turning semi-arid and arid lands into desert-like areas When A Horizon (or topsoil) is lost
Vertical Transmission
describes disease transfer between generations, particularly mother to offspring, including transmission through breast milk
Horizontal Transmission
describes disease transfer independent of a parental or generational relationship and occurring among members of the same generation
nuclear fusion
a nuclear reaction where two or more atom nuclei react and join together to form a new nucleus
breeder reactors
a nuclear reactor that produces fuel by bombarding isotopes of uranium and thorium with high-energy neutrons that convert inert atoms to fissionable ones
judicial restraint
a philosophy of judicial decision making that posits courts should allow the decisions of other branches of government to stand, even when they offend the judge's own principles.
judicial activism
a philosophy of judicial decision making that posits judges should use their power broadly to further justice.
precedents
a prior judicial decision that serves as a rule for settling subsequent cases of a similar nature.
writ of certiorari
a request for the Supreme Court to order up the records from a lower court to review the case
Chloracne
acne-like condition that develops within months of exposure to dioxin
Enzymes lower the _____________ _____________ in a biological reaction.
activation energy
Name the location on an enzyme where the substrate binds.
active site
Realized Niche
actual niche that organism occupies
How does salt concentration affect enzyme function?
addition of salt will add or remove cations (+) & anions (-) causing a disruption in bonding. The attractions between charged amino acids is effected and the 2° & 3° structure is destroyed and the protein denatures. Enzymes are intolerant of extreme salinity! Ex. Dead Sea is called dead for a reason
Community-supported
agriculture that allows shareholders to buy a share of the farm and provide cash up front for the farmer, who, in turn, grows food for the shareholders These farms may be other types of agriculture as well
Conservation
agriculture that focuses on minimizing disturbances to the soil, adding organic matter to the topsoil, and rotating crops
Organic
agriculture that focuses on the health of the ecosystem and of the human population with natural pest control and fertilizers, and typically not using seeds that were genetically modified
Sustainable
agriculture that focuses on the long-term needs of the land, in terms of soil health, as well as sociological needs and health of the workers, including labor and wages, with the overall goal of
Industrial
agriculture that includes farming of crops as well as livestock, poultry, and fish using methods of economies of scale, genetically modified organisms, vast amounts of fossil fuels and heavy machinery This is how much food in developed countries is produced
what oath is required by clause #3 of article 6?
all legislative, executive, and judicial members must be bound to support constitution (article 6)
Which of the following is a documented negative impact of dams?
alteration of river sediment deposition
Response
amount and type of damage caused by the exposure
When assessing energy resources, it is helpful to use a measure called EROI, which is ________.
amount of energy invested minus heat released into the environment
Sustainable Yield
amount of resources that can be removed/harvested w/o compromising ecosystem/initial natural capital
Magnitude
amount of seismic energy released by earthquake
Specific Heat
amt of heat that must be gained/lost from 1g sample to change temp of substance by 1C
Doubling
amt of time it take pop to double in size
strict constructionist
an approach to constitutional interpretation that emphasizes interpreting the Constitution as it was written and intended by the Framers.
smart meter
an electronic device that records and measures electricity used in intervals and reports the information back to the utility for monitoring and billing
Heat Island
an urban area that is significantly warmer than surrounding non-urban areas
Cost-benefit analysis
analysis compares potential cost/benefits of product or process
benthic macroinvertebrates
animals that lack backbones, are large enough to be seen unaided, and live in or on top of substrate
what groups may have opposed ratification and why?
anti federalists apposed ratification because they were mostly farmers who did not feel they would gain benefits from the constitution (article 7)
Public Land
any areas controlled by gov (in city, county, state, federal), funded by taxpayers
Energy Conservation
any practice that involves using less energy
One biome type that has not been as badly threatened as other biomes is
arctic tundra.
We are usually referring to species diversity when we talk about biodiversity. However, genetic diversity is also important to ecological systems because diverse genes
are necessary for a population to evolve in a changing environment.
Humid tropical forests have extraordinary biological diversity
despite the poor, weathered soils.
Primary Succession
development of communities in a previously lifeless area without soil
Incinerator
device that burns or combusts garbage to reduce volume
Scrubber
device that spray liquid onto particulate matter in the air, which can neutralize acids in gas form Used to control particulate matter generated by combustion
Filter
devices that filter particulate matter from the air Used to control particulate matter generated by combustion
active solar energy systems
direct use of solar energy, consists of pumps to circulate air, water from solar collectors to a heat sink
Precession
direction of the Earth's axis of rotation
Which of the following best describes the way that the United States has dealt with the insecurity caused by foreign oil dependence?
diversifying oil imports
The run-of-river approach to hydropower often involves ________.
diversion of a portion of a river's flow through pipes
Dust dome
dome-like structure of air around a heat island that traps pollutants
Rainshadow
dry region on side of mountain that is sheltered from wind
Name 7 factors that can affect enzyme function.
enzyme concentration substrate concentration temperature pH salinity activators inhibitors
Amino Acids
essential component of proteins
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
estimate of radiation absorbed by photosynthesis in plants another way of measuring productivity
Demography
examines how human pops change & the factors that lead to change (specifically in terms of birth rate, fertility, immigration, emigration, mortality rate)
Barter
exchange of goods without currency
acid deposition
falling of acids from the atmosphere to Earth; includes but is not limited to acid rain Is wet deposition (rain, snow, fog) or dry deposition (particulate matter or gas), all of which must have pH of less than 5
Aquaculture
farming of aquatic organisms (fish, shrimp, etc.) for human consumption
Algal Bloom
growing mass of algae within an aquatic ecosystem; sign of pollution in water; will cont to grow until it covers the stream
Risk Management
have idea about risks and try to find ways to reduce the risk Includes: o Economic consequences of reducing risk o Political consequences of reducing risk o Limiting impact of risk o Ethical considerations
Polar
having areas of greater positive and negative charge
Triazines
herbicides that include melamine and benzoguanamine and atrazine, are also widely used and are less persistent in the environment, but can irritate the skin and eyes Atrazine: banned in UN but not US; suspected endocrine disruptor, possible carcinogen, considered "moderately" toxic
judicial implementation
how and whether judicial decisions are translated into actual public policies affecting more than the immediate parties to a lawsuit.
Human Capital
human beings w/ skills, talents, abilities
Cultural Eutrophication
human-induced increase in nutrients & productivity, often resulting in from nitrate or phosphate pollution
Today ________ provide Sweden with virtually all of its electricity.
hydroelectric, nuclear, and biofuels
Malnutrition
imbalance in the amount of nutrients a body needs and nutrients a body gets
Name two types of allosteric regulators. How do they work>
inhibitors and activators Inhibitors stabilize the inactive form of the enzyme. Activators stabilize the active form of the enzyme.
Beneficial insects
insects that are natural predators and parasites that control other pests
Environmental Science
interdisciplinary field of study of interactions in the environment
Most of the species that are yet undiscovered are probably
invertebrates.
passive solar energy systems
involves specific architectural design, captures heat from sunlight for specific purposes such as heating in winter and cooling in summer
As a fuel, biodiesel ________.
is a beneficial alternative for buses and trucks
The Keystone XL pipeline ________.
is a hotly debated pipeline that would carry petroleum from Canada to the southern United States
E-85______
is an isotope of uranium used to generate electricity is an ethanol-gasoline mixture used in flexible-fuel vehicles
The oil spill resulting from the 2010 Deepwater Horizon disaster ________.
is the largest accidental oil spill in world history, causing damage to marine and coastal ecosystems
Threshold Level
level below which there are no visible or noticeable effects
Preservationists
lobby to preserve lands & resources so they can't be used by humans
Conservationalists
lobby to preserve/maintain land & natural resources so that they may be cont to be used by humans
Subduction zone
location sat which 1 tectonic plate descends beneath another plate into Earth's interior
pH
log of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration in a substance
Chronic effects
long-term results of exposure to a hazard
What happens to phosphorus that is carried by runoff to oceans?
marine sediment, animal bodies- fish scales
Greenwashing
marketing term for practices that suggest sustainability when its not
Law of Conservation of Matter
matter cannot be created or destroyed during chemical/physical processes
Energy Intensity
measure of how much energy it takes to produce one unit of economic activity = Total energy consumption divided by gross domestic product (GDP) Affected by: Fuel economy of vehicles, commuting distances & transportation networks, climate, & energy efficiencies of structures & appliances
Ecological footprint
measure of sustainability in which the amount of land and water used (and the amount of pollution produced) by an individual or group is measured
Silt
medium-size soil particles (0.002 - 0.05 mm in diameter)
Ecological diversity is a measure of the number of
niches, trophic levels, and ecological processes of a biological community.
What main processes does the nitrogen cycle entail?
nitrogen fixation decay nitrification denitrification
What are cofactors?
non-protein, inorganic helpers for enzymes that are bound within the enzyme molecule ex. Mg, K, Ca, Zn, Fe, Cu
What are coenzmyes?
non-protein, organic helpers for enzymes that bind temporarily or permanently to the enzyme near active site; many vitamins are coenzymes Ex, NAD (niacin; B3), FAD (riboflavin; B2) and Coenzyme A
What is a noncompetitive inhibitor?
noncompetitive inhibitors bind to a site other than active site causing an enzyme to change shape (conformational change) Allosteric inhibitors bind to an allosteric site and this makes the enzyme's active site is no longer functional.
Fertility Rate
number of children avg woman in pop would have in her lifetime
Death rate
number of deaths per 1000 organisms
6
number of electrons carbon (C) has
Birth rate
number of live births per 1000 organisms
1
number of phosphorous (P) atoms in the compound potassium (K) phosphate (P)
8
number of valence electrons argon (Ar) has
3
number of valence electrons boron (B) has
2
number of valence electrons calcium (Ca) has
Commensalism
one species benefits & other is unaffected
Parasitism
one species benefits, other is harmed
Nonmetal
opposit characteristics of metals
hydraulic fracturing
or fracking, a common method to extract the natural gas from the rock.
Experiment
organic way of testing hypotheses
Endangered
organism at risk for extinction in signif # of habitats
Threatened
organism at risk of being endangered in future
Vector
organism that transmits disease but does not cause disease
Biological Species Concept
organisms are members of same species if they can mate & produce fertile offspring
Bycatch
organisms caught while fishing for something else
All enzymes have an optimal __________ and ________ where they function at their best.
pH and temp
Organismic Phase
parts of nutrient cycle in which nutrients are found in organisms
Environmental Phase
parts of nutrient cycle in which nutrients exist in soil, water, air
Carbon Cycle
pathway through which carbon travels b/t living things & nonliving environment
Alaskans benefit from the trans‑Alaska pipeline because Alaska's state constitution requires approximately 25% of state revenues associated with the oil industry to be placed into a monetary fund called the Permanent Fund, which ________.
pays yearly dividends to all Alaska residents
U.S. oil production ________.
peaked in 1970
Tuna and great white sharks would be found within the
pelagic zone
permafrost
permanent frozen ground
Most enzymes are ____________.
proteins, but a few have been discovered that are RNA
The International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) is a ________.
prototype nuclear fusion reactor
solar collectors
provides space heating/hot water, panel with tubes of fluid that are heated by sun- captures sun's energy
exergonic reactions
reactions that give off energy ex. hydrolysis (catabolism)
endergonic reactions
reactions that require an input of energy ex. dehydration synthesis (anabolic)
Crude oil is ________.
refined to separate the chemicals used for gasoline, lubricants, plastics, and other products
The process of __________ turns crude oil into the type of gases that can be used for cooking, in cars, and for other human purposes.
refining
Ten Percent Rule
relates to energy flow in food webs and food chains only about 10% of useful energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next
Predation
relationship b/t 2 species in which one hunts other for food
Trophic Cascade
relationship b/t populations of predators & resources consumed by predators' prey
Synergistic Relationship
relationship in which there is greater effect of two toxicants when exposed to both at the same time than when exposed separately
Antagonistic Relationship
relationship in which there is less effect of two toxicants when exposed to both at the same time than when exposed separately
Species evenness
relative abundance of each species
Earthquake
release of energy in Earth's crust that causes seismic waves
what type of test is prohibited for public office holders? why?
religious tests (article 6); freedom of religion, everyones religion protected
alternative energy
renewable and nonrenewable energy, alternative to fossil fuels
Sweden had to rescind its pledge to replace completely nuclear power with renewable energy because ________.
renewable energy was taking longer to develop than expected
Common
renewable resource owned by no one and used by all
Green Revolution
series of research and technology advances related to agriculture, occurring between World War II and the 1970's, which increased crop yields, crop nutrition, and pesticide effectiveness responsible for developing high-yield strains of wheat/rice, nitrogen-based fertilizers, & effective pesticides
Ecosystem Services
services we get from functioning ecosystems like clean water, soil, air, habitat, timber
Mercury and air toxic standards
set of standards that is preventing about 90% of the mercury in coal burned in power plants being emitted to the air, reducing 88% of acid gas emissions from power plants; reducing 41% of sulfur dioxide emissions from power plants
Eccentricity
shape of Earth's orbit around the sun
Acute Effects
short-term results of exposure to a hazard
What is the lock and key model of enzyme action?
simplistic model of enzyme action where the substrate fits into 3-D structure of enzyme's active site; like a key fits into lock Remember enzymes are very specific just like keys!
Subsidence
sinking of land due to removal of subsurface material, including water, oil, or gas
Triple Bond
six electrons are shared between elements
Carrying capacity
size of particular pop that given ecosystem can sustain over long term
hunter-gather
small, mobile bands of humans that survive on whatever resources they have in territory
Low-head hydropower
small-scale technology that can extract energy from small headwater dams that cause much less damage than larger projects
Ocean Wave energy
the capture of energy from waves for electrical power generation
Carbon capture and storage
the capturing carbon dioxide from sources such as power plants and transporting it to storage sites so that it will not enter the atmosphere
Negative
the charge an element is when it gains an electron
Positive
the charge an element is when it loses an electron
Wasting
starvation from lack of calories another form of malnutrition resulting from continued food shortages and illness
Scientific Law
statement/math relationship that describes single concept & is widely accepted by science community, but is not modified over time
One method for mining oil shale is __________.
strip mining
Covalent bonds
strong bonds between atoms in which the atoms share one or more electron pairs
Toxicology
study of the nature and effects/treatments of poisons, particularly on people
Organic Material
substances made of chains of carbon atoms w/ hydrogen atoms attached & other elements like oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur
Toxicants
substances that contain toxins
What is the general name for the reactant that binds with the enzyme?
substrate
Recovery Levels
sufficient # of organisms needed to regenerate pop; numbers below may collapse & become locally extinct
renewable energy
sun, water, wind, biomass- all derived from sun's energy
McCulloch v. Maryland
supremacy of the federal government and Congress over state governments through necessary and proper clause
Pyrethroids
pesticide includes natural and synthetic insecticides, some of which are toxic to the nervous system, and some of which are persistent in the environment Break down quickly, no bioaccumulation Possible endocrine disruptor
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
pesticide including DDT (illegal in US), chlordane, lindane endosulfan, and mirex are broad-spectrum insecticides that have been banned or restricted in many countries because they cause cancer and birth defects Biomagnifies and bioaccumulates Suspected carcinogen & endocrine disruptor Does not break down easily in the environment
Broad-spectrum
pesticides that kill a wide variety of pests
Narrow-spectrum
pesticides that kill only a few pests
Biodiesel is to ________ as ethanol is to gasoline.
petrodiesel
Thermal Inversion
phenomenon in which a warm air mass moves over and traps a cool air mass, disrupting normal air convection The motion of air stops
How are phosphates incorporated into the organic molecules in plants and animals?
phosphates absorbed by plant roots
Weathering
physical, chemical, biological processes through which Earth materials are exposed to atmosphere & change in color, texture, composition, form
Penstock
pipe at a hydroelectric dam that directs water to a turbine
Data
points that are measurable = quantitative or observations w/o numbers = qualitative
Toxin
poison that is harmful to an organism
Two poles have opposite charge
polar bond
Secondary Pollutants
pollutants that begin as primary pollutants and change form in the atmosphere; Change in a chemical reaction Include: SO3, H2SO4, HNO3, O3, H2O2, Most NO3s and SO4s
Primary Pollutants
pollutants that come directly from the source without reacting in the atmosphere Include: SO2, CO, NO, CO2, NO2
Brownfields
polluted sites that can be developed
Point Source
pollution that can be traced to specific source
An uncontrolled, self-sustaining nuclear fission chain reaction is an example of _____feedback.
positive
joules
the SI unit of energy that is the energy transferred. J = N * m
Watt
the SI unit of power as defined as Joules per second
Economies of scale
the advantages of mass production in terms of reducing costs
Whether using a food crop as a source of biofuels is environmentally sustainable would depend upon all of the following, except ________.
the corporate profits that would be made
original jurisdiction
the jurisdiction of courts that hear a case first, usually in trial. There courts determine the facts of the case.
Parent Material
the material from which soil forms
What is the nitrogen cycle?
the movement of nitrogen through the biosphere,the soil,the animal.
peak oil
the point when the maximum rate of global petroleum extraction is reached and at which the rate of production continues to decline
appellate jurisdiction
the power vested in particular courts to review and/or revise the decision of a lower court.
Salinization
the process through which too much water is applied to soil from irrigation or because the water table is close to the surface of the land, and the land becomes supersaturated, waterlogging occurs, and subsequent evaporation of water results in salts on the surface
Permeability
the rate at which water passes through soil Higher the value, the more rapidly water flows through an aquifer or other layer of soil
Risk Assessment
to determine how risky activities are Includes: o Estimating risk o Determining exposure methods o Measure the lethal dose o Experiments on organisms
Rule of 70
to find doubling time of pop, divide 70 by the percent of growth
Seismograph
tool consisting of fixed mass and a base; during quake, earth moves base but mass doesn't move
Ecotones
transitional areas b/t ecosystems
The United States and other industrialized nations devote the greatest proportion of their oil use to __________.
transportation
In contrast with the ______________, the soil of the ______________ is more nutrient-rich and this type of biome has fewer insects, parasites, and fungal diseases. Therefore, in many places, these areas are highly endangered.
tropical rainforest; tropical seasonal forest
Suburban sprawl
unplanned development by many different entities, often as part of urban outgrowth
Methods to conserve and improve soil
• Add organic matter (improves fertility, reduces erosion, increases water retention) • Cover crop (reduces erosion) • Avoid tilling (reduces erosion) • Rotate crops (legumes add nitrogen, reduce pests) • Avoid compaction (limit traffic) • Alley cropping (crops grown b/t rows of trees) • Buffer strips, wind breaks, shelter belts (reduce wind erosion) • Contour strips & strip cropping (reduce water erosion) • Minimize broad spectrum commercial pesticide application (many kill needed soil organisms)
Civil Service System
The system created by civil service laws by which many appointments to the federal bureaucracy are made; established under the *Pendleton Act* of 1883.
Slowly Degradable
Resources that break down over long periods of time
Approximately how many species have been identified on Earth?
about 1.7 million
Strategic Arms Limitation Talk (SALT) Treaty
Agreement signed by President Nixon in 1972 that resulted in the first arms reductions since the nuclear age began. Strategic Arms Reductions Treaty (START) of 1991: treaty between the United States and Russia that agreed to major reductions in their nuclear arsenals.
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
Agreement that called for dramatic reductions of tariffs among the United States, Canada, and Mexico.
Tree plantations
Areas that trees are planted in specifically to be harvested; provide 25 percent of the world's industrial wood fiber
Isotope
Atom of the same element that differ in their number of neutrons
Illness
Impairment of functioning
Biosphere
Combination of all biomes, highest level of organization of living things
Executive Enumerated Powers
Commander-in-chief of armed forces; pardon power (except for impeachment); treaty power; appointment power; veto power
Gibbons v Ogden
Commerce clause case (1824). Decision greatly enlarged Congress' interstate commerce clause power by broadly defining the meaning of "commerce" to include virtually all types of economic activity. Pair with Lopez & Morrison cases (limiting commerce power).
Standing Committees
Committees that deal with proposed bills and also act in an oversight function. They are permanent, existing from one Congress to the next, such as the House Ways and Means and Senate Appropriations.
Solid Waste
Discarded, recycled, or abandoned material
Invisible Primary
Informal raising of support (and money) before first primaries
fuel cells
similar to batteries, generates electricity through combustion of hydrogen and oxygen = water
Crude Oil
thick, viscous liquid that can be pumped from the ground and purified into a variety of useful fuels
Electron
this particle is negative
neutron
this particle is neutral
Proton
this particle is positive
Ring of Fire
Extensive subduction zones in the Pacific Ocean basin, resulting in a ring of active volcanoes
Genetic bottleneck
Extreme reduction in genetic variation in pop due to breeding of closely related individuals
Zebra mussels are a mussel species from Japan that was introduced without negative consequences into the United States to improve water quality.
F
Fairness Doctrine
FCC regulation that required the media to air opposing opinions of the same issue; repealed in 1987.
Equal Time Rule
FCC rule requiring media stations to offer advertising time to all candidates if they offer it to one candidate.
Equal Time Rule
FCC rule that requires broadcast stations to sell campaign air time equally to all candidates if they choose to sell it to any.
Shays' Rebellion
Failed rebellion in 1786 by poor farmers in MA against state government & banks that were taking their farms. Showed how weak the central confederation government was vs. threats to private property and order. Major factor in creation of Constitutional Convention in 1787 (Elite theory)
Defamation
False and malicious (mean) writings ("libel") or speech ("slander") about a living person. Not protected speech under 1st Amendment but check out NY Times v. Sullivan (very difficult for "public figures" to prove defamation)
Agents of Socialization
Family (most important); TV/media (growing in importance); friends/peers; school (formal socialization). How we develop (absorb) opinions & beliefs.
Turbidity
Water Quality Indicator the amount of suspended material in water; used to measure cloudiness of water
pH
Water Quality Indicator the measure of acidity or alkalinity of a solution
Dissolved Oxygen
Water Quality Indicator the volume of oxygen gas (O2) that dissolves in water
Which of the following technologies has helped us to reduce the amount of emissions released by vehicles?
catalytic converters
Enzymes are named for the reactions they __________.
catalyze Ex. sucrase, protease, and lipase
Aerobic Respiration
cellular respiration that uses oxygen to release energy C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Planned development
neighborhood or commercial center that is planned and built by a single entity.
Denitrification
process by which anaerobic bacteria turn nitrate ions into nitrogen gas 4NO3 + 2H20 -> 2N2 + 5O2 + 4OH
Cellular Respiration
process in which cells release energy stored in food Done by ALL organisms
Globalization
process in which countries all over world are related in terms of global market in goods
Speciation
process in which new species arise from other species
Combustion
process in which organic substance (fuels) combines with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water
Composting
process of gathering wastes, including kitchen and yard waste, in a manner that encourages decomposition
Desalination
process of making salt water drinkable by removing the salts
Agriculture
process of raising crops & livestock in single, sml area
Nitrification
process of which bacteria convert ammonia to nitrites & nitrates o 2NH3 + 3O2 → 2NO2- + 2H+ + 2 H2O o 2NO2- + O2 → 2NO3-
Remediation
process that attempts to clean up damage done to land; correcting environmental problem Two major types of sites that can be remediated: Superfund sites and brownfields
Nitrogen Fixation
process that converts nitrogen gas to usable form through lightning fixation or biological fixation; Most converts N2 to ammonia (NH3) at plant nodules of legumes 2N2 + 6H2O → 4NH3 + 3O2
Pesticide treadmill
process through which a farmer uses more pesticides, with increasing costs, as the effectiveness of pesticides decreases
Ammonification
process through which bacteria/fungi convert nitrogen within dead organisms into ammonium (NH4)
Assimilation
process through which plants absorb nitrate/ammonium ions from soil
Transpiration
process through which plants give off water through leaves
Wave action
process through which waves break on the shore Erosion occurs naturally through this
Condensation
process where gas changes to liquid
Anaerobic Respiration
process where kinds of organisms that can break down dead matter w/o oxygen C6H12O6 + 3NO3 + 3H2O -> 6HCO3 + 3NH4
Recycle
processing used materials into new materials Breaking down the original product by some physical or chemical means, retrieving the materials, and using them as raw materials to make new products
In the near future, the benefits of biofuel production may be enjoyed while reducing the impact on the global production of grain. One such promising approach is to ________.
produce biofuels from grasses instead of corn
Natural gas ________.
produces less carbon dioxide per energy unit than coal or oil
According to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), nuclear power __________.
produces significantly less emissions than fossil fuel combustion
What is the general name for the substance formed as an end result of a catalyzed reaction?
product
Which of the following is not a benefit of high biodiversity?
production of carbon dioxide
Cogeneration
production of two forms of energy from one source
Full-cost pricing
products that include external costs, especially negative externalities
Peer Review
scientific research is evaluated by experts in same field
Electricity is a __________ form of energy.
secondary
Ion Exchange
Drinking Water Treatment Process Exposes water to processes to exchange irons Removes metals Can be used to hard water
Aeration
Drinking Water Treatment Process Mixing of water frees dissolved gases
Filtration
Drinking Water Treatment Process Sending water through beds of sand or charcoal filters out additional particles
Circuit Courts
Intermediate federal appellate courts. Cover 13 "circuits" across America. Hear appeals from District Courts in their jurisdiction.
Democratic Party Coalition (modern)
Major supporters of Democratic Party = African-Americans, Jews, Women, Labor Union members, poor people
Coal Gasification
A synfuel of combustible gas made from coal
Biomass
Any organic material
Surface Ocean Currents
Continuous movement of ocean water; driven by winds
Insulators
Materials with greater resistance
Abiotic
Non-living
Pathogen
Organism that causes disease directly
7th Amendment
Right to jury in civil trials.
Symbiont
Two things that work together
Decibels
Units of sound volume
Focus
Where quake begins within earth's crust (hypocenter)
Biogas
gas released from biological materials like rotting organic matter
legislative court
A lower federal court created by Congress for specialized purposes. These justices have fixed terms of office, can be removed from office, and may have their salaries reduced while in office.
Bandwagon Effect
"Copy-cat" behavior. People often do things just because other people do them. In primary elections, it is when people support the candidate everyone else seems to be supporting (poll leaders). Leads to Primary Frontloading (states want to have the most impact in the primary process)
amicus curiae
"Friend of the Court"; may file briefs or even appear to argue their interests orally before the court.
Stare Decisis
"Let the decision stand"; the principle that cases should be decided in ways consistent with similar prior cases. Promotes consistency & fairness.
Stare Decisis
"The decision stands". A rule in deciding cases where judges follow precedent (how similar cases were decided in the past). Helps promote consistency and fairness in the legal process. Lower courts must follow precedent set by higher courts. Supreme Court can reject precedent if absolutely necessary (Example: Brown rejects precedent of Plessy).
US Constitution
"The supreme law of the land." Written in 1787 at Philadelphia Convention to replace Articles of Confederation and create stronger central government. Outlines structure & power of 3 branches of national government. Oldest written constitution still in use (but amended 27 times plus myriad informal amendments).
Superdelegates
"Unpledged Delegates" (usually important party members) at national party convention (about 20% of total delegates) who, unlike "pledged delegates" selected in primaries or caucuses, are not committed to a particular candidate. Used by party leaders to retain some control over candidate selection. Can be important in close races (like Obama vs. Hillary Clinton in 2008)
Biodiversity
# & variety of species living in area
Population Density
# of individuals in pop per unit area
14th Amendment
(1) All persons born in the U.S. are citizens; (2) no person can be deprived of life, liberty or property without DUE PROCESS OF LAW; (3) no state can deprive a person of EQUAL PROTECTION of the laws. Second of three "Reconstruction Amendments" passed after Civil War.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1824)
(1) CJ Marshall establishes doctrine of implied powers (Congress can create a national bank because it is necessary & proper to carrying out the enumerated power to coin money); (2) Supremacy clause prevents state (Maryland) from taxing the National Bank. Very important case enlarging power of federal government.
5th Amendment
(1) No Self-Incrimination (Miranda) (2) No Double Jeopardy (defendant cannot be tried again on the same, or similar charges) (3) No deprivation of life liberty or property without "due process of law" (fair treatment)
La Nina-Southern Oscillation (LASO)
*"Normal" year, easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the West coast of South America* Change in climate patterns in the Pacific where waters are colder than usual
El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
*Trade winds weaken & warm surface water moves toward South America. Diminished fisheries off South America, drought in western Pacific, increased precipitation in southwestern North America, fewer Atlantic hurricanes* change in climate patterns in the Pacific region every 3 to 8 years Ocean surface waters are warmer than usual in Dec/Jan due to changes in wind Pressure rises in Western Pacific (Indian Ocean, Indonesia, Australia), lowers in Central & Eastern Pacific Trade winds in South Pacific weaken Upwellings in Eastern Pacific are disrupted, as warm water is not pulled west; instead, warm water from the Western Pacific is pulled east Results: Wet summers in N.W. South American Droughts in Australia (brush fires) and S.E. Asia.
Privileges and Immunities
. Also a clause in the Fourteenth Amendment that protects citizens from abuses by a state.
State the steps of the carbon cycle (in order)
1) The atmosphere contains about 0.03% of carbon dioxide. During photosynthesis, plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to make carbohydrates,proteins and lipids. 2)Animals then obtain their supply of carbon by eating plants or other animals that have eaten plants 3)As plants and animals respire,molecules of carbon dioxide are released back into the environment. 4)Waste materials like faeces and their dead bodies are used as food sources by decomposers. Decomposers feed on dead organic matter. Carbon atoms then become incorporated into the decomposer's body. 5)Respiration of decomposers releases carbon dioxide back into the in atmosphere 6) In waterlogged soils where oxygen was in short supply,decomposers were not able to break down tissues completely in dead organisms. This partially decomposed material accumulated and eventually turned to a "solid" fossil fuel. Fossil fuels contain a lot of carbon 7) Combustion of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide back into the atompshere.
Department
A major administrative unit with responsibility for a broad area of government operations; usually indicates a permanent national interest in that particular governmental function.
Name two examples of competitive inhibition.
1. Penicillin blocks an enzyme that bacteria use to build cell walls. 2. Antabuse,a drug used to treat alcoholism, blocks an enzyme that breaks down alcohol.
Unconfined Aquifer
Aquifer free and open to surface of land; water can flow into it from surface of the land
Name three properties of enzymes
1. highly specific 2. not consumed in the reaction 3. can be affected by cellular conditions
Therm
100,000 BTU
Philadelphia Convention (1787)
12 states send delegates to revise the Articles of Confederation; Delegates soon agree to draft completely new Constitution with stronger federal government. Elite conspiracy?
Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act
1883 reform law that replaced the patronage/spoils system in the federal bureaucracy with a merit-based professional system. "Important" leadership positions in bureaucracy (Secretaries, Commissioners, Directors) & federal judges still appointed by president.
U.S. hydropower dam construction was greatest during the ________.
1930s-1960s
Chaplinsky v U.S.
1942 case establishing "fighting words" category of unprotected speech.
Mapp v Ohio
1961 case incorporating 4th Amendment (and exclusionary rule) into 14th Amendment DPC, binding on states.
War Powers Act
1973 act that states that a president can commit the military only after a declaration of war by the Congress, by specific authorization by Congress, if there is a national emergency, or if the use of force is in the national interest of the United States.
Buckley v Valeo
1974 campaign finance case declared some federal limits on campaign contributions in FECA violated First Amendment (ex. maximum spending limit and limits on candidates' spending their own money).
Cruzan v. Missouri
1990 case declining to extend the constitutional right to privacy to include the right to die (assisted suicide). Three states currently allow assisted suicide. It is a serious crime everywhere else.
Planned Parenthood v. Casey
1992 abortion case that applied new flexible test (instead of rigid trimester framework of Roe v Wade): Does state regulation of abortion place "undue burden" on women's right to an abortion? Court used test to uphold some regulations like waiting periods and parental notification for minors.
Proposition 209
1996 California initiative that banned all affirmative action programs.
Free Press Clause
1st Amendment Clause: Congress shall make no law abridging freedom of the press. No prior restraints unless major national security threat (Pentagon Papers Case). Major protection against libel (NY Times v. Sullivan).
Establishment Clause
1st Amendment clause: Congress cannot "establish" a religion. Accomodationists (establishment = government-funded religion) vs. Separationists (establishment = ANY involvement with religion); Lemon test
Free Speech Clause
1st Amendment clause; Congress can make no law abridging freedom of speech (including symbolic speech); Gitlow v. NY incorporates clause into 14th Amendment.
Free Exercise Clause
1st Amendment clause; Government cannot make a law prohibiting the free exercise of religion. Beliefs are 100% protected but religious practices are not exempt from neutral laws that affect everyone (ex., polygamy & illegal drugs)
Pioneer
1st community in succession
Pre-industrial
1st stage in Demographic Transition Model • Birth rates are higher due to infant & maternal mortality, lack of family planning, religious beliefs • Death rates are higher b/c disease, famine, drought, lack of health care & edu
American Party System
2 main parties (because of electoral rules) with other smaller and less powerful third parties (spoiler, splinter, extremist)
Artisan Aquifer
Aquifer under a layer of rocks/clay that causes it to build up pressure; Water will be forced up through well
Early developing / Transitional
2nd stage in Demographic Transition Model • Birth rates still high for same reasons, but death rates have dropped b/c increased (kinda stable) food supply & increased hygiene/sanitation/health care
Nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium
3 macronutrients that all plants need to survive
Sound Bites
30 or 60-second statements by politicians aired on the evening news shows or Sunday morning talk shows.
Little Ice Age
300-year mini-ice age from 1550 to 1850
What is the optimum temperature range for most human enzymes?
35-45 Celsius (Normal body temp = 37 Celsius)
Late developing / Industrial
3rd stage in Demographic Transition Model • Urbanization moves families from rural to urban • Status/edu of women improves, health care = more available, birth rates decrease, pop growth levels off
Soil
45% minerals, 5% organic matter, and 50% pore space for air and water
Developed / PostIndustrial
4th stage in Demographic Transition Model • Low birth rates & low death rates • Widespread use of birth control & health care
Bush v. Gore
5-4 Supreme Court declared that Florida vote recount violated equal protection clause (some votes would be examined more closely than others); ended Gore's challenge to 2000 election results. Power of judicial review (effectively decided 2000 election).
Miranda v. Arizona (1966)
5th Amendment self-incrimination clause requires government agents to warn suspects of their right to remain silent and/or contact an attorney before questioning them when they are in custody. Statements made without Miranda Warning are inadmissible in court (like the exclusionary rule for evidence)
what method of ratification is used and why?
9 out of 13 states must approve because the articles of confederation were considered unfair (article 7)
fuel assembly
A bundle of hollow metal rods containing uranium oxide pellets; used to fuel a nuclear reactor.
class-action suit
A case brought into court by a person on behalf of not only himself or herself but all other persons in similar circumstances.
Informal Amendment
A change made in Constitution not by actual written amendment. *Methods:* Legislation passed by Congress Actions taken by the President Decisions of the Supreme Court Activities of political parties Custom
Quasi-Legislative
A characteristic of independent regulatory agencies that gives them legislative powers to issue regulations.
Mandate
A claim by a victorious candidate that the electorate has given him or her special authority to carry out promises made during the campaign.
Full Faith and Credit Clause
A clause in Article IV of the Constitution which requires that each state respect the laws, records and court decisions of another state.
Executive Office of the President
A collection of agencies that help the president oversee department and agency activities, formulate budgets and monitor spending, craft legislation, and lobby Congress. *Includes:* National Security Council, Council of Economic Advisers Office of Management and Budget Office of National Drug Control Policy
Political Action Committee
A committee set up by a corporation or interest group to raise and funnels money to political candidates. Donation amounts to PACs are limited by FECA rules (hard money).
Committee of the Whole
A committee that consists of an entire legislative body; used for a procedure in which a legislative body expedites its business by resolving itself into a committee of itself.
Random Digit Dialing
A common method of randomizing poll sample to maximize accuracy.
Mineral Resources
A concentration of minerals in Earth's crust that can be extracted and processed relatively easily and affordably; includes both identified and unidentified resources
"Reagan Revolution"
A concept was to restore to state governments the responsibility for making and implementing policies. It is additionally a term popularly used to describe the broad spending cuts in social welfare programs instituted by the Reagan administration, beginning in 1981.
Electoral Dealignment
A lessening of the importance of party loyalties in voting decision (more independent voters, more split ticket voting, more divided government). Perhaps occurring now?
Trolling
A fishing hook-and-line method in which fishing lines with lures and bait are towed by a boat Generally sustainable practice that allows for release of bycatch
Trawling and dragging
A fishing method in which a cone-shaped net is dragged at various depths by a boat Not sustainable, as nets damage the sea floor and result in bycatch
Harpooning
A fishing method in which a fisherman stabs a fish with an aluminum or wood pole This practice can be considered sustainable because only individual fish are targeted, limiting bycatch.
Dredging
A fishing method in which a heavy frame with mesh bag is dragged on the ocean floor Not sustainable, as this practice damages ocean floor habitat substantially
Gilnetting
A fishing method in which a net hangs in the water suspended by floats; size of netting determines size of fish caught Not sustainable, as this practice results in significant amount of bycatch
Hook and Line
A fishing method in which fisherman uses a hook and line (and sometimes not even a pole) This is considered sustainable because can easily release bycatch and is done on a small scale.
Traps and Pots
A fishing method in which wire or wood traps are submerged and hold fish until fishers retrieve them Possibly sustainable, but often catches juveniles or bycatch
Federalism
A form of government in which power is divided between the federal, or national, government and the states.
White Primary
A form of restricting African American's 15th Amendment rights during the Jim Crow Era by only allowing whites to vote in the primary elections; giving African Americans only the opportunity to vote for white racist A or white racist B.
Plum Book
A list of good-paying (sweet) jobs that the new president can fill by appointment (agency directors and other VIPs)
Government Corporations
A government organization that, like regular corporations, provides a service to the public and typically charges for its services. The U.S. Postal Service is an example. Privatization would abolish GCs.
Categorical Grant
A grant ($) given to the states by the federal government for a specific purpose or program. The federal government tells the states exactly how to spend the money (no state discretion unlike block grants). Example = Medicaid. Most common type of federal grant because it gives Congress the most control over the states.
Political Party
A group of individuals with broad common interests who organize to nominate candidates for office, develop a party platform (policy goals), win elections, and run government
Political Party
A group of people joined together by common philosophies and common approaches with the aim of getting candidates elected in order to develop and implement public policy. It is characterized by an organization that is responsible to the electorate and has a role in government.
Elector
A group of people named by each state legislature to select the president and vice president.
Anti-Federalists
A group who opposed the ratification of the Constitution in 1787. They opposed a strong central government (tyranny) and supported states' rights. "I smell a rat!"
Subcommittees
A group within a standing committee that specializes in a subcategory of the standing committee's responsibility. (Ex. House Committee on Foreign Affairs has subcommittees on Asia, Europe, Africa, etc.)
What does the EROI (energy returned on energy invested) tell us about a potential energy source?
A high EROI ratio means an energy source is worth extracting based on the amount of energy needed to extract it.
Passive Solar Home
A home designed and constructed to maximize south-facing exposure without moving parts
Active Solar Home
A home including special technologies to collect and store sunlight energy using moving parts
Conference Committees
A joint committee appointed to resolve differences in the senate and house versions of the same bill
Injunction
A judicial order to a party to do or stop doing something (example: a restraining order to stay away from a specific person).
Judicial Restraint
A judicial philosophy in which judges play minimal policy-making roles, leaving that duty strictly to the legislatures.
War Powers Act
A law passed in 1973 after Vietnam fiasco requiring (1) president to notify Congress within 48 hours of sending troops into combat and (2) begin to remove troops after 60 days unless Congress approves of the action. Limited effort to reverse erosion of Congress' war powers since World War II (last formal declaration of war).
Federal Election Campaign Acts (FECA)
A law passed in 1974 for reforming campaign finances; created the *Federal Election Commission*, provided public financing for presidential primaries and general elections, limited presidential campaign spending, required disclosure, and attempted to limit contributions.
brief
A legal document submitted by lawyers to courts. It sets forth the facts of a case, summarizes any lower court decisions on the case, gives the arguments for the side represented by the lawyer filing the brief, and discusses decisions in other cases that bear on the issue.
Term Limits
A legal restriction that limits the number of terms a person may serve in a particular elected office. President limited by 22nd Amendment to 2 terms. No term limits on congressmen.
Socialism
A policial ideology that opposes capitalism and supports government control of major aspects of the economy (ex. electricity, health care).
Affirmative Action
A policy designed to correct the effects of past discrimination; requirement by law that positive steps be taken to increase the number of minorities in businesses, schools, colleges, and labor. *Supreme Court Cases:* Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978) Gratz v. Bollinger (2003)
Deregulation
A policy promoting cutbacks in the amount of Federal regulation in specific areas of economic activity.
Party Platform
A political party's statement of its goals and policies for the next four years, created at National Convention. Lofty rhetoric and specific legislative goals. Can cause splintering (example: southern whites abandoned Democratic Party in 1948 when it adopted a pro-civil rights plank.
Exit Poll
A poll of voters exiting the polls (voting locations) to attempt to predict the outcome of the election. May create a bandwagon effect.
Exit Poll
A poll taken of a small percentage of voters as they leave the polls; used to forecast the outcome of an election or determine the reasons for voting decisions.
Consumer Price Index (CPI)
A primary measure of inflation determined by the increase in the cost of products compared to a base year.
Filibuster
A procedural practice in the Senate whereby a senator refuses to relinquish the floor and thereby delays proceedings and prevents a vote on a controversial issue; see also *Cloture*.
chain reaction
A self-sustaining reaction when fission of nuclei of one generation of nuclei produces particles the fission of at least equal number of nuclei of the succeeding generation. It can be good in some ways and not so good in others.
Confined Aquifer
Aquifer under several layers of rock/clay; usually above bedrock Confining layer at the top—such as clay, which is impermeable—overlays the aquifer
Patronage System
AKA Spoils System. Filling government bureaucracy based on connections & political favors not merit (cronyism); ended by Pendleton Act (1883)
Arable
Able to be used for agriculture
13th Amendment
Abolished slavery. First of three "Reconstruction Amendments" passed after Civil War (1865-70)
24th Amendment
Abolishes poll taxes
Voter Turnout
About 50-60% of eligible voters in Presidential elections; much less in midyear elections (30-40%)
Indictment
Accusation by a grand jury; i.e., a formal finding by that body, that there is probable cause (reasonable grounds to make or believe an accusation against a named person to warrant his/her criminal trial.
Jus Soli
Acquisition of American citizenship at birth, because of birth in the United States; the "law of the soil," where born.
Jus Sanguinis
Acquisition of American citizenship at birth, because of the citizenship of one or both parents; the "law of the blood," to whom born.
Voting Rights Act of 1965
Act that finally made the Fifteenth Amendment a reality. As a result of this act, any state not eliminating the poll tax and literacy requirements would be directed to do so by the federal government. It also resulted in the establishment of racially gerrymandered congressional districts in the 1980s and 1990s.
Family Medical Leave Act (1993)
Act that gave unpaid emergency medical leave for employees with a guarantee that their job would not be taken away in the interim.
Taft-Hartley Act (1947)
Act that outlawed the closed union shop and certain kinds of strikes, permitted employers to sue unions for violations of contracts, allowed the use of injunctions to stop union activities, and allowed states to adopt right: to: work laws, giving employers more rights regarding the establishment of union shops. Finally, the act gave the president the right to step in and prevent a strike by an entire industry, such as the steel or auto industry, if such an action would threaten the nation's health and safety.
Reapportionment Act of 1929
Act that provides for a permanent size of the House and for the number of seats, based on the census, each state should have.
Simpson-Marzzoli Act (1987)
Act that resulted in more than 2 million illegal aliens who were living in this country since 1982 being allowed to apply for legal status.
Electioneering
Activity that seeks to influence the outcome of an election. Independent electioneering (SuperPacs & 527s) is protected free speech and so cannot be limited by government.
Congressional Budget Office
Advises Congress on the probable consequences of its decisions, forecasts revenues, and is a counterweight to the president's *Office of Management and Budget*.
Urban
Agriculture that focuses on producing, processing, and distributing food in and around cities, which increases availability of fresh food to urban dwellers and increases the food supply
Biodynamic
Agriculture that subscribes to a spiritual world view in which the farm is a unified organism and must be treated holistically Manure and compost are key ingredients in biodynamic agriculture, as well as natural pest control
Ozone (O3)
Air Pollution Composed of 3 atoms of oxygen; created when nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOC) from emissions from cars and factories react with sunlight Secondary Pollutant
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
Air pollution Formed when fossil fuels, which contain sulfur, are burned Has the ability to dissolve in water vapor to form sulfuric acid and interact with the particulate matter and gases in the air to form other products Primary Pollution
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
Air pollution that includes Nitrogen dioxide, nitric oxide, nitrous acid, and nitric acid Nitrogen dioxide holds the greatest interest, and it forms from automobile emissions as well as other forms of transportation. It can contribute to ozone development and particulate matter pollution. Both primary and secondary pollution
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Air pollution that is a product of combustion of fossil fuels. It is colorless and odorless (and can be poisonous in large amounts) Motor vehicle exhaust contributes 56% of all emissions in the United States Primary Pollutant
Lead (Pb)
Air pollution was found in emissions from motor vehicles, but has been reduced substantially (95% from 1980 to 1999). Now found near lead smelters, waste incinerators, utilities, and lead battery manufacturers Primary Pollution
Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)
All energy absorbed by Producers
Electorate
All of the persons entitled to vote in a given election.
Constituents
All persons represented by a legislator or other elected officeholder.
Direct Action
Attempts to influence government by civil disobedience, and sometimes by militant or violent action. *Examples:* Demonstrations, marches, sit-ins, campus strikes, picketing
Class Action Lawsuit
Allows an entire class of people who have been hurt in a similar manner by the same person or corporation to join together in one legal suit. (Example: AT&T overcharging 10 million customers 1 cent a month for a year).
Line-Item Veto
Allows president to veto bad parts of a bill but keep the rest. Like a scalpel. Especially useful for cutting out pork from spending bills. Declared unconstitutional (impermissibly changed the detailed law-making process established in Article I)
Green Pricing
Allows utilities to profit from conservation programs and charge premium prices for energy from renewable sources
Wagner Act
Also called the National Labor Relations Act of 1935, it gave workers involved in interstate commerce the right to organize labor unions and engage in collective bargaining and prevented employers from discriminating against labor leaders and taking action against union leaders.
Whips
Also known as assistant floor leaders, they check with party members and inform the majority leader of the status and feelings of the membership regarding issues that are going to be voted on. Whips are responsible for keeping party members in line and having an accurate count of who will be voting for or against a particular bill.
Separation of Church and State
Also known as the "establishment clause," it is part of the First Amendment to the Constitution prohibiting the federal government from creating a state supported religion.
Virginia Plan
Also known as the Big State Plan. Wanted proportional representation in Congress (based on population).
Party Caucus
Also known as the party conference, it is a means for each party to develop a strategy or position on a particular issue.
Riders
Amendments to bills, often in the form of appropriations, that sometimes have nothing to do with the intent of the bill itself and many times are considered to be pork barrel legislation. Safety net: a minimum government guarantee that ensures that individuals living in poverty will receive support in the form of social welfare programs.
Impeachment
An action by the House of Representatives to accuse the president, vice president, or other civil officers of the United States of committing "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors."
Flat Tax
An alternative to the *progressive income tax* where individuals pay the same percentage regardless of how much they earn
Workfare
An alternative to the traditional welfare, where an individual is trained to work instead of receiving welfare
strict constructionist approach
An approach to judicial review which holds that judges should confine themselves to applying those rules that are stated in or clearly implied by the language of the Constitution.
activist approach
An approach to judicial review which holds that judges should discover the general principles underlying the Constitution and its often vague language, amplify those principles on the basis of some moral or economic philosophy, and apply them to cases.
Caucus (Congressional)
An association of congressional members who advocate a political ideology, regional, ethnic, or economic interest.
Devolution
An effort to shift responsibility of domestic programs to the states in order to decrease the size and activities of the federal government; associated with *Ronald Reagan*.
Policy Election
An election in which voters vote on a particular policy question (ban gay marriage, legalize marijuana). Often used to resolve a controversial issue. Only used (so far) at the state level. Three types of policy election are: recall, initiative, referendum.
527 Organization
An independent organization set up to influence the outcome of an election; can receive unlimited "soft money" donations but cannot directly advocate for a particular candidate or have any connection to a candidate. Rendered obsolete by Citizens United.
Defendant
An individual or group being sued by a plaintiff or charged with a crime by a prosecutor.
House and Senate Whips
Deputy leadership position. Connects leaders with "rank and file" members, and tries to encourage party unity & discipline
Obliquity
Angle b/t Earth's axis and plane of Earth's orbit The angle that Earth's axis makes in the plane of Earth's orbit
Trial Court
Any court of original jurisdiction that empowers a jury to decide the guilt or liability of an individual.
Bureaucracy
Any large, complex administrative structure; a hierarchical organization with job specialization and complex rules.
Third Party
Any political party that appears as an alternative to the two main parties of the Democrats and the Republicans. Often extremist, single-issue or candidate-centered. Not major feature of US political system because of winner-take-all electoral system. Can have spoiler effect (Nader in 2000) or are absorbed into major party (Tea Party in 2008).
Black Water
Any water containing human waste
Obscenity
Any work that, taken as a whole, appeals to a prurient interest in sex.
Open Primary
Anyone can vote in any party primaries (but can only vote in the primaries of one party). Less party control over process. May cause raider effect.
Blanket Primary
Anyone can vote in any party primaries (like open primary) but voters not limited to one party (can vote for example in Democratic presidential primary and Republican senate primary). Least amount of party control over process.Declared unconstitutional (violates party's freedom to associate)
How does enzyme concentration affect the reaction rate?
As enzyme concentration increases, reaction rate will increase to a point because there are more chances for a collision between the enzyme and substrate.
How does substrate concentration affect the reaction rate?
As substrate concentration increases, the reaction rate will increase to a point because there are more chances for an effective collision between the substrate and enzyme.
Casework
Assistance given to constituents by congressional members, answering questions or doing favors.
Casework
Assistance given to individual constituents by congressional members, like helping an elderly person figure out how to get Medicare benefits. Major incumbency advantage.
Congressional Caucuses
Association of members created to support a political ideology or regional economic interest (black caucus, women's caucus, blue dog democrats...)
Deterrence
Basic feature of American foreign policy to maintain massive military strength in order to prevent any attack upon this country or its allies.
Division of Powers
Basic principle of federalism; the constitutional provisions by which governmental powers are divided on a geographic basis.
Limited Government
Basic principle of the American system of government; that government is limited in what it may do, and each individual has certain rights that government cannot take away.
Gender Gap
Belief / observation that women are more likely to support Democratic / liberal candidates & issues than men. Women are more likely to support spending on welfare & education, and to oppose higher levels of military spending.
Keynesianism
Belief in aggressive government intervention to combat recession & promote economic growth, especially by massive federal spending ("stimulus")
Libertarianism
Belief in as much freedom and as little government as possible (tolerates some government to provide stability & security). Supports free market economy, no government regulation of morality, low taxes.
Social liberalism
Belief in government assistance to improve society, especially for the poor and minorities. Socially liberal policies include universal health care, public education, affirmative action, welfare programs
Economic Conservatism
Belief in limited government intervention in the free market. Supports tax and spending cuts, deregulation & privatization. Reaganomics or "trickle down economics."
Monetarism
Belief in limited government intervention to combat recession & promote economic growth. Major tool = increasing or decreasing money supply to avoid inflation & maintain price stability.
Economic Liberalism
Belief in strong government intervention in the economy to promote stability & prosperity (example, Keynesian fiscal policy)
Anarchism
Belief in the abolition of all government (maybe through violent means)
Elite Theory
Belief that American democracy is a sham; we really live in a plutocracy. The Constitution was written by rich white men for rich white men.
Pluralist Theory
Belief that American political system basically works; competing interest groups all get heard at different times and places in government. Federalism helps (more layers of government).
Black Fly
Biological Indicator of Water Quality Benthic Macroinvertebrate Found in range of water qualities, but often indicate too many nutrients in aquatic environment (including nitrates & phosphate pollution)
Flex-fuel boilers
Can burn wood chips, agricultural waste, or other biomass fuels
Endogamous
Capable of mating and reproducing with each other
Energy
Capacity to do work
Photovoltaic (PV) cells
Capture solar energy and convert it directly to electrical current by separating electrons from their parents atoms and accelerating them across a one-way electrostatic barrier formed by the junction between two different types of semi-conductor material
General Election
Election in which the winner becomes an elected government official.
Original Jurisdiction
Cases heard by the Supreme Court that do not come on appeal and that "affect ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party."
Formula Grants
Categorical grants distributed according to a particular set of rules, called a formula, that specify who is eligible for the grants and how much each eligible applicant will receive.
Hadley Cell
Cell that drives air around tropical regions
Ferrel Cell
Cell that moves air form 30 degrees to 60 degrees latitude
Photovoltaic Cells
Cells in solar energy that convert energy from the sun directly into electricity When exposed to sunlight, electrons flow from the p-layer to the n-layer and form an electrical current
Prior Restraint
Censorship enacted before the speech, publication, etc., is released to the general public.
Confederation Congress
Central government set up by Articles of Confederation (1781-89). No executive or judicial branches. Unicameral legislature with no power to tax or regulate interstate commerce (intentionally weak to prevent tyranny). One state one vote, supermajority (9/13) to pass important laws, unanimous vote to amend (our constitution is unconstitutional!)
Electoral Realignment
Changes in the two party system (either a new party replaces old party or coalitions that make up the two main political parties change over time). "Hard realignment" occurs in one critical election (ex., Republicans replace the Whigs in 1860), "soft realignment" occurs or over time (ex., African Americans switch from Republican Party to Democratic Party during Civil Rights Era)
Informal Amendment Process
Changing the meaning of the Constitution without changing the actual words (which requires a formal amendment through Article V process). Examples = Supreme Court opinions, laws, traditions.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
Chemical Equation for Cellular Respiration
6CO2 + 6H20 + light energy -> C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chemical Equation for Photosynthesis
Marbury vs. Madison
Chief Justice John Marshall famously announces the existence of the power of judicial review: the power of the Supreme Court to declare laws and actions of local, state, or national governments unconstitutional.
Chief Justice Earl Warren
Chief Justice from 1953-1969; led activist liberal court; known for cases expanding rights of criminal defendants (Mapp v Ohio, Gideon v Wainwright, Miranda v Arizona)
Supremacy Clause
Clause that states that "the Constitution and the laws of the United States... shall be the supreme law of the land."
Climatograph
Climatic diagram in which average precipitation and average temperature can be viewed together
Ocean thermal electric conversion (OTEC)
Closed-cycle system, heat from sun-warmed upper ocean layers is used to evaporate a working fluid, such as ammonia or Freon, which has a low boiling point
White House Chief of Staff
Closest presidential advisor ("Jafar"). PowerfulgGatekeeper in pyramidal system; does not require senate confirmation
The primary energy source that is most used in the United States for production of electricity is ________.
Coal
The world's most abundant fossil fuel is ________.
Coal
fossil fuels
Coal, oil, natural gas, and other fuels that are ancient remains of plants and animals.
Population
Collection of individuals of same species
Particulate Matter
Complex type of air pollution, consisting of small solid particles and liquid droplets suspended in the atmosphere, with variable size generally measured in microns Both primary and secondary pollutant
Don't Ask Don't Tell
Compromise gay policy in military from 1993; finally ended by Obama in 2011.
Sedition
Conduct/language inciting rebellion against authority of the state.
Legislative Oversight
Congress making sure the Executive Branch and the Bureaucracy is correctly executing (carrying out) laws.
Writ of Mandamus
Court order directing an official to perform a nondiscretionary or ministerial act as required by law.
Writ of Habeas Corpus
Court order requiring jailers to explain to a judge why they are holding a prisoner in custody.
Injunction
Court order that requires or forbids some specific action.
Special Courts
Courts created by Congress to deal with cases deriving from the delegated powers of Congress such as military appeals, tax appeals, and veteran appeals.
Sedimentation
Deposition of sediment in water
Extinction
Death of all members of species and speciation
Appropriations Committees
Decide how to spend money allocated to each spending category by Budget Resolution; 12 subcommittees for major areas of budget (ex. defense, energy, agriculture); major source of earmarking
DECON
Decontamination type of decommissioning of nuclear plants All parts of plant that are radioactive are cleaned & taken apart then shipped to low-level nuclear waste disposal site or stored on original site
Coriolis Effect
Deflection on moving objects due to Earth's rotation In Northern Hemisphere, objects are deflected to the right In Southern Hemisphere, objects are deflected to the left
Super Delegates
Democratic Party leaders and elected party officials who automatically are selected as delegates to the National Convention.
1968 DNC
Democratic party leaders (superdelegates) secure nomination of VP Hubert Humphrey even though he did not compete in any state primaries. Controversy led to the Fraser-McGovern Commission and related reforms.
Democratic Party
Demographics: Racial minorities, Jews, Women (gender gap), Labor Unions, Poor Ideology: Center-left coalition... support liberal economic & social policies (government aid, gay marriage, no death penalty, tax on wealthy). (liberalism is a dirty word in America)
Republican Party
Demographics: White, Protestants, Corporations, Rich Ideology: Conservative (cut taxes, cut spending, emd welfare, support traditional marriage...). Center-right coalition (more conservative than Democratic Party is liberal, especially with rise of Tea Party faction since 2008)
What happens in denitrification?
Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates in the soil back to nitrogen gas.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid; found in nucleus of cell, and essential for transmission of genetic info
Alleles
Different versions of genes
Patronage
Dispensing government jobs to persons who belong to the winning political party.
Latitude
Distance from equator
Apportionment
Distribution of representatives among the states based on the population of each state.
Solid South
Dominance by the Democratic Party in the South following the Civil War. The Republicans made strong inroads when Ronald Reagan was elected President in 1980 and after the Republicans gained control of the Congress in 1994.
Office of Management and Budget
EOP agency that helps the President prepare annual budget proposal and evaluates budget priorities and effectiveness of federal agencies (oversight)
Council of Economic Advisors
EOP agency; three economists who advise president about general economic date, issues and policy proposals. Must be confirmed by senate.
White House Office
EOP group that includes the President's most trusted personal advisors (led by White House Chief of Staff); members do not need senate confirmation
Secondary Consumer
Eats Primary consumers
Tertiary Consumer
Eats Secondary consumers
Omnivore
Eats both plants and animals
Primary Consumer
Eats producers
World Trade Organization
Economic organization to promote global wealth.
Mixed
Economy that relies on blend of gov & markets to determine allocation of goods/services & to set prices
Centrally Planned
Economy that relies on gov/another central authority to determine allocation of goods & services & to set prices
Market
Economy that relies on marketplace where buyers & sellers interact to determine allocation of goods/services & to set prices
Critical Election
Election in which existing patterns of party loyalty shift. Ex. Northern Democrats switch parties in 1860 to vote for Republican Party (Lincoln).
Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
Energy available to the next trophic level Is difference b/t gross primary productivity & cellular respiration
Power
Energy divided by time Rate at which work is done
__________ describes the ability to obtain a given result while using less energy input.
Energy efficiency
Biomass
Energy from plants and animals
Geothermal
Energy from the heat of the Earth
Nuclear Energy
Energy released from a nuclear reaction, including emission of radioactivity, fission, and fusion
Social Welfare
Entitlement programs such as Social Security and programs such as Aid to Dependent Children paid for by the federal government.
Baker v. Carr
Equal protection clause requires "one man, one vote" principle for redistricting (legislative districts must be roughly equal in population)
Jim Crow Era
Era in the South after Civil War (1865) until 1950s. African Americans were freed from slavery and could legally vote (Amendments 13, 14, 15) but were still subjected to discriminatory state laws enforcing segregation and kept from voting by laws (ex. poll taxes, literacy tests) and by violence (KKK)
Doctrine of Implied Powers
Established by CJ Marshall in McCulloch v. Maryland. Congress has the power to make all laws that are "necessary and proper" for carrying out its enumerated powers. So it can create a National Bank to carry out its power to coin money. Major cause of growth of federal power.
17th Amendment
Established the direct election of senators (instead of being chosen by state legislatures)
Roe v. Wade (1973)
Establishes a woman's constitutional right to an abortion (in limited circumstances). Court held that abortion is part of the right to privacy, which itself is part of the concept of liberty in the 14th Amendment ("substantive due process"). Major goal for conservatives to overturn Roe.
Exclusionary Rule
Evidence obtained in violation of 4th Amendment is not admissible in criminal trial. (Weeks v. U.S., Mapp v. Ohio)
Congressional Committee System
Evolved as a way for Congress to handle large and complex work-load; divides up law-making into major subject areas; major responsibility for debating & marking up bills + oversight of execution of laws (the bureaucracy)
Hot spot
Exceptionally hot regions in mantle
Commerce Power
Exclusive power of Congress to regulate interstate and foreign trade.
Prohibited Powers
Expressly bar government from specific actions, e.g. state governments cannot coin money, no ex post facto laws or grant titles of nobility.
Even-aged
Forest in which trees are all same age, generally same height
Uneven-aged
Forest that has trees of all different ages and heights
Old-growth Forests
Forests that have not been logged in recent history Characterized by variety of ages, trees in various stages of decay, woody debris, shade-tolerant species under uneven canopy, minimal anthropogenic effects
Closed Primary
Form of the direct primary in which only declared party members may vote; see *Open Primary*.
Interstate Compact
Formal agreements, largely in the form of financial arrangements, which are entered into between states, only with the approval of Congress.
Writ of Appeal
Formal request to have a court review the findings of a lower court.
Which of the statements below accurately describes nuclear fusion reactors?
Fusion reactions require very high temperatures.
What are greenhouse gases?
Gases in the atmopshere such as carbondioxide that absorb some of the escaping heat and send it back to the earth's surface.
Local Party Organization
Get-out-the vote activities (grassroots organization). Can be very unorganized. The initial point of entry for those seeking involvement in politics (volunteers, organizers, or candidates)
Listed Waste
Hazardous wastes that appear on the F-List (from manufacturing & industrial process), K-list (specific industries), P- and U-lists (from commercial chemical products)
Noble gases
He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn are examples
Department Secretary
Head of one of the 15 cabinet-level agencies ("Secretary" of Justice is called Attorney General). Divided loyalty between President and agency they command. Must be confirmed by Senate.
Attorney General
Head of the Justice Department and the chief law enforcement officer of the United States
National Party Organization
Headed by President and/or National Chairperson. Main function (limited) is to hold the national convention to select the presidential candidate & write the party platform.
Heating Systems
Indoor Pollutant Includes stoves, heaters, fireplaces, and chimneys that release carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and particulate matter
Exclusionary Rule
Holds that evidence gained by illegal or unreasonable means cannot be used at the court trial of the person from whom it was seized; see also *Inevitable Discovery*. *Constitutional Connection:* Fourth Amendment *Supreme Court Cases:* Mapp v. Ohio (1961)
Fighting Words Doctrine
Holds that the government can limit free speech if it can be proved that the result of speech will cause physical violence. *Supreme Court Cases:* Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire (1942)
Comparable Worth
Holds that women should be paid salaries equal to men for equivalent job responsibilities and skills.
Budget Committee
House & Senate standing committees that begins budget process in Congress by setting overall budget size and amounts that will be spent on different topics (ex. defense, education)
Mineral Reserves
Identified deposits of minerals currently profitable to extract Identified resources that can be mined profitably under current economic conditions and with current technologies
Altitude
How high something is
Rule of 4
How the Supreme Court decides whether to hear a case. Requires four or more justices to "grant certiorari" (agree to hear an appeal). Supreme Court agrees to hear <1% of cases.
Anthropogenic
Human induced
Which of the following is true?
Humans may have been causing extinctions thousands of years ago, but our impact has recently increased.
Which of the following statements is true about hydropower?
Hydropower cannot expand much more in the future in the United States.
Demographic determinism
Hypothesis in demography that states that human population dynamics are inevitably disastrous
Pocket Veto
If a bill is proposed within 10 days of congress adjourning and the president does not sign it , it will die (un-overrideable veto).
Biological Contaminants
Indoor Pollutant Includes anything living or associated with life, including bacteria, mold, mildew, pollen, dust mites, rats, mice, cat and dog saliva and dander, and cockroaches, and associated feces Human effects: Allergic reactions, Asthma, Sneezing, Watery eyes, Coughing, Shortness of breath, Dizziness, Lethargy, Fever, Digestive problems
Precautionary Principle
If there is a link b/t hazard and potential cause, even if scientific data cannot indicate the cause, action must be taken to prevent the hazard Responds to perceived correlations
House Ways and Means Committee
Important House standing committee responsible for initiating all taxation bills.
Household chemicals
Indoor Pollutant Includes cleaning, disinfecting, degreasing, and hobby products
Defendant
In a civil suit, the person against whom a court action is brought by the plaintiff; in a criminal case, the person charged with the crime.
Chief Justice John Marshall
In office from 1801-1835 (longest serving CJ). Supported increased power of federal government. Decided McCulloch v. Maryland, Gibbons v. Ogden, and Marbury v. Madison.
Rule of Four
In order for a case to be heard by the Supreme Court, four justices must agree to hear the case.
First Law of Thermodynamics
In physical & chemical changes, energy cannot be created/destroyed, only transformed
Universal Waste
Includes batteries, pesticides, mercury-containing thermostats & thermometers, and fluorescent bulbs
Congressional Incumbency
Incumbent= current office-holder running for re-election. Incumbent reelection rates VERY high (90+%); higher in House than Senate b/c Senate has stronger challengers. Incumbents lose because of scandal, general anti-incumbent anger...
Independent Regulatory Commissions
Independent agencies created by Congress to regulate important aspects of the nation's economy. Commissioners appointed by President but not removable except "for cause" (to protect independence). Most independent and least accountable part of the federal bureaucracy.
Strict Constructionists
Individuals who believe in a conservative interpretation of the Constitution.
Radon
Indoor Pollutant Colorless, odorless, radioactive gas, which breaks down in uranium under homes and becomes trapped in the home Human effects: lung cancer
Formaldehyde
Indoor Pollutant Colorless, pungent gas that is used in building materials and dry cleaning (for permanent press) and is a byproduct of combustion
Environmental Tobacco Smoke
Indoor Pollutant Includes smoke from cigarettes, tobacco, or pipes and the exhaled smoke from the smoker (often called secondhand smoke) Human effects: Eye, nose, and throat irritation, Aggravation of asthma symptoms in children, Reduced lung function, Lung cancer, Lower respiratory tract infections
Civil Disobedience
Intentional breaking of a law to protest against the law. Thoreau vs. Mexican-American War, Rosa Parks & MLK vs. Jim Crow segregation.
Korematsu v. United States (1944)
Internment of Japanese-Americans during WWII does not violate 14th Amendment Equal Protection Clause (gets strict scrutiny but national security is a good enough reason to justify the racial discrimination).
How is cellulosic ethanol different from traditional corn-based ethanol?
It can be made from the nonfood portions of plants and from wood
What is unique about the Mediterranean climate area biome?
It contains a high number of unique species.
How does an increase in temperature affect enzyme function?
It will increase to a point because addition of heat will speed molecules up and increase the likely-hood of successful collisions between enzyme and substrate. (Cold temps slow reaction rate down.) However, after the optimal temp is reached, the enzyme (protein) will begin to denature with additional heat and the active site will become nonfunctional and the enzyme will lose its 3D globular shape. Remember H-bonds are weak and are easily broken.
Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
Its director, appointed with the consent of the Senate, is responsible for the preparation of the massive federal budget, which must be submitted to the Congress in January each year. Besides formulating the budget, the OMB oversees congressional appropriations.
Patriot Act (2001)
Law responding to 9/11. Expands anti-terrorist powers (wiretapping, surveillance); 4th Amendment concern for civil liberties.
Marshall Court
John Marshall's tenure as Chief justice of the Supreme Court, whose leadership resulted in the landmark decisions of Marbury v. Madison, McCulloch v. Maryland, and Gibbons v. Ogden. These cases shifted power to the judiciary and federal government.
Selective Incorporation Doctrine
Judicial doctrine that applies the Bill of Rights (one right at a time) to state and local governments by incorporating them into the concept of liberty in the 14th Amendment's Due Process Clause (which is binding on the states)
Precedent
Judicial use of prior cases as the test for deciding similar cases.
diversity cases
Jurisdiction conferred by the Constitution on federal courts to hear cases involving citizens of different states. The matter, however, must involve more than $50,000, and even then the parties have the option of commencing the suit in state court.
Hatch Act (1939)
Law that prohibits government employees from engaging in political activities while on duty.
Thermal
Kinetic Energy Energy in atomic & molecular vibration
Radiant
Kinetic Energy Energy in electromagnetic radiation
Sound
Kinetic Energy Energy in longitudinal waves
Mechanical
Kinetic Energy Energy in motion of objects
Electrical
Kinetic Energy Energy of moving electrons
Political Action Committees
Known as PACs, they raise money from the special interest constituents and make contributions to political campaigns on behalf of the special interest group.
Pendleton Act
Known as the Civil Service Act of 1883, it set up merit as the criterion for hiring, promoting, and firing federal employees.
Derelict Land
Land degraded by mining operations & not reclaimed
Biome
Large area with specific climate and characteristic plants/animals that have adaptations for conditions
Writ of Certiorari
Latin for "to be made more certain," the process in which the Supreme Court accepts written briefs on appeal based on the "rule of four" justices voting to hear the case.
Stare Decisis
Latin for judicial precedent, this concept originated in England in the twelfth century when judges settled disputes based on custom and tradition.
Line Item Veto
Law giving president power to veto portions of budget bill; purpose = reduce size of national deficit; declared unconstitutional (violates separation of powers)
Voter Turnout
Low in America compared to other western democracies (50-60% for presidential elections; 40-50% for midterms)
constitutional court
Lower federal courts created by Congress which exercise the judicial powers delineated in Article III of the Constitution.
District Courts
Lowest level of federal courts; where federal cases begin and trials are held.
Cellulosic ethanol
Made from woody plant tissue; if found a way to produce it economically - it would have considerable environmental, social, and economic advantages over using edible grains or sugar crops for transportation fuel
Cells
Made of hot air that rises and cold air that cools and descends; Control the flow of air, which contributes to overall climate
Political Participation
Main form = voting. Also joining political party, volunteering on political campaign, campaign contributions, running for office, protests...
Americans With Disabilities Act (1990)
Major anti-discrimination law for disabled; requires access (ramps, braille, etc.); unfunded mandate
Title IX
Major anti-gender discrimination law that applies to universities and schools that accept federal funding. Controversial because many universities cut male sports programs so as not to violate Title IX.
Realism
Major foreign policy ideology. Act in the world only to protect and benefit yourself. (Contrast with idealism)
Republican Party Coalition (modern)
Major supporters of Republican Party = WASPs, business people, the rich
Undernutrition
Malnutrition consisting of consumption of too few calories or too few of one specific nutrient
White House Staff
Managed by the White House Chief of Staff, who directly advises the president on a daily basis, it includes the more than 600 people who work at the White House, from the chef to the advance people who make travel arrangements. The key staff departments include the political offices of the Office of Communications, Legislative Affairs, Political Affairs, and Intergovernmental Affairs. It includes the support services of Scheduling, Personnel, and Secret Service and the policy offices of the National Security Affairs, Domestic Policy Affairs, and cabinet secretaries.
Gatekeepers
Media executives, news editors, and prominent reports who decide what to present and how to present it.
Conductors
Materials with less resistance
Concurrent Resolution
Measure passed by both houses of a legislature that does not have the force of law nor require the chief executive's approval; often used to express the legislature's opinion or for internal rules or housekeeping.
Continuing Resolution
Measure that, when signed by the President, allows an agency to function on the basis of appropriations made the prior year.
Incumbent Advantages
Name recognition, campaign contributions, credit-claiming (pork & casework).
National Committee
National party organization that, with Congressional leaders and President, runs party affairs between national conventions, (DNC and RNC, each is headed by a chairperson).
The most cleanly burning fossil fuel available, producing the least pollutants, is ________.
Natural Gas
Attack Ad
Negative ad attacking opposing candidate (ex., swift boat veterans, willie horton); proliferating with independent SuperPAC spending (you ain't seen nothin' yet!)
Competition
Neither species benefits
Neutralism
Neither species benefits or is harmed
Steam Reforming
Process in which steam is used to separate molecules of methane (CH4) into their component carbon and hydrogen atoms Separates hydrogen from carbon in methane CH4(g) + H2O → CO +3H2(g) + energy
Cogeneration
One of the fastest growing sources of new energy; the simultaneous production of both electricity and steam or hot water in the same plant
Feed-in tariffs
Requiring utilities to buy surplus power from small producers at a fair price; generally essential to individual solar installations
Are all competitive inhibitors "bad"?
No. Some are used to regulate enzyme reactions in living organisms.
Naturalization
Process by which persons acquire citizenship.
Presidential Nomination Reform
Nomination process is too long and too expensive. One reform idea is to have a single national primary on one day (but this would require runoff election and would hurt less well known candidates who need time to establish their candidacy)
Stationary Sources
Non-moving sources of pollution EX: power plants, commercial facilities
Congressional Budget Office (CBO)
Non-partisan legislative support agency (economists) to analyze President's Budget Proposal & how much programs and budget items will cost. Goal is to aid the Congressional budget process.
Executive Agreement
Non-treaty agreement between the U.S. president and other nations that does not require Senate ratification (but is not binding on future presidents). Since 1939, executive agreements have comprised more than 90% of the international agreements (because senate ratification is a real drag!)
Confederation
Nonbinding union of sovereign states (example = European Union, America under Articles of Confederation).
NATO
North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Cold War military alliance (USA + Western Europe vs. USSR).
The type of energy that holds neutrons and protons together in the nucleus of an atom is called __________.
Nuclear energy
Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear process in which energy is released as light atomic nuclei fuse to form heavier atomic nuclei
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear process in which energy is released when heavy atomic nuclei are split into lighter atomic nuclei
Pigeonholing
Occurs when a committee ignores a bill and doesn't report it out. Also known as "tabling" or "death by committee." Major cause of bill death.
Grass Roots
Of or from the common people, the average voter; used to describe opinion and pressure on public policy.
New Jersey Plan
Offered at the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia, it urged the delegates to create a legislature based on equal representation by the states.
Virginia Plan
Offered at the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia, it urged the delegates to create a legislature based on the population of each state.
In the United States, ________ is the leading source of energy.
Oil
Fairness Doctrine
Old FCC rule requiring media stations to provide different viewpoints for any controversial political issue
Isolationism
Old as Washington, a belief that America should not seek to become engaged in foreign affairs.
Joint Chiefs of Staff
One General from each of the 4 armed service branches (army, navy, air force, marines) and, since 1/2012, the National Guard. The JCS are key military advisors to the President.
Fighting Words Doctrine
One major category of unprotected speech (basically verbal assault); Exception created in Chaplinsky v. NH (1942)
Potentially Renewable
Resources that are generally renewable, but can become nonrenewable if not used wisely
Separation of Powers
Originally developed by Montesquieu in The Spirit of Natural Laws written during the Enlightenment and James Madison in Federalist No. 48, this important doctrine resulted in the establishment of three separate branches of government: the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, each having distinct and unique powers.
Which of the following statements about trade in endangered species is false?
Overharvesting affects animals more than plants.
Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
Overrules Plessy v. Ferguson (no stare decisis). Racial segregation violates 14th Amendment Equal Protection Clause ("separate is inherently unequal")
President as Party Leader
POTUS is the symbolic leader of his party. Acts as party's chief spokesperson to the public & sets party's legislative agenda (bully pulpit)
Boyle's Law
PV = k where P = pressure, V = volume, K = constant
Executive Agreement
Pact made by the president with the head of a foreign state; a binding international agreement with the force of law but which (unlike a treaty) does not require Senate consent.
Thirty-Second Spots
Paid political ads 30 seconds in duration
Natural Rights
Part of Locke's philosophy; rights that are God given such as life, liberty, and property.
Free Exercise Clause
Part of the *First Amendment* guaranteeing to each person the right to believe whatever that person chooses in matters of religion. *Supreme Court Cases:* Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972) Employment Division v. Smith (1990)
Establishment Clause
Part of the *First Amendment* prohibiting either the establishment of a religion or the sanctioning of an existing religion by the government; see also *Free Exercise Clause*. *Supreme Court Cases:* Engel v. Vitale (1962) Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971) Lee v. Weisman (1992)
Younger Dryas
Period of global cooling that occurred 12,000 years ago
Standing Committees
Permanent committees in House and Senate that handle bills dealing with a particular subject area. Examples: Defense, Budget, Education.
Lame Duck
Person holding office after his or her replacement has been elected to the office, but before the current term has ended. Lame Duck Presidents may find it hard to influence Congress (why work with a guy who is about to leave?)
National Chairperson
Person responsible for the day-to-day activities of the party, usually hand-picked by the presidential nominee.
Organic phosphates
Pesticide including malathion and parathion Derived from nerve gas (German research during WW2) Breaks down in environment (water soluble) but greater acute toxicity than in chlorinated hydrocarbons
Fungicide
Pesticide that kills, repels, controls fungi
Herbicide
Pesticide that kills, repels, controls plants
Rodenticide
Pesticide that kills, repels, controls rodents
Initiative
Petition process by which a certain percentage of voters can put a proposed constitutional amendment or statute on the ballot for popular approval or rejection.
Election Timeline
Phase 1: Invisible Primary (year prior to election year) - exploratory committees, straw polls, media exposure... Phase 2: Front-Loaded Primaries, including Super Tuesday (Jan-Feb of election year) Phase 3: Remaining primaries & caucuses (March-June of election year) Phase 4: Nominating Convention (July/August) Phase 5: The General Election Campaign (from Labor Day) Phase 6: Election Day (November)
What happens to phosphorus that erodes from rock and soil?
Phosphorus unites with Oxygen to make phosphates
The base of the marine food web is
Phytoplankton
Locus
Place where the pathogen enters the body
New Jersey Plan
Plan at Philadelphia Convention for equal representation in new Congress (1 state 1 vote). Also known as "small state plan." Opposite of the Virginia "big state" Plan. Becomes basis of representation in the Senate.
Genetically Modified organisms (GMO)
Plants & animals that have had their traits modified by scientists
Legumes
Plants with seed pods
Hyperpluralist Theory
Pluralism gone wrong; belief that government is paralyzed by too many interest groups demanding things too many things from government
Peak oil
Point at which global oil extraction is maximized
"New Federalism"
President Ronald Reagan's effort to restore to state governments the responsibility for making and implementing policies.
Which of the following descriptions of primary extraction is accurate?
Primary extraction may leave as much as two-thirds of the total oil deposit below ground.
Vertical Federalism
Principle that describes the obligations established by the Constitution between the states and the national government.
Risk
Probability that hazard will lead to injury
Cloture
Procedure that may be used to limit or end floor debate in a legislative body; requires a three-fifths vote of the Senate.
Draft
Process by which people enter compulsory service in the military.
Closed loop recycling
Recycling process in which a product is recycled to become the same type of product Little degradation in the properties of the product
Civil Rights
Refers to positive acts of government that seek to make constitutional guarantees a reality for all; e.g., prohibition of discrimination.
Gender Gap
Refers to the regular pattern by which women are more likely to support Democratic candidates; women tend to be significantly less conservative than men and are more likely to support spending on social services and to oppose higher levels of military spending.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Regulates air and water pollution, pesticides, radiation, solid waste, and toxic substances. It is the main environmental regulatory agency.
Executive Orders
Regulations & orders from the President to an agency about how to execute a law. They are one of the ways presidents can try to control the bureaucracy.
Dose-response relationship
Relationship between an administered dose and the effect on an organism
Leaching
Removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards through soil When traveling water can carry substances with it As water passes through soil, the water dissolves and carries with it materials that may be mixed with the soil
United Nations
Replaced the League of Nations after WWII. Global organization to maintain peace and facilitate diplomacy.
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
Required by NEPA (National Environment Policy Act) Is complex prediction of environmental changes filed for proposed federal action
Ethics in Government Act
Requires financial disclosure for elected public officials and placed 1 year restriction on former government officials' lobbying activities (the revolving door problem)
Acid Mine Drainage
Result of rainwater seeping through waste materials called tailings, which creates strong acids & dissolved toxic metals that move into nearby soil & water the low pH (acidic) liquid that flows out of coal or metal mines
Reclamation
Returning mined land as closely as possible to its original topography and vegetation cover
RNA
Ribonucleic acid; found mostly in cytoplasm of cell & responsible for transmitting generic information w/ DNA to cytoplasm
Congressional Demographics
Rich highly educated white male protestant lawyers & businessmen! Women VERY underrepresented! (<17%)
2nd Amendment
Right to arm bears. Supported by National Rifle Association interest group & Republican Party.
Crust
Rigid Surface of earth Rigid and consists of continental crust, composed of lighter granitic rocks, and oceanic crust, which is composed of denser basaltic rocks
Ore
Rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine Rock that contain 1+ desired metals that could be extracted affordably & w/ current technologies
Delegate
Role played by elected representatives who vote the way their constituents would want them to, regardless of their own opinions.
Closed Rule
Rule in the House of Representatives that prohibits any amendments to bills or says that only members of the committee reporting the bill may offer amendments
Case or Controversy Requirement
Rule of judicial self restraint to limit power of judicial review; the Court will only consider real controversies including real, adverse parties (no advisory opinions)
Contour strips
Runs perpendicular to the slope of the land to prevent erosion Traps soil and slows erosion by water
________ has more natural gas reserves than any other country.
Russia
SAFSTOR
Safe Storage type of decommissioning of nuclear plants, plant is locked up for 60 years while radioactive components decay to stable elements After 60 years, plant is taken apart in process similar to DECON
Federalist 51
Separation of powers & checks & balances protects against tyranny
The New Deal
Series of liberal (Keynesian) economic laws enacted by FDR to combat Great Depression. Includes Social Security System & federal minimum wage law. Birth of Democratic Party as liberal party (soft electoral realignment)
Constituent Services
Services a congressperson provides for his/her constituents (ex., helping with government claims like social security & veterans benefits)
Articles of Confederation
Set up the 1st independent American government (1783-88). Nonbinding "league of friendship" among sovereign states with weak central government to help with common defense & cooperation (like the European Union). Replaced by our current constitution in 1788.
Rally Effect
Short-term patriotic increase in president's popularity and power during times of serious international crisis or war (e.g. Bush after 9/11)
Motor Voter Act of 1993
Signed into law by President Clinton, it enables people to register to vote at motor vehicle departments.
Passive heat absorption
Simplest and oldest use of solar energy; using natural materials or absorptive structure with no moving part to simply gather and hold heat
Unicameral Legislature
Single-house legislature
Brownfield
Site contaminated form industrial or business use
Incrementalism
Small changes in policy over long periods of time; usually in reference to budget-making--that the best indicator of this year's budget is last year's budget plus a small increase.
Micro-hydro generator
Small enough to provide economical power for a single home
Individual
Smallest level of organization of living things; A single organism
Criminal Law
That body of law passed by both the federal and state governments, that defines crimes and provides for their punishment.
C Horizon
Soil horizon that's area of transition b/t parent material below & soil above
D Horizon
Soil horizon that's bedrock; is parent material from which soil is made
B Horizon
Soil horizon that's considered the subsoil or zone of accumulation where minerals/nutrients leach into from O & A horizons
A Horizon
Soil horizon that's considered the topsoil & contains inorganic/organic material called humus Layer that supports agriculture (thicker = healthier = better for agriculture)
O Horizon
Soil horizon where organic matter from animals & plant roots & leaves is located; often dark colored
Mollisols
Soil order Prevalent in US Found in grasslands & tend to be in climates that are semi-humid to semi-arid Youngest of all soil types & have dark surface horizon
Oxisols
Soil order found in subtropical & tropical rain forest Heavily weathered by water that leaches minerals out of soil & are not fertile Few minerals remain after leaching Have nonexistent soil horizons
Ultisols
Soil order important in SE US Contains clay minerals (most often kaolinite) & known for red color, but can also appear purple & orange
Entisols
Soil order that forms on hillsides and deltas New & poorly developed Many soils that do not fit well into other soil orders are classified as this
Solar Power Tower
Solar Plant that focuses solar energy on receiver using sun-tracking mirrors, which can concentrate solar energy as must as 1500 times normal intensity of sun
Solar Dish
Solar Plant that tracks the sun, pointing straight at it during the day, sometimes receiving 2000+ times normal intensity of sun
Parabolic Trough
Solar Plant that uses shape of parabola to focus sun 30 - 100 times its normal intensity along focus of trough, which heats water to power steam turbine
Asthenosphere
Solid but flowing mantle underneath lithosphere
kerogen
Solid, waxy mixture of hydrocarbons found in oil shale rock
Connecticut Compromise
Solves big state-little state debate over representation in federal legislature at Philly Convention. Created bicameral legislature with equal representation for states in Senate and proportional representation in House (seats based on population).
Hazard
Something that can cause harm
Species diversity is most concentrated in
South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia.
Select Committees
Specially created congressional committees that conduct special investigations. The Watergate Committee and Iran-Contra investigators were select Senate committees.
Invasive species
Species not native to ecosystem, but can thrive & displace native species
R-selected
Species that can produce many offspring, each of which has sml chance of surviving to maturity
K-selected
Species that produce fewer offspring, each of which has a relatively high probability of surviving to maturity
Discretionary Spending
Spending set by the government through annual appropriations bills, including operating expenses and salaries of government employees.
Risk Communication
Stage in risk analysis when policy makers find ways to address the hazard and risk with the public
Common Law
That body of law made up of generally accepted standards of rights and wrongs developed over centuries by judicial decisions rather than in written statutes.
Renewables Portfolio
Standards to require power suppliers to obtain a minimum percentage of their energy from sustainable sources
Lawrence v. Texas (2003)
State laws making sodomy (gay sex) a crime violate equal protection clause (fails rational basis test because only possible reason for law is homophobia)
15th Amendment
States cannot deny any person the right to vote because of race. Third of three "Reconstruction Amendments" passed after Civil War. First Voting Rights Amendment (with 19, 24 & 26)
26th Amendment
States cannot deny the right to vote based on age (18+)
19th Amendment
States cannot deny the right to vote based on gender
Full Faith & Credit Clause
States must recognize laws & judicial decisions of other states (ex., marriage, child support payments); public policy exception for gay marriage?
Dual Federalism
System of federalism that strictly separates federal power (ex. foreign relations) and state power (ex. protect against crime). Each level of government is dominant within its own sphere. Probably how the Founders thought America would work (enumerated federal powers + reserved state powers). Also known as "layer-cake federalism."
Cooperative Federalism
System of federalism where federal & state governments help each other perform governmental duties. Also known as marble-cake federalism. E.g., After hurricanes federal and state agencies work together to provide relief. Can cause confusion and/or conflict among among different levels of government. Best explanation of how federalism works today (instead of dual federalism)
Checks and Balances
System of overlapping the powers of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, to permit each branch to check the actions of the others and thus no branch of government may dominate the other; see *Separation of Powers*.
Estuaries are often referred to as nursery areas due to the number of organisms that use them for breeding.
T
Estuaries contain a mix of fresh and salt water.
T
Tropical moist forests have high species diversity because they have highly developed, diverse niche opportunities and habitats.
T
Reuse
Taking old products and using them again, keep waste out of landfills •Reusing goods in the way they were intended to be used and repurposing them
Poll Tax
Tax on voting. Used to discourage African Americans from voting during the Jim Crow era. Also used to exclude poor whites. Declared unconstitutional by 24th Amendment.
Transform
Tectonic plate boundary type where tectonic plates slide horizontally past one another
Convergent
Tectonic plate boundary type where tectonic plates slowly collide (oceanic-continental, oceanic-oceanic, continental-continental)
Divergent
Tectonic plate boundary type where tectonic plates slowly move apart from one another at spreading centers and new crusts form
Select Committees
Temporary congressional committees appointed for a specific purpose, such as impeachment investigations or the "Super Committee" on the Budget
Conference Committee
Temporary joint committee created to reconcile any differences between the two houses' versions of a bill.
President Pro Tempore
Temporary presiding officer of the Senate.
Executive Office of the President (EOP)
Ten organizations that advise the President. Includes the Office of Management and Budget, the Council of Economic Advisors, and National Security Council. Top positions must be confirmed by Senate.
Imperial Presidency
Term developed by historian *Arthur Schlesinger Jr.*; refers to presidents who dominate the political and legislative agenda.
Sampling Error
The % margin of error of a survey. Randomized polls accurate to 3%.
Supremacy Clause
The Federal constitution, laws, and treaties are the supreme law of the land. States cannot interfere with federal power (ex. McCulloch v. Maryland).
Executive Privilege
The President's self-declared power to keep executive communications confidential, especially if they relate to national security. Informal amendment to Constitution (by tradition). Can lead to conflict with other branches (Watergate).
Treaty Power
The ability of a president to negotiate treaties with foreign nations (requires ratification by 2/3 senate vote). Overshadowed by Executive Agreements.
Administrative Discretion
The ability of an agency to determine how it will execute (carry out) laws. Major source of independent power for agencies. (Ex. The FDA decides how to determine safety of food & drugs, the U.S. Attorneys decide whether or not to prosecute suspects)
Appeasement
The act of making concessions to a political or military rival.
Court Packing
The act of placing members of the same political party on the bench so that opinion of the court will be consistent with that of the political party; associated with *Franklin Roosevelt*.
McCarthyism
The act of seeking out subversives without cause or need (seen during the 1950s with Senator Joseph McCarthy in terms of the fear of Communism).
Lobbying
The act of trying to influence a politician or bureaucrat. Usually lobbyists are highly paid insiders with access to people in power (revolving door). Major weapon of corporate interest groups.
Negawatts
The amount of energy saved through conservation
Counter-Majoritarian Difficulty
The argument that judicial review is problematic because it allows unelected judges to overrule the decisions of elected representatives, thus undermining the will of the majority.
Military-Industrial Complex
The assumption that there is an alliance between the military and industrial leaders.
Spin
The attempt of politicians to cast their words & actions in the most flattering light (propaganda, distortion)
Appellate Jurisdiction
The authority of a court to review decisions of inferior (lower) courts; see *Original Jurisdiction*.
Loose Construction
The belief, first expressed by *Alexander Hamilton*, that the government can do anything that the Constitution does not specifically prohibit; see also the *Elastic Clause*.
Biofuels
The biggest recent news in biomass energy (examples: ethanol and biodiesel)
Outputs
The binding decisions that a political system makes, whether in the form of laws, regulations, or judicial decisions.
Work
The capacity to move an object over a distance
Define the carbon cycle.
The carbon cycle is a cycle that shows how carbon atoms are passed from one organism to another and to their environment as they live,breathe,eat die and decay.
Devolution Revolution
The effort to reduce the size & power of the federal government by returning (devolving) power to the states. Associated with economic conservatives, President Reagan & the Tea Party.
Burger Court
The description given the United States Supreme Court from 1969 to 1986 (led by *Chief Justice Warren Burger*). It was expected that the "Burger Court" would become a conservative court under Warren Burger and reverse many of the liberal rulings of the earlier *Warren Court*.
Rehnquist Court
The description given the United States Supreme Court from 1986 to the present (led by Chief William H. Rehnquist). It is marked by its conservative rulings, cutting back on the rights of the accused and expanding the concept of federalism.
Warren Court
The description of the United States Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice Earl Warren) from 1953 to 1969 which became the symbol of judicial activism and which handed down many landmark decisions on desegregation, civil rights, First Amendment freedoms, and the rights of criminal defendants
Political Participation
The different ways an average citizen gets involved in the political process ranging from conventional means of influencing government to more radical unconventional tools that have influenced our elected officials.
Effective Dose-50% (ED50)
The dose that affects 50 percent of the population (with a response other than death)
Lethal Dose-50% (LD50)
The dose that is lethal to 50 percent of the population
Gerrymandering
The drawing of district boundaries by the state legislature to benefit a party, group, or incumbents. Major types are political & racial.
Speaker of the House
The leader of the majority party and presiding officer of the House of Representatives. Key role in assigning bills to committee and members to committees & setting party's legislative agenda
Civil Rights Act of 1964
The legislative act that removed racial barriers in all places vested with a public interest. *Constitutional Connection:* Fourteenth Amendment Fifteenth Amendment
Deregulation
The lifting of government rules & restrictions on business, industry, and professional activities; major goal of Republicans
Nuclear reactor
The location within a nuclear power plant where nuclear chain reactions occur
Appellant
The losing party in a court case who appeals the case to an appellate court.
district courts
The lowest federal courts where federal cases begin. They are the only federal courts where trials are held.
National Convention
The meeting of party delegates every four years to choose a presidential ticket and write the party's platform. Brokered Convention occurs if no candidate has won a majority of delegates in state primaries & caucuses.
Narrowcasting
The modern media trend for TV and radio shows to target very narrow ideological audiences (ex. conservatives watch Glenn Beck and Bill O'Reilly); results in greater political polarization
Favorite Son
The presidential candidate backed by the home state at the party's nominating convention.
Separation of Powers
The principle of dividing governmental powers among different branches of government to protect against tyranny (Federalist 51).
Flexible Construction
The principle, established by Chief Justice Marshall in 1819 in *McCulloch v. Maryland*, that the Constitution must be interpreted flexibly to meet changing conditions.
Ratification
The procedure followed by the states to approve the Constitution and/or its formal amendments.
Marking Up
The process by which a congressional committee debates, amends, and/or rewrites bills.
Nomination Process
The process by which a political party nominates ("selects") a candidate to run in a general election.
Political Socialization
The process by which individuals acquire (absorb) a sense of political identity (beliefs & behaviors). Key agents of socialization include family, media, peers. Process can be informal (family) or formal (APGOPO)
Congressional Districting
The process by which state legislatures draw congressional districts for states with more than one representatives; see *Gerrymandering*.
Reapportionment
The process in which a state legislature redraws congressional districts based on population increases or declines.
Coevolution
The process in which changes in the traits of one population lead to changes in another species
Dematerialization
The process in which fewer materials are used in the creation of a product
Hydrology
The study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water throughout the Earth Pertaining to water cycling in the environment
Why does reaction rate level off after a point with an increase in enzyme concentration?
The substrate becomes limiting factor and not all enzyme molecules can find substrate and the maximum rate of reaction occurs. There is more enzyme than substrate.
Stay
The temporary delay of punishment, usually in capital offenses
Primary Frontloading
The tendency of states to move their primaries & caucuses earlier in the calendar in order to maximize their impact on nomination process (bandwagon effect).
Iron Triangle
The three-way alliance among legislators, bureaucrats, and interests groups to make or preserve policies that benefit their respective interests.
senatorial courtesy
The tradition by which the Senate will not confirm a district court judge if the senator who is from that state and of the president's party objects.
Steam produced from the heat generated by nuclear fission is used to turn the blades of the_____ in a nuclear power plant.
Turbine
Which of the following is a drawback of the run-of-river approach to hydroelectric power?
This approach is not very reliable from season to season.
Which of the following is a drawback associated with the use of biomass energy?
Unsustainable wood harvesting can lead to deforestation, soil erosion, and desertification
Declaration of Independence
Thomas Jefferson's statement of political liberalism (limited government to protect life liberty and pursuit of happiness; right to revolution).
Incumbents
Those elected officials who are running for new terms of office.
Concurrent Powers
Those powers which are exercised independently by both the national and state governments. Those powers shared by both levels of governments, i.e., state and national. *Examples:* Maintain law & order Levy tax Provide for the general welfare
Funded Mandates
Those regulations passed by Congress or issued by regulatory agencies to the states with federal funds to support them.
Council of Economic Advisors
Three economic experts to help president understand and develop economic policy; must be confirmed by senate
Lemon Test
Three-prong test used to determine the constitutionality of a government action under the *Establishment Clause.* *Constitutional Connection:* First Amendment *Supreme Court Cases:* Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971)
Bioaccumulate
To accumulate, as a substance in an individual organism
Federalist 10
Topic = factions (interest groups); minority factions controlled by majority; majority faction controlled by greater size of USA + virtuous leaders
Unwritten Constitution
Traditions, precedent, and practice incorporated into our form of government that adds to the Constitution's elasticity and its viability. Political parties, the president's cabinet, political action committees, and the federal bureaucracy are important examples.
Clear-cutting
Tree harvesting technique where loggers cut down all trees in a plot and burn the remaining material
Strip cutting
Tree harvesting technique where loggers cut down trees in narrow strips that are left to reseed
Shelter wood cutting
Tree harvesting technique where loggers remove poor-quality trees, and remaining (healthy) trees reseed
Selective cutting
Tree harvesting technique where loggers remove selected trees
Motor Voter Act (1993)
Tried to increase voter turnout by allowing voter registration at same time as getting or renewing driver's license. Increased the registration rate, but not the voter turnout rate (people still apathetic or not motivated to vote)
In terms of species diversity and complexity, a coral reef would be similar to which terrestrial biome?
Tropical rainforest
Source separation
Type of Recycling Separation of products from MSW for recycling at their source of generation, often a household)
Centralized Resource Recovery Plant
Type of Recycling Plant Location at which MSW can be separated at a principal location Capital-intensive process in which separation occurs at one location, reducing need for cooperation
Biodiesel
Type of biomass energy Animal fat / vegetable oil that is refine to remove glycerin; meant to replace diesel
ENTOMB
Type of decommissioning of nuclear plants where plant is encased in concrete or another substance until radioactive components decay to stable elements
Which of the following countries has the most nuclear power plants?
U.S.
Which of the following is true regarding nuclear power plants?
U.S. public opinion regarded nuclear power as unsafe after Three Mile Island and Chernobyl.
Entropy
Uncertainty or randomness
Amp
Unit of measure of electric current Amount of electricity passing by given point per unit in time
9th Amendment
Unenumerated Rights Amendment. Citizens have unenumerated rights in addition to those stated in the Constitution. Not been developed by Supreme Court (too open ended)
US v. Morrison (2000)
Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) unconstitutional because it exceeded Congress' commerce clause power. With Lopez v. United States, two recent cases checking commerce clause growth of federal power (unchecked since New Deal). Next up: Obamacare.
Party Platforms
Voted on by the delegates attending the National Convention, they represent the ideological point of view of a political party.
Ticket Splitting
Voting for one party for one office and for another party for other offices. Frequent among independent voters; leads to divided government.
E-waste
Waste from electronics Includes: Cadmium (used in batteries), Mercury (used in electric thermostats), Lead (used in glass monitors), PCBs (widely used until 1970s in electrical equipment of all kinds)
Municipal Solid Waste
Waste from residences and businesses that includes durable good, non-durable goods, containers and packaging, food wastes and yard trimmings, and miscellaneous inorganic wastes
Characteristic Waste
Wastes that can ignite, corrode, react, or are toxic Wastes that don't fit into other categories
Ammonia
Water Pollutant Colorless gas with strong smell Originates at pig & poultry farms, where it can run off the land into surface water
Lead
Water Pollutant Exists naturally in environment & can enter water supply from natural deposits Erodes/older plumbing corrodes Can delay physical & mental development in kids, and can cause kidney problems & high blood pressure No safe level in water
Sodium
Water Pollutant Exists naturally in environment & dissolves easily in water Water treatment systems & effluent from sewage also contribute to this 1 long-term effect of exposure is high blood pressure
Altrazine
Water Pollutant Ingredient in herbicides & can run off crops & enter water supply Can cause cardiovascular problems & reproductive problems
Mercury
Water Pollutant Liquid metal that exists naturally in environment Enter water from natural deposits, discharge from factories, runoff from landfills & agricultural lands 1 long term effect of exposure = kidney damage
Arsenic
Water Pollutant Mineral that exists along fault lines & used in industrial processes Linked to number of forms of cancer (bladder, lung, skin, kidney, liver, prostate cancer) Also has non-cancerous side effects (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea)
Uranium
Water Pollutant Radioactive mineral that exists naturally in environment & can erode from natural deposits to enter water supply Raises risks of cancer & creates toxicity in liver
Nitrates
Water Quality Indicator A type of nutrient Sources: Fertilizer runoff from farms, lawn fertilizer, leaky septic tanks, animal waste
Temperature
Water Quality Indicator Measurement in degrees Celsius Sources: controlled mainly by sunlight and temperature of surrounding land
Fecal Coliform
Water Quality Indicator present in mammal and bird feces
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Water Quality Indicator the amount of oxygen used by microorganisms in aerobic oxidation
Nonpolar covalent bond
a covalent bond where the electrons are shared equally
Spoiler Effect
When a 3rd party candidate takes enough votes away from one of the main party candidates to make him/her lose the election. Ex., Ralph Nader & Green Party may have caused Al Gore to lose 2000 election to George Bush.
Reporting Out
When a committee finishes the mark-up of a bill and sends it to the senate or house for debate, consideration, and final passage.
Redistricting Process
When a state legislature or independent commission draws new House district lines (if gain/loss of seats after reapportionment process based on census every ten years)
Why does reaction rate level off after a point with an increase in substrate concentration?
When enzymes are saturated with substrate, all of the active sites are engaged and the maximum rate of reaction occurs.
How does a change in pH affect enzyme activity?
When pH goes up or down out of the optimal range, H-bonding is disrupted with the addition or removal of H+ ions and the 2° & 3° structure is destroyed and the protein denatures.
What happens in decay?
When plants and animals die,their bodies are decomposed by decomposers to form ammonium compounds in the soil. Animal wastes are also decomposed.
Divided Government
When policymaking institutions of government (President, Senate, House) are divided among the parties (e.g., Democratic President, Republican Congress). Requires more compromise; can lead to gridlock.
Non-Preferential Primary
Where voters choose delegates who are not bound to vote for the winning primary candidate.
Solar radiation makes several other energy sources possible, including ________.
Wind Energy
What is the important of plants in the carbon cycle?
Without plants,the carbon stays in the atmosphere and cannot be reused and incorporated into the bodies of animals.
Concurring Opinion
Written explanation of the views of one or more appellate judges who support a decision reached by majority of the court but disagree with the grounds for that decision.
Dissenting Opinion
Written explanation of the views of one or more judges who disagree with a decision reached by a majority of the court.
Federalist Papers
Written in 1788 by Madison, Hamilton, and Jay to support ratification of the Constitution. Fed 10 (factions) & Fed 51 (separation of powers, checks & balances)
Deficit
Yearly shortfall between revenue and spending.
How can you "overcome" a noncompetitive inhibitor?
You increase the substrate concentration so that it will out compete the inhibitor for the enzyme's active site.
Logrolling
You support my bill, I'll support yours. Trading favors by legislators to help pass their bills.
Hydrosphere
Zone that includes all waters on Earth (including oceans, lakes, rivers, stream, water vapor)
Ion
a charged particle
Methane
a chemical compound with the formula CH4. Main component of natural gas
Polar covalent bond
a covalent bond where one element has a slight positive charge and the other has a slight negative charge; the unequal sharing of electrons
brief
a document containing the legal written arguments in a case filed with a court by a party prior to a hearing or trial.
What is enzyme cooperativity?
a kind of allosteric regulation where an enzyme becomes more receptive to bonding with additional substrate molecules after one substrate molecule attaches to an active site; ex once hemoglobin bonds one oxygen molecule, it is easier for the other three to bond
Ohm's Law
a law that relates electric current, voltage, and resistance Total current (in amps shown as I) that will flow in circuit can be calculated by dividing voltage (V) applied to circuit by total resistance (R) I = V/R
What is a competitive inhibitor?
a molecule that competes with the substrate to bind in the active site of an enzyme.
Milankovitch Theory
a theory to explain variations in climate are a result of 1) eccentricity, shape of Earth's orbit around the sun; 2) obliquity, the angle that Earth's axis makes in the plane of Earth's orbit; 3) precession, the change in the direction of Earth's axis of rotation Developed by Milutin Milankovitch
What disabled the emergency power generators at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant in Japan and led to the reactor meltdowns?
a tsunami
Kwashiorkor
a type of undernutrition resulting from a lack of protein Accompanied by: • Thin legs & arms • Swollen abdomen • Weak & passive demeanor
Superfund Sites
abandoned sites w/ hazardous waste
Resistance
ability of a substance to prevent electrical flow
Sustainability
ability to maintain function, state of being, processes
Disease
abnormal condition or impairment of health
Hotspot
area of high levels of biodiversity that is threatened by human activities
Wetlands
areas that are completely saturated w/ water during at least part of the year; may have standing water or saturated soil Includes: marshes, swamps, bogs, fens Ecosystem Services: Habitat, Filters water, recharge aquifers, provide flood & erosion control
What happens in leaching?
as rain water passes through the soil on its way to rivers, it carries with it dissolved nitrates and other soil nutrients.
Leachate
as trash decomposes, liquid that is formed that seeps out of garbage
rule of four
at least four justices of the supreme court must vote to consider a case before it can be heard.
methane hydrate
at methane seeps, high water pressure and low temperature "freezes" the bubbling methane into icy material
Marbury v. Madison
case in which the Supreme Court first asserted the power of judicial review by finding that the congressional statute extending the Court's original jurisdiction was unconstitutional. Through the supremacy clause.
Competitive Exclusion Principle
biological principle that states that specific niche in environment can be occupied by only 1 species at time
Carbamates
broad-spectrum pesticide, including carbaryl (Sevin) widely used and are less persistent than chlorinated hydrocarbons, but still can affect the nervous system and cause birth defects Derived from nerve gas, but less toxic
Bioaccumulation
buildup of chemical within bodies of organisms
One way the oil industry is decreasing the environmental impacts of drilling is __________.
by directional drilling
Biodiesel ________.
can be used in vehicles with diesel engines without engine modification
Toxic
capable of causing adverse health effects
What can be used to lower the amount of energy to start a chemical reaction?
catalyst
Evolution
change in allele frequencies (genetic material) over time
Secondary Succession
changes in community begging w/ disturbance; soil is already present in the beginning
Primary Succession
changes in community beginning with new/barren habitat; must begin with bare rock
Succession
changes in community over time in terms of numbers & distribution of species
+1
charge of ions in first family
-2
charge of ions in the 16th (or 6th) family
Symbiotic Relationship
close, long term interaction b/t species
The process in which biomass is combined with coal and burned in a high-efficiency boiler is called __________.
co-firing
The three fossil fuels that we use today to meet our energy needs are __________.
coal, natural gas, and crude oil
civil law
codes of behavior related to the conduct and relationship between individuals or groups.
criminal law
codes of behavior related to the protection of property and individual safety.
Which of the following methods for conservation allows businesses and homes to make use of wasted heat from traditional heating and cooling systems?
cogeneration
Eco-justice
collection of movements, some of which are anti-consumerist, that fight global inequities in terms of distribution of wealth and environmental problems
Groups/families
columns on the periodic table
Metalloid
combination of metal and nonmetal characteristics
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
combines the use of a variety of biological, cultivation, and natural pesticide controls specifically managed to address the needs of an individual farm and/or crop GOAL: to learn more about pests and to decrease amount of pesticides
Evapotranspiration
combo of transpiration & evaporation
Julie has decided to become more environmentally friendly and turns off all her lights when they are not in use and unplugs all her electronic devices at night. This is an example of __________.
energy conservation
Solar
energy from sunlight
Carrying capacity
community that given ecosystem can sustain over long term; can be calculated by averaging high & low of population
Hydrocarbons
compounds made up of chains of carbon atoms with hydrogen bonded to them
Sustainable Development
concept that sustainable methods for meeting humans needs & wants are possible
Sick building syndrome
condition in which the occupants or residents of a building become acutely sick because of the building, but no specific illness or cause can be found
Building-related illness
condition in which the occupants or residents of a building become acutely sick with a diagnosable illness attributed to indoor air pollutants in the building
calorie
energy to increase temperature of 1g of water by 1 degree C
Peroxyacyl Nitrates (PANs)
products of a reaction between peroxyacyl radicals and nitrogen dioxide that uses UV light as a catalyst
Gift economy
economy in which goods and services are regularly given without a promise of monetary payment
Greenhouse Effect
effect that is produced as a result of greenhouse gases allowing radiation from the sun to enter the atmosphere, but not to leave
Although hydroelectric dams generate electricity without producing greenhouse gases, they ________.
eliminate farmland, wildlife habitats, and sometimes even villages in regions that are flooded
Energy Efficiency
employing technology to use less energy
Biofuels and nuclear power may prove useful as ________.
energies to bridge the time between fossil fuel depletion and new renewables
How are phosphates incorporated into the organic molecules in aquatic plants and animals?
fish scales
The process currently used to generate nuclear power is __________.
fission
Electricity from nuclear power plants is produced via ________.
fission of uranium atoms by bombarding them with neutrons
The giant panda is considered to be a _________________ species.
flagship
anabolic reactions
form bonds between molecules; requires an input of energy Ex. dehydration synthesis
water power
form of stored solar energy: climate dictates flow of water and sun determines climate, applicable for hydroelectric + hydro pump
Li3N
formula for lithium (Li) and nitrogen (N)
NaCl
formula for sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl)
Globally, more than 80% of all primary energy for today's economies comes from ________.
fossil fuels
Double Bond
four electrons are shared between elements
Coal can be converted into a cleaner burning gas by combining it with oxygen and steam at a high temperature through the process of __________.
gasification
Sluice gate
gate used in a channel used to control rates of water flow
Silica Gel
gel made out of silica, which can cause insects to dehydrate One of the least toxic pesticides
Active solar systems
generally pump a heat-absorbing, fluid medium (air, water, or an antifreeze solution) through a relatively small collector, rather than passively collecting heat in a stationary medium like masonry
Pesticide Cons
genetic resistance, ecosystem imbalance, pesticide treadmill, persistence, bioaccumulation and biomagnifications, can runoff, can kill unintended species
Tectonic Plates
giant slabs on rock that sit on asthenosphere
Effects attributed to Chernobyl ________.
include increased incidence of thyroid cancers
nonrenewable energy
includes nuclear and geothermal energy, nuclear requires material & geothermal requires heat from Earth
The objective of a species recovery plan is to
increase an endangered species population until it is no longer endangered.
Biomagnify
increase in strength of a substance as it's absorbed by organisms further up the food chain
The heavy levels of soot from the electrical plant upwind of Soweto, along with dust from gigantic mine dumps from gold and coal mines, created particulate pollution more than three times the recommended level. This would be expected to result in ________.
increased incidence of lung disease
Kilowatt-hour
kilowatts x hours
Hydropower uses the __________ energy of water to generate electricity.
kinetic
Xeriscaping
landscaping using native plants, which minimize the need for additional water
Sand
larger soil particles (0.05 - 2.0 mm)
Judiciary Act of 1789
legislative act that established the basic three-tiered structure of the federal court system. Federal district courts at the bottom, then circuit courts, then the Supreme Court.
Frequently the chemical reactions of life are organized into _____________ pathways where the chemical reactions are divided into___________.
metabolic; many small steps
Natural gas is primarily composed of ________.
methane
Which fossil fuel is produced as a by-product that occurs when bacteria decompose organic material under anaerobic conditions?
methane
Both pyrolysis and gasification are ways of producing ________ from ________.
methane and diesel fuels; biomass
What is the induced fit model of enzyme action?
more accurate model of enzyme action than lock and key model; occurs when the substrate binds to the active site, the enzyme undergoes a conformation change in shape leading to a tighter fit between enzyme and substrate; this conformational change brings the chemical groups into position for the reaction
In general, funding for recovery programs is given to species that are
most well known.
Urbanization
movement of human beings to cities
Infiltration
movement of water through soil
Freeganism
movement that emphasizes avoiding the consumer economy through using wasted products and services
Anti-consumerism
movement that rebels against consumerism or the equation of happiness with consumption of goods and services)
Mobile sources
moving sources of pollution EX: Cars, planes
One of the problems with finding new fossil fuel deposits in developing countries is that ________.
multinational companies often move in to harvest the new deposit, and very little money or resource remains in the country
Endemic species
native species found in 1 particular place
Climax
natural & stable community that is the endpoint of succession
liquefied natural gas
natural gas that has been converted to liquid form for transport or storage
geothermal energy
natural heat from interior of the Earth, converted to heat buildings & make electricity
Mineral
naturally occurring, inorganic solid w/ specific chemical & crystalline structure Two ways to form: crystallization in magma or evaporation from supersaturated solution
Ecological Benefits of Forests
o Producing oxygen & sequestering (storing) carbon o Developing soil o Providing habitat for many species o Reducing surface water runoff in watersheds, which prevents erosion o Creating shade & windbreaks o Reducing severity of floods o Aiding in recharge of aquifers
What is feedback inhibition? Why is it necessary?
occurs when a final product in a metabolic pathway inhibits an earlier step to prevent the accumulation of a product in a cell
What is irreversible inhibition? Name two types of irreversible inhibition.
occurs when an inhibitor irreversibly binds to an enzyme 1. competitive inhibitor- binds to active site 2. allosteric inhibitor - binds to allosteric site and permanently changes the shape of the enzyme
Biomagnification
occurs when toxic substances that are present in small amounts in organisms low in food chain are concentrated in larger amounts in organisms high in the chain
Natural gas is ________.
often associated with coal and petroleum deposits
senatorial courtesy
process by which presidents generally defer selection of district court judges to the choice of senators of their own party who represent the state where the vacancy occurs.
Land preservation
process in which an area of land is protected and kept in its current (usually undeveloped) state
Volt
potential difference, or difference in energy per unit charge as a charge moves between two paths in a current = Watts/Amps
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
potentially toxic gases emitted by certain organic solids and liquids organic compounds that can evaporate readily from solid or liquid form
judicial review
power of the courts to review acts of other branches of government and the states
noise pollution
presence of unwanted noise
Water pollution
presence of unwanted substance in water
air pollution
presence of unwanted substances in air
Soil conservation
preserving soil from being eroded & degraded by pollution
Survivorship
probability of individuals in pop surviving to particular ages
Sink
process & location that acts to remove/absorb substance in system
Natural Resources
resources existing in nature
Manufactured Capital
resources such as tools/factories
Orographic Effect
result of air ascending 1 side of mountain, cooling, condensing, & bringing precipitation to other side of mountain as it descends
What happens to phosphate when plants and animals die?
returns to lake
Magnetic Reversals
reversals in magnetic field of earth
Perceived benefit
rewards that human beings think may occur from an action or activity
Upwelling
rise of cold, nutrient rich water to the surface of the ocean
Niche
roll organism play in environment
Period
rows on the periodic table
Pesticide Pros
saves lives from insect-transmitted disease increases food supply and safety of food increases profits for farmers
Open System
system that can exchange matter w/ environment
Closed system
system that cannot exchange matter w/ environment
Economy
system that produces, distributes, & consumes goods/services
Progressive Tax
tax based upon the amount of money an individual earned, such as an income tax. Became legal as a result of the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution.
photovoltaics
technology that converts sunlight directly into electricity, uses solar panels to capture energy
What biome is characterized by moderate temperatures and abundant precipitation?
temperate rainforest
solicitor general
the fourth-ranking member of the Department of Justice; responsible for handling nearly all appeals on behalf of the US government to the Supreme Court.
Covalent bond
the sharing of electrons between two or more elements
Ionic bond
the transfer of electrons from one element to another; a bond between two oppositely charged elements
Many developed nations have their economies closely tied to imported fossil fuels. One important consideration for those nations is that ________.
their economy can be disrupted by the events and decisions made in fuel exporting nations
The temperature boundary in freshwater lakes is the
themocline
High Energy Intensity
there's high cost in converting energy into GDP
Low Energy Intensity
there's low cost in converting energy into GDP
Single Bond
two electrons are shared between elements
Chronic acidification
type of acid deposition that occurs over a long period of time
Episodic acidification
type of acid deposition that occurs over a short period of time
Sustainable forest management
type of forest management that attempts to meet needs of today & anticipate needs/availability of forest resources for tomorrow
Hydrogen bonds
type of molecular attraction in which a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an electronegative atom (e.g., O, N, F) in one molecule is attracted to an electronegative atom in a different molecule or in another part of the same molecule
Marasmus
type of undernutrition resulting from lack of protein and calories accompanied by thinness & gnawing hunger; active & alert
Reproductively isolated
unable to interbreed under normal circumstances to produce fertile offspring
Aquifer
underground layer of porous rock in which water collects
Watt
unit of power = joule/second = Amps x Volts
wind power
use of wind mills to create power, form of stored solar energy b/c sun dictates wind patterns
Secondary extraction of petroleum ________.
uses solvents, water, or steam
What is the optimum pH range for most human enzymes?
usually pH 6-8, but there are exceptions like the enzymes in your stomach
Gross National Product
value of everything produced by nation's residents, no matter where they live
Southern Oscillation
variation in air pressure b/t tropical eastern & western Pacific ocean
Soil profile
vertical cross-section of soil from the surface of Earth to the parent material underneath
Second Law of Thermodynamics
when energy is transformed, some useful energy is degraded into a less useful form, like heat
Tailings
waste material remaining after smelting, which can be up to 80 percent of the original substance
Gray Water
wastewater from sinks, showers, and laundry, which can be treated and reused for landscape water
tidal power
water power derived from ocean tides, does have impacts on ocean ecosystem
Runoff
water that falls as precipitation on surface & flows over surface to water bodies; surface movement of water
Precipitation
water that falls from clouds in form of rain, snow, sleet, hail
Rural Domestic and Livestock
water that is used for livestock 9.05 bill gallons/day
Public Supply
water that's used in homes & public uses, like fighting fires, watering public parks, supply public swimming pools w/ water 43.3 bill gallons/day
Greenhouse Gases
water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and chlorofluorocarbons These absorb infrared radiation emitted by Earth's surface & re-radiate some of infrared energy in all directions
Reproductive strategy
way a species uses its energy to produce offspring, helps determine fertility rates
The main reason that there are relatively few invertebrates categorized as endangered species is because
we consider other groups, such as mammals, to be more interesting and desirable.
Lithosphere
zone includes Earth's crust & upper mantle
One of the promises made by the government in 1994 was "free electricity." Since 2003 the government has provided a small amount of electricity free to each household. Beyond that, a household must pay for the electricity that it uses. Many people would prefer a flat‑rate pricing system, where each household throughout greater Johannesburg would pay the same rate each month. This would mean that ________.
with less incentive to keep electric usage low, environmental issues related to the generation of electricity would worsen
Tidal Station
works like a hydropower dam, with its turbines spinning as the tide flows through them
Atmosphere
zone includes all gases (mostly nitrogen & oxygen) that exists above Earth's surface
Consent of the Governed
A derivative of the doctrine of natural rights; a philosophy, later adopted by Jefferson when he drafted the Declaration of Independence that puts the authority of the government in the people's hands.
Class Action Suit
A lawsuit filed on behalf of a group of persons with a similar legal claim against a party or individual.
Bills of Attainder
A legislative act, illegal without a judicial trial, that inflicts punishment on an individual or group for the purpose of suppressing that person or group.
Certificate
A method of putting a case before the United States Supreme Court; used when a lower court is not clear about the procedure or the rule of law that should apply in a given case and asks the Supreme Court to certify the answer to a specific question.
Blanket Primary
A nominating election in which voters may switch from one political party's primary to another on an office-to-office basis; see *Direct Primary*.
Conservative
A person who believes government power, particularly in the economy, should be limited in order to maximize individual freedom; see also *Liberal*.
Ambassador
A personal representative appointed by the head of a nation to represent that nation in matters of diplomacy.
Elite Theory
A perspective holding that society is ruled by a small number of people who exercise power in their self-interest; see also *Pluralism*.
Cooperative Federalism
Described as various levels of government which are seen as related parts of a single governmental system, characterized more by cooperation and shared functions than by conflict and competition; also called *Marble Cake Federalism*.
Creative Federalism
Developed during *Lyndon Johnson*'s administration, it was characterized by the *Great Society* programs, which placed a major responsibility on federally funded programs.
Constitutional Courts
Federal courts created by Congress under Article II of the Constitution. *Examples:* Court of Appeals U.S. Court of International Trade
Categorical Grants
Federal grants to states and local communities that are earmarked for specific purposes only, such as pollution control, schools, or hospitals. Also known *Grants-in-Aid*.
Block Grants
Federal grants to the states and local communities that are for general use in a broad area, such as community development.
Amicus Curiae Brief
Friend of the court; interested groups may be invited to file legal briefs supporting or rejecting arguments of the case.
Cabinet
Government departments headed by presidential appointees to help establish public policy and operate a specific policy area of governmental activity.
Coattail Effect
Influence that a popular candidate for a top office (e.g., President or governor) can have on the voters' support of other candidates of his/her party on the same ballot.
Committee Chairman
Member who heads a standing committee in a legislative body; selection relies heavily on party loyalty.
Concurrent Jurisdiction
Power shared by federal and state courts to hear certain cases.
De Facto Segregation
Segregation that exists "in fact," not as a result of laws or governmental actions, i.e., administered by the public; see de jure segregation, segregation.
De Jure Segregation
Segregation that exists as a result of some law or governmental action. *Examples:* Jim Crow Laws
