Ultimate AP US History Review

James K. Polk

11th president of the United States who was elected in fall 1844 and served one term; wanted to settle the Oregon boundary dispute with Britain, acquire California, and incorporate Texas into the union.

Thomas Jefferson

To-be third president of the United States; primary writer of the Declaration of Independence, although he heavily borrowed ideas from thinkers like John Locke and phrases from prior informal local declarations of independence

Pinckney's Treaty

Treaty between the US and Spain that gave Americans free navigation of the Mississippi and trade at New Orleans while also setting the Florida Georgia border at the 31st parallel (where the Americans initially wanted it); the Spanish also agreed to help stop Native cross-border raids

New Jersey Plan

Proposal that called for a one-house national legislature in which each state had one vote; was tabled but helped revise Virginia Plan to include an upper House of equal representation

National Road

Proposed by Albert Gallatin in 1811, it was built to connect the Potomac River to Ohio

Lecompton Constitution

Proposed governing document for Kansas the supported the existence of slavery in the state and protected rights of slaveholders. It was rejected by Kansas, making Kansas an eventual free state.

Wilmot Proviso

Proposed rider on an appropriations bill, made by David ______ that would ban slavery in all new territory acquired from Mexico in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. This amendment passed the House twice, but failed to ever pass in Senate.

Kent State Massacre

Protests led to this event in which the Ohio National Guard was called in and shot students (four killed, nine injured) because they burned the ROTC building while protesting the extension of the Vietnam War into Cambodia. It occurred on May 4th, 1970, in the namesake town and university in Ohio.

Free Speech Movement

Started in 1964 at the University of California, Berkeley by students like Mario Salvo, this movement protested against limits on passing out literature that commented on or promoted particular views of political thinking. They questioned university and the society that created it and this signaled the beginning of numerous campus protests: People's Park protest (in 1969) was the longest campus protest.

right to work laws

State laws that forbid unions from collecting dues or requiring membership of workers in their corresponding industry.

Intervention in Kosovo

Province of Serbia that the Serbs did not want to lose (after losing Bosnia and Croatia to the Dayton Peace Accords). Their population is mostly Albanian Muslims. After the Serbs invaded and committed, on some accounts, war crimes on the Albanians, NATO came in initially with a bombing campaign followed by a full blown intervention and managed to mediate peace.

Noah Webster

"Schoolmaster of the Republic" who rote reading primers and texts for school use; was most famous for his dictionary, first published in 1828, which standardized the English language in America.

Iranian Revolution

(1978-1979) A rebellion against the Shah (Mohammad Reza Pahlavi) led by the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, which resulted in the country becoming an Islamic republic with Khomeini as its leader.

Escobedo v. Illinois

1964 ruling by the Warren Court that a defendant must be allowed access to a lawyer before questioning by the police.

writ of habeas corpus

A court order requiring police or jailers to explain to a judge why they are holding a prisoner in custody.

Theocracy

A government controlled by religious leaders

Ho Chi Minh Trail

A network of paths used by North Vietnam to transport supplies, troops, etc. to the Vietcong in South Vietnam. Some of the paths extended into Cambodia and Laos, and were used by the US as justification for covert action in those two countries.

Covenant

A pact among the members of a new Puritan settlement in New England, binding all members to social unity and harmony and setting the basis for an eventual local government

Mestizos

A person of mixed Native American and European ancestry

Taylorism

A set of ideas, also referred to as "scientific management," developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor, involving simple, coordinated operations in industry to streamline the processes of mass production in which each worker repeatedly performs one specific task.

task system

A system of slave labor under which a slave had to complete a specific assignment each day; after they finished, their time was their own; used primarily on rice plantations, especially in South Carolina

Middle Passage

A voyage that brought enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to North America, the West Indies, and South America from western Africa

Terrorism

Acts of violence designed to promote a specific ideology or agenda by creating panic among an enemy population.

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

An international oil cartel originally formed in 1960. It represents the majority of all oil produced in the world. It attempts to limit production to raise prices.

Radical Republicans

After the Civil War, a group led by Senators Charles Sumner and Thaddeus Stevens who believed the South should be harshly punished and thought that Lincoln was sometimes too compassionate towards the South. They also advocated for freedmen's rights (including suffrage and even inheriting the land from plantations) and a demanding reconstruction policy.

Arab Oil Embargo

After the U.S. backed Israel in its war (Yom Kippur War) against Syria and Egypt, which had been trying to regain territory lost in the Six-Day War, the Arab nations imposed an oil embargo, which strictly limited oil in the U.S. and caused a crisis. As a result, the US convinced Israel to halt their advance into Syria and let go of the Sinai Peninsula in order to avoid a prolonged embargo.

War Industries Board

Agency established during WWI to increase efficiency & discourage waste in war-related industries. It oversaw the purchase of war supplies. It determined priorities, allocated raw materials, fixed prices, chose companies to fulfill contract, designated factories for conversion to production of certain goods, and told manufacturers what they could and could not produce. Especially effective under the control of Wall Street financier Bernard Baruch, it in reality was plagued by mismanagement and inefficiency; however raw US economic power kept it successful. It helped many businesses earn big during the war, and taught them the potential use of cooperating closely with the government.

Tories

American term for the loyalists

Manassas

Another name for Bull Run

Geronimo

Apache leader and successor to Cochise who fought U.S. soldiers and raided white settlements to keep his land. He led a revolt of 4,000 of his people after they were forced to move to a reservation in Arizona. Eventually, as his troops and band members died or deserted to the reservation, he was forced to surrender.

Chester A. Arthur

Appointed customs collector for the port of New York, he was corrupt and implemented a heavy spoils system. He was chosen as Garfield's running mate to satisfy the Stalwarts in the party. Garfield won but was shot, so this man became the 21st president. However, he ended up implement civil-service reforms that were like that those Garfield wished for (Pendleton Act), turning his back on the Stalwarts.

Robert Dole

Attorney and retired United States Senator from Kansas (1969-1996) and longest serving Republican leader. He was the 1996 presidential nominee for the Republican party but lost to Bill Clinton.

Democracy in America

Book by Alexis de Tocqueville commenting on how the aristocracy in America is not permanent, and on other effects of the American form of democracy; also notes the differing treatment of women, natives, and African Americans

William James

Born in 1842 (brother of author Henry), this Harvard psychologist helped start the concepts of functionalism (a doctrine that stresses the practical application of things) and pragmatism (the idea that modern society should rely for guidance not on inherited ideals and moral principles, such as those from religion, but on science and experience). He often studied how humans use perception to function in social environments.

Impressment

British practice of taking colonists and forcing them into military service

Viet Cong/National Liberation Front

By 1957 guerrilla forces who launched attacks on the Diem government. In 1960 the resistance groups coalesced as the national liberation front. They were funded and supplied from the North Vietnam by the Vietnam People's Army (the military of the North).

Don't Ask Don't Tell

Clinton managed to gain support for a compromise measure under which homosexual servicemen and servicewomen could remain in the military if they did not openly declare their sexual orientation. He was pushing for total allowance of homosexuals into the military but gave in to this compromise following conservative and military pressure. This policy was repealed under the Obama administration, which allowed gays and lesbians to enlist regardless.

Cult of Domesticity

Concept that the ideal woman was seen as a tender, self-sacrificing caregiver who provided a nest for her children and a peaceful refuge for her husband, social customs that restricted women to caring for the house

Manhattan Project

Code name for the U.S. effort during World War II to produce the atomic bomb. Much of the early research was done in New York City by refugee physicists in the United States. The testing was conducted primarily in New Mexico. It was led by Major General Leslie Groves of the US Army Corps of Engineers. Robert Oppenheimer oversaw the physical development of the bombs at the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico. Part of the technology was also developed at the Oak Ridge site in Tennessee, Hanford in Washington, and other locations.

Braxton Bragg

Confederate general during the American Civil War who was defeated by Grant in the Battle of Chattanooga (1817-1876); temporarily served as advisor to Davis regard war strategy

Whigs

Conservatives and popular with pro-Bank people, larger industrialists and merchants of the north, the commercial class of the west, and plantation owners; they mainly came from the National Republican Party, which was once largely Federalists; took their name from the British political party that had opposed King George during the American Revolution; policies included support of industry, protective tariffs, and Clay's American System; upper class in origin, they included Daniel Webster, Henry Clay, for a time John Calhoun, William Henry Harrison, and to a degree John Tyler

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

Constitutional amendment passed by Congress in 1971 but never ratified that would have banned discrimination on the basis of gender.

William Levitt

Created his namesake town -- the first "cookie cutter" suburb. He was an American real estate dealer. His innovations of providing affordable, mass-produced housing popularized the type of planned community building later known as suburbia.

New Freedom

Democrat Woodrow Wilson's political slogan in the presidential campaign of 1912; Wilson wanted to improve the banking system, lower tariffs, and, by breaking up monopolies, and give small businesses freedom to compete. Although similar to Roosevelt's New Nationalism policies in many respects, he differed in the belief that government should end trusts and monopolies instead of allow and regulate economic concentration.

Wernher von Braun

Developer of the V-2 rocket (more of a ballistic missile), he was a German-born engineer who became the United States' top rocket designer for NASA and the military's first ICBMs. Also the name of a song by Tom Lehrer to make fun of him.

Penicillin

Discovered by Alexander Fleming, it became perhaps the most commonly used antibiotic for the next few decades.

Okies

Displaced farm families from the Oklahoma Dust Bowl/Depression who migrated to California during the 1930s in search of jobs.

Forty-Niners

Easterners who flocked to California after the discovery of gold there. They established claims all over northern California and overwhelmed the existing government.

American System

Economic program advanced by Henry Clay that included support for a national bank, high tariffs, and internal improvements; emphasized strong role for federal government in the economy and the creation of industry and market for that industry within the United States

Simon Patten

Economist who argued that a fear of scarcity of goods caused people to value thriftiness, self-denial, and restraint in his works, "The Theory of Prosperity" (1902) and "The New Basis of Civilization" (1910). He continued with saying that modern economies could create the wealth to satisfy the desires of all people, and that at the time, America was in a transition stage from a "pain economy" of scarcity to a pleasure economy.

Election of 1840

Election between William Henry Harrison and Martin Van Buren; Buren lost due to the Panic of 1837 and Harrison won with the slogan Tippecanoe and Tyler too, portraying himself as a man of "log cabins and hard cider" vs. Van Buren as an elite aristocrat

Sagebrush Rebellion

Emerged in parts of the West in the late 70s, mobilized conservative opposition to environmental laws and restrictions on development. It also portrayed the West as a victim of government control. It demanded government-owned land to be opened for development. This movement called for an easing of regulations on economic development on federal land in the West and called for the transfer of some of that land to the state governments.

Separatists

English Protestants who would not accept allegiance in any form to the Church of England, and were the most radical of the Puritans. Included the Pilgrims and Quakers

George Whitefield

English clergyman who was known for his ability to convince many people through his sermons, especially on his tours through the English colonies. He involved himself in the Great Awakening in 1739 preaching his belief in gaining salvation.

Quakers

English dissenters who broke from Church of England, preached a doctrine of pacificism, inner divinity, and social equity; under William Penn they founded Pennsylvania

Independent Treasury

Established by Van Buren because he didn't want certain banks to have the unfair prestige of being a bank that deals with the federal government; removed by John Tyler

Roanoke

Established in 1587; often called the Lost Colony. It was financed by Sir Walter Raleigh, and its leader in the New World was John White.

Quebec Act

Extended boundaries of Quebec and granted equal rights to Catholics and recognized legality Catholic Church in the territory; colonists feared this meant that a pope would soon oversee the colonies, as rumors had spread that the Anglican Church was becoming closer to the Vatican; also angered by extended territory that was allowed for Catholics to settle

Judith Sargent Murray

Female rights activist following the revolution who argued that the brain is not a sex organ; wrote "On the Equality of Sexes"

Sputnik

First artificial Earth satellite, it was launched by Moscow in 1957 and sparked U.S. fears of Soviet dominance in technology and outer space. Followed a year later by the American Explorer I, it led to the creation of NASA and the space race.

Elijah Lovejoy

Former Presbyterian minister; established a reform paper: St. Louis Observer; moved to Alton, IL. (Alton Observer); against slavery and injustices inflicted against blacks; is a martyr for the anti-slavery movement for he was killed by a mob in 1835.

Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)

Founded in 1905, this radical union, also known as the Wobblies, aimed to unite the American working class into one union to promote labor's interests. It worked to organize unskilled and foreign-born laborers, advocated social revolution, and led several major strikes, all the while stressing solidarity.

Huguenots

French Protestants influenced by John Calvin

Stephen H. Long

Government sent him and 19 soldiers on a journey to Nebraska and Eastern Colorado, came back through what is now Kansas; subsequently published atlas with state and territory maps; erroneously dubbed Kansas the "Great Desert".

Spiro Agnew

Governor of Maryland who ran as Vice President with Richard Nixon in 1968. He was known for his tough stands against dissidents and black militants. He strongly supported Nixon's desire to stay in Vietnam. He was forced to resign in October 1973 after having been accused of accepting bribes or "kickbacks" from Maryland contractors while he was governor and Vice President.

Memorial Day Massacre

Happened on May 30th, 1937 when Steel Workers' Organizing Committee (a union recognized by US Steel but almost no other steel corporations) launched a strike. Workers and their families gathered for a picnic and demonstration - they were marching toward the Republic Steel plant in Chicago peacefully when the police opened fire - 10 were killed, and many others were hurt by clubs and tear gas.

Jonas Salk

He developed the polio vaccine in 1952, essentially helping to eradicate the disease

Wendell Willkie

He led the opposition of utilities companies to competition from the federally funded Tennessee Valley Authority. His criticism of Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt led to his dark-horse victory at the 1940 Republican Party presidential convention. After a vigorous campaign, he won only 10 states but received more than 22 million popular votes (45%), the largest number received by a Republican to that time.

Eugene V. Debs

Head of the American Railway Union and director of the Pullman strike; he was imprisoned along with his associates for ignoring a federal court injunction to stop striking. While in prison, he read Socialist literature and emerged as a Socialist leader in America.Head of the American Railway Union and director of the Pullman strike; he was imprisoned along with his associates for ignoring a federal court injunction to stop striking. While in prison, he read Socialist literature and emerged as a Socialist leader in America.

City Beautiful Movement

Historical event/trend in environmental urban design in the 1890s/1900s that drew directly from the Beaux Arts school. Architects from this movement strove to impart order, harmony, and virtue on hectic, industrial centers by creating urban spaces that conveyed a sense of morality and civic pride, which many feared was absent from the frenzied new industrial world. This improved the nation's new urban spaces with grand boulevards, welcoming parks, and monumental public buildings.

Mayflower Compact

In 1620, the first agreement for self-government in America. It was signed by the 41 men on the Mayflower and set up a government for the Plymouth colony.

USS Cole

In 2000, two suicide bombers in a small rubber boat nearly sank this billion dollar destroyer docked in Aden, Yemen. It was conducted by Al Qaeda.

Bay of Pigs

In April 1961, a group of Cuban exiles organized and supported by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency landed on the southern coast of Cuba at this location in an effort to overthrow Fidel Castro. When the invasion ended in disaster, President Kennedy took full responsibility for the failure.

Steelworkers Strike

In September 1919, the greatest strike in American history began, when 350,000 of these workers in several eastern and Midwestern cities walked off the job, demanding an eight-hour day (and also protesting the 'swing shift' from late afternoon through the night) and recognition of their union. Steel executives managed to keep most plants running with nonunion labor, and public opinion was so hostile to the strikers that the AFL-having at first endorsed the strike-soon timidly repudiated it. By January, the strike had collapsed. It was a setback from which organized labor would not recover for more than a decade.

Dumbarton Oaks Conference

In a meeting near Washington, D.C., held from August 21 to October 7, 1944, U.S., Great Britain, U.S.S.R. and China met to draft the constitution of the United Nations.

Virginia Resolves

In response to the 1765 Stamp Act, Patrick Henry persuaded the Virginia House of Burgesses to adopt several strongly worded resolutions that denied Parliament's right to tax the colonies. These resolutions persuaded many other colonial legislatures to adopt similar positions, and gave Virginia the reputation of being somewhat militant

Wounded Knee Protest

Incident that began on February 27, 1973, when approximately 200 Oglala Lakota and followers of the American Indian Movement (AIM) seized and occupied this town and site of a former massacre in South Dakota, on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. They were there to protest being forced into schools and taken off their land.

Hillary Rodham Clinton

Indirectly involved in policy-making and advocacy during her husband Bill's presidency, this former Senator of New York and Secretary of State under Obama ran for president herself in 2008 and 2016 (where she was nominated but subsequently lost to Donald Trump).

Cornelius Vanderbilt

Initially known as the Commodore for operating a ferry/shipping line between Central America and the western United States, he eventually sold his business and became a railroad owner who built a railway connecting Chicago and New York. He popularized the use of steel rails in his railroad, which made railroads safer and more economical.

Eli Whitney

Inventor of the cotton gin, which helped the southern cotton industry and prevented the end of slavery by making it profitable

Berlin Airlift

Joint effort by the US and Britain to fly food and supplies into West Berlin after the Soviets blocked off all ground routes into the city, following the agreement between the United Kingdom, France, and the United States to combine their zones into a united West Germany. It was a large success, and it ultimately led to Stalin calling off the blockade.

Stephen F. Austin

Known as the Father of Texas, he was an empresario who led the second and ultimately successful colonization of the region by bringing 300 families from the United States to Texas. Served as Texas Secretary of State.

Syngman Rhee

Korean leader who became president of South Korea after World War II and led the Republic of Korea during Korean War. He was a noncommunist military dictator.

Sitting Bull

Lakota Sioux medicine man, chief, and political leader of his tribe at the time of the Battle of Little Big Horn during the Sioux War. He was later killed by reservation police after they lost the war.

Pidgin

Language that may develop when two groups of people with different languages meet and has some characteristics of each language; it adopts a simplified grammar and limited vocabulary of a lingua franca, used for communications among speakers of two different languages.

Sheppard-Towner Act

Law passed by Congress in 1921 providing federal funding for maternity, prenatal, and child health-care programs and centers, which was a response to the lack of adequate medical care for women and children. It was opposed by Alice Paul, arguing that it classified all women as mothers, Margaret Sanger, arguing that the new programs would discourage birth-control, and the American Medical Association, which thought it would introduce untrained outsiders into the health-care field. It was terminated in 1929.

Sugar Act

Law passed by the British Parliament setting taxes on molasses, wine, and sugar imported by the colonies; was evaded via bribes and smuggling

Jimmy Hoffa

Leader of the Teamster's Union, he was anti-AFL/CIO. He threatened to defeat for reelection an Congressman who dared to vote for a tough labor law. He was charged and indicted with fraudulent use of the union pension fund by jury tampering. The case showed the worried nature of the United States. He later vanished.

League of Women Voters

League formed in 1920 advocating for women's rights, among them the right for women to serve on juries and equal pay laws. They regularly exercised their namesake right, and advocated for other women to do likewise.

Platt Amendment

Legislation that severely restricted Cuba's sovereignty and gave the US the right to intervene if Cuba got into trouble. Also gave the United States Navy control of Guantanamo Bay.

Sedition Act

Made it a crime to write, print, utter, or publish criticism of the president, government, or of US participation in the war - led to the arrest of many pacifists, especially socialists, members of the IWW, and feminists. Opponents claimed that it violated citizens' rights to freedom of speech and freedom of the press, guaranteed by the First Amendment.

Clara Barton

Most famous for being one of the founders of the American Red Cross in 1881; an "angel" in the Civil War, she treated the wounded in the field with the US Sanitary Commission

Greenbacks

Name for Union paper money not backed by gold or silver. Value would fluctuate depending on status of the war.

Treaty of Wang Hya

Negotiated by Caleb Cushing, it opened certain Chinese ports to American trade and gave Americans who committed crimes there the privilege of extraterritoriality

Collective bargaining

Negotiations between representatives of labor unions or an organized group of employees and management to determine pay and acceptable working conditions.

Wobblies

Nickname for members of the Industrial Workers of the World

Black Tuesday

October 29th, 1929, it was the day that the Stock Market crashed, leading to the Great Depression.

Suez Crisis

On July 26, 1956, Gamal Abdel Nasser (leader of Egypt) nationalized a canal for funding after US Secretary of State John Dulles withdrew funding for the Aswan High Dam on account that Nasser was too friendly with the Soviet Union. On October 29th, British, French and Israeli forces attacked Egypt through the Sinai Peninsula. The UN, surprisingly with US backing, denounced and forced the British to withdraw. It lowered the United Kingdom's status on the world stage and cemented Egypt's control over the namesake Canal.

Olive Branch Petition

On July 8, 1775, the colonies made this final offer of peace to Britain, agreeing to be loyal to the British government if it addressed their grievances (repealed the Coercive Acts, ended the taxation without representation policies); it was rejected by Parliament, which in December 1775 passed the American Prohibitory Act.

Sambo

One extreme of the stereotypes that white society held of slaves, it involved them acting according to how the white people expected them to: the shuffling grinning, head-scratching, deferential slave; this pattern of behavior was usually a charade assumed in the presence of whites

Oneida Community

One of the more radical utopian communities established in the nineteenth century in upstate New York, it advocated free love (everyone was technically married to each other) and communal raising of children.

Hydrogen bomb

One thousand more times more powerful than the atomic bomb. Truman ordered the development of it to outpace the Soviets. It is composed of a conventional fission-based first state, and a second stage which, fueled by the first stage, starts fusing heavy isotopes of the namesake element (deuterium and tritium), or nowadays, Lithium deuteride, into heavier elements, in the process releasing more neutrons and creating an ever larger reaction.

wets

Opponents of prohibition

New Right

Outspoken conservative movement of the 1980s that emphasized such "cultural, social, and moral issues" as opposition to abortion, the Equal Rights Amendment, pornography, homosexuality, and affirmative action. They arose in industrial democracies.

Declaration of Sentiments

Parody on the Declaration of Independence to include women and men (equal), it served as the grand basis of attaining civil, social, political, and religious rights for women; written at the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 and signed by the likes of Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Susan B. Anthony, and Frederick Douglass

National Security Act

Passed in 1947 in response to perceived threats from the Soviet Union after WWII. It established the Department of Defense (merged from the Departments of the Army and the Navy) and the Central Intelligence Agency (arising from the Office of Strategic Services - America's World War II intelligence service) and National Security Council (forum for the president, vice president, Secretary of State, Secretary of Defense, Secretary of Energy, Secretary of the Treasury, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Director of National Intelligence, Director of National Drug Policy, National Security Adviser, and others to discuss of national security and defense)

Tejanos

People of Mexican heritage who consider Texas their home.

Valley Forge

Place where Washington's army spent the winter of 1777-1778; a fourth of troops died here from disease and malnutrition; Baron von Steuben arrives to help train and discipline troops; Howe's failure to attack at this time helped prolong the Revolution

Townshend Duties

Popular name for the the Revenue Act of 1767, which taxed glass, lead, paint, paper and tea entering the colonies; was eventually repealed by Lord North later except for the duty on tea; helped incite anger among colonists

Coin's Financial School

Popular pamphlet written by William Hope Harvey that portrayed pro-silver arguments triumphing over the traditional views of bankers and economics professors. It portrayed a professor Coin making spectacular and convincing arguments regarding the superiority of silver to gold as a currency.

John and Charles Wesley

Powerful evangelists of the Great Awakening. The helped spread the message of the revival and founded Methodism. The two visited Georgia and other colonies in the 1730s.

Personal Liberty Laws

Pre-Civil War laws passed by Northern state governments to counteract the provisions of the Fugitive Slave Acts and to protect escaped slaves and free blacks settled in the North, by giving them the right to a jury trial; forbade the outright imprisonment of runaway slaves

Lord North

Prime Minister of England from 1770 to 1782. Although he repealed the Townshend Acts (except for the tea part), he generally went along with King George III's repressive policies towards the colonies even though he personally considered them wrong. In fact allowed colonies to tax themselves instead of Parliament in response to Congress's request to end the Coercive Acts, but was too late (shots fired). He hoped for an early peace during the Revolutionary War and resigned after Cornwallis' surrender in 1781.

Neo-conservatives

Principal concern was to reassert legitimate authority and reaffirm Western democratic, anticommunist values, commitments and "Win back the culture." They also believed that they shouldn't work to ease tensions with the Soviet Union and that the Vietnam war was positive and we should not have pulled out. They were supporters of free-market capitalism who questioned liberal welfare programs and affirmative-action policies, and called for reassertion of traditional values of individualism and the centrality of family.

Benjamin Franklin

Printer, author, inventor, diplomat, statesman, and Founding Father. One of the few Americans who was highly respected in Europe, primarily due to his discoveries in the field of electricity.

Recall

Procedure whereby voters can remove an elected official from office

Panic of 1819

Recession caused by land overspeculation/buying (many were using banks' willingness to loan to do this); when Bank of US tightened credit and called in loans, many foreclosures (followed by business closing and even some state banks failing) resulted; caused distrust in Bank of US

Tom Johnson

Reform mayor of Cleveland who sought to reduce political influence in public utilities, reduce streetcar fares, and increase public services for the average citizen

Great Awakening

Religious revival in the American colonies of the eighteenth century during which a number of new Protestant churches were established.

Mutiny Act (Quartering Act)

Required colonists to provide quarters and supplies for British soldiers. Many colonists had done that already, but the actual order was another loss of freedom due to a non-representative government

Caroline Affair

Residents of eastern Canada launched a rebellion against British, and in the process utilized an American steamship (namesake) to ship supplies across the Niagara River to them from New York; British authorities in Canada seized the ship and burned it, killing an American in the fight; the British refused to disavow the attack or provide compensation for it; authorities in New York arrested a Canadian in response and charged him with the murder of the American; the British threatened war if he was executed, and the New Yorkers acquitted him; tensions were finally diffused with the Webster-Ashburton Treaty, where both sides admitted wrongdoing

Buddy Holly

Rock pioneer whose 7 Top 40 hits included "Peggy Sue" and "That'll Be The Day". Tragically, he died in a plane crash just as his fame was beginning.

Charles E. Coughlin

Roman Catholic radio priest from Michigan. He wanted the government to nationalize all banks, remonetize silver, and issue greenbacks, in order to restore prosperity and ensure economic justice. Initially an FDR supporter, he split with him and formed the National Union for Social Justice in 1935 because he believed Roosevelt did not deal with the "money powers" harshly enough. He began to harshly attack bankers, which soon morphed into shaded anti-Semitism.

New Nationalism

Roosevelt's progressive political policy that favored heavy government intervention in order to assure social justice. He went from being cautiously conservative during his years in the presidency to turning heavily progressive following his return from his trips in Europe and Africa during the Taft administration. His demands included graduate income and inheritance taxes, workers' compensation for industrial accidents, regulation of the labor of women and children, tariff revision, and firmer regulation of corporations. This term came from a speech he gave in 1910 in Osawatomie, Kansas. He stated that property rights and personal profit must now give way to the advocate of human welfare.

Glasnost

Russian for "openness"; policy of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev which called for more openness with the nations of West, and a relaxing of restraints on Soviet citizenry, in particular freedom of speech with regard to discussing social issues.

Indian Ring

Scandal in which Grant's Secretary of War, William W. Belknap, accepted bribes from companies with licenses to trade on the reservations of man with Native American tribes.

Navy ring

Scandal in which Secretary of the ____ George Robeson was found to have embezzled money from the Department of the ____'s budget for his own personal use.

Nat Turner

Slave in Virginia who started a slave rebellion in Virginia in 1831 believing he was receiving signs from God; his rebellion was the largest sign of black resistance to slavery in America; led to the deaths of twenty whites and forty blacks and caused the state legislature of Virginia to pass a policy (gag rule) that said no one could question or discuss slavery.

Kate Chopin

Southern writer who criticized the traditional, constricting features of marriage in her novels, especially "The Awakening" in 1899, which was popular but banned for its message regarding adultery and leaving social marriage norms.

Californios

Spanish-speaking Hispanic inhabitants of California whose culture was similar to that of Mexico's.

Creole Affair

Successful slave revolt on a ship of this name; the slaves then sailed the ship for the Bahamas, where the British granted them asylum; pissed the Americans off; British apologized in the Webster-Ashburton Treaty

Second Party System

System in American politics that first arose with the formation of the Whigs in response to Jackson's Democrats

Factor System

System in which government agents working out of various western forts supplied tribes with goods at cost; they worked to drive Canadian traders out of the region and helped create a situation of dependency on the factors that made Native Americans themselves easier to control

Headright

System in which settlers were granted a 50-acre grant of land in exchange for settling in Virginia

Compromise Tariff of 1833

Tariff proposed by Henry Clay and instituted to reduce the Tariff of Abominations to 1816 levels

Goliad

Texas outpost where 400ish American volunteers, having laid down their arms and surrendered after being surrounded and defeated by overwhelming Mexican forces under Santa Anna, were massacred by Mexican forces in 1836. The incident, along with the slaughter at the Alamo, fueled American support for Texan independence.

Massive Retaliation

The "new look" defense policy of the Eisenhower administration of the 1950s was to threaten "this" with nuclear weapons in response to any act of aggression by a potential enemy seeking to spread communism to an American ally. This policy was partly issued in response to a constriction of the US defense budget: nuclear weapons provided more "bang for the buck".

Engel v. Vitale

The 1962 Supreme Court decision holding that state officials violated the First Amendment when they wrote a prayer to be recited by New York's schoolchildren. The Warren Court reemphasized the separation of church and state with this decision.

Roe v. Wade

The 1973 Supreme Court decision by the Burger Court holding that a state ban on all abortions was unconstitutional. The decision forbade state control over abortions during the first trimester of pregnancy, permitted states to limit abortions to protect the mother's health in the second trimester, and permitted states to protect the fetus during the third trimester. Part of its ruling was set on the legal precedent of "right to privacy" established in the Griswold v. Connecticut case.

Impressment

The British practice of taking American sailors from American ships and forcing them into the British navy; a factor in the War of 1812, especially when the first military (rather than commercial) ship war boarded in the Chesapeake-Leopard incident

Ho Chi Minh

The Communist leader who used guerrilla warfare to fight the Japanese during World War II, the French in the First Indochina War as leader of the Vietminh, and the Americans in the Vietnam-American War; his brilliant strategy drew out the war and made it unwinnable for foreign powers.

Rough Riders

The First United States Volunteer Calvary, a mixture of Ivy League athletes and western frontiersmen who volunteered to fight in the Spanish-American War. Technically commanded by General Leonard Wood but led in the field by former Assistant Secretary of the Navy and now Army Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, they won many battles in Florida and helped in the invasion army of Cuba. They did the famous charge up Kettle Hill during the Battle of San Juan Hill.

DeWitt Clinton

The New York governor who came up with the plan to link New York City with the Great Lakes region; champion of the Erie Canal project

William Pitt

The Prime Minister of England ("The Great Commoner") during the French and Indian War. He increased the British troops and military supplies in the colonies, and this is why England won the war. He also temporarily instituted impressment and other policies that angered the Americans, but his repeal of these policies and eventual sympathy to the Americans earned him a number of fans; was prime minister again later but was too old to effectively run country (run by Charles Townshend instead, Chancellor of the Exchequer)

Harry Emerson Fosdick

The Protestant Liberal pastor of Riverside Church in New York, he believed the basis of Christian religion was a fully developed personality. His influential sermon - "Shall the Fundamentalists Win?" ultimately gets him kicked out of his church. He believed religion was a vehicle for advancing "man's abundant life".

King Cotton Diplomacy

The South's political strategy during the Civil War; it depended upon British and French dependency on southern cotton to the extent that those two countries would help the South break the blockade; however, both countries had large stores of cotton and colonies that could provide them with cotton; furthermore, France wanted to act only if Britain acted, and although the British government somewhat supported the Confederate, popular opinion was very much against slavery and the Confederacy at the time

empresario

The Spanish word for a land agent whose job it was to bring new settlers into an area; these people brought many settlers into Texas.

New Frontier

The campaign program advocated by John F. Kennedy in the 1960 election. He promised to revitalize the stagnant economy and enact reform legislation in education, health care, and civil rights. He also advocated for a tax cut and tariff reductions.

Baker v. Carr

The case that established one man one vote. This decision by the Warren Court created guidelines for drawing up Congressional districts and guaranteed a more equitable system of representation to the citizens of each state (earlier, districts had been drawn to give disproportionate representation to rural, white areas).

UNIVAC/Universal Automatic Computer

The first commercially successful electronic digital computer. Developed by the Remington Rand Company for the US Census Bureau, it became famous after helping predict the results of the 1952 presidential election.

Nullification

The doctrine that a state can declare null and void a federal law that, in the state's opinion, violates the Constitution.

Watergate

The events and scandal surrounding a break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters in 1972 and the subsequent cover-up of White House involvement, leading to the eventual resignation of President Nixon under the threat of impeachment. It stemmed from Nixon fearing a loss in the 1972 elections, so he approved the Commission to Re-Elect the President (CREEP) to spy on and espionage the Democrats. A security guard foiled an attempt to bug the Democratic National Committee Headquarters, exposing the scandal.

Savings and Loan Crisis

The failure of about 1,000 ___________ and ______ banks as a result of risky business practices, which in turn resulted from deregulation of the industry by Reagan in the early 80s.

P. T. Barnum

The famous and unscrupulous showman, opened the American Museum in New York in 1842, not a showcase for art or nature, but a great freak show populated by midgets such as Tom Thumb, Siamese twins, magicians, and ventriloquists; eventually launched a circus that bears his name

Reaganomics

The federal economic polices of the 40th president of the United States, elected in 1981. These policies combined a monetarist fiscal policy, "supply-side" tax cuts and reductions, and domestic budget cutting. Their goal was to reduce the size of the federal government and stimulate economic growth. It also entailed a massive arms buildup.

Christmas bombing

The heaviest and most destructive air raids of the entire war on North Vietnam, conducted the US Seventh Air Force and US Navy Task Force 77; the primary targets were Hanoi (capital) and Haiphong (chief port). There were numerous civilian casualties, and the US Seventh Air Force lost fifteen B-52 Stratofortress strategic bombers (they had only lost one in the entire war up until that point).

Slave Power Conspiracy

The idea that the South was engaged in a __________ to extend slavery throughout the nation and thus to destroy the openness of northern capitalism and replace it with the closed, aristocratic system of the south, and the only solution was to fight the spread of slavery and extend the nation's democratic ideals to all sections of the country.

Pottawatomie Massacre

The killing of five pro-slavery men by abolitionist John Brown and his cohorts in response to Sack of Lawrence in Kansas.

2008 Financial Crisis/2008 Recession

The largest downturn since the Great Depression, this crisis began with mortgages (loans from banks to pay for homes). Borrowers must repay their loans plus interest that the bank charges. Many banks made risky loans and increased their interest rates. As the economy slowed, many borrowers found they could not repay what they owed because they lost their jobs or the interest rates were too high.

Chisholm Trail

The major long drive route north from Texas to Ablilene, Kansas, where cowboys drove herds of cattle to the railroads to be shipped back East for huge profits

Stono Rebellion

The most serious slave rebellion in the colonial period which occurred in 1739 in South Carolina. 100 African Americans rose up, got weapons and killed several whites then tried to escape to S. Florida. The uprising was crushed and the participants executed. The main form of rebellion was running away, though there was nowhere to go. Led to the tightening of the slave codes.

Great Migration

The movement of over 300,000 African American from the rural south into Northern cities between 1914 and 1920. They were pushed from the south by poverty, racism, indebtedness, and violence in the South and pulled by jobs, freedom, and autonomy in the North.

Enola Gay

The name of the American B-29 Superfortress strategic bomber plane, piloted by Colonel Paul Tibbets, Jr. of the United States Army Air Force, that dropped the atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan, on August 6th, 1945.

Prohibition

The period from 1920 to 1933 when the sale of alcoholic beverages was prohibited in the United States by the 18th Amendment.

Lost Cause

The phrase many white southerners applied to their Civil War defeat. They viewed the war as a noble cause but only a temporary setback in the South's ultimate vindication.

nativism

The policy of protecting the interests of native-born or established inhabitants against those of immigrants, for reasons of racism, job competition, fear, etc.

Populism

The political doctrine that supports the rights and powers of the common people in their struggle with the privileged elite. Particularly is identified with the rural citizens and farmers in the late 1800s into the turn of the century. Tom Watson of Georgia and Jeff Davis of Arkansas were notable members of the party that adhered to this doctrine. They were often led by rural professionals, and also attracted support from miners in the west due to their free silver policy.

Liliuokalani

The queen of Hawaii in 1887 who was forced out of power by a revolution started by American business interests (sugar). Despite disliking foreigners, she let Hawaii be annexed because she knew her people would get massacred in a war.

Deism

The religion of the Enlightenment (1700s); followers believed that God existed and had created the world, but that afterwards left it to run by its own natural laws; denied that God communicated to man or in any way influenced his life.

AFL-CIO/American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (1950s)

The resulting organization from the merger of the two most prominent union/labor organizations in the United States. Tensions were initially present due to the latter's (correct) belief that the former dominated the relationship, but they eventually simmered down.

Sir William Berkeley

The royal governor of Virginia. Adopted policies that favored large planters and neglected the needs of recent settlers in the "backcountry." One reason was that he had fur trade deals with the natives in the region. His shortcomings led to Bacon's Rebellion

Kitchen Cabinet

The unofficial cabinet of Andrew Jackson following his falling out with many members of his actual cabinet over the Peggy Eaton Affair (and with John C. Calhoun in particular over that and the Nullification Crisis)

Fourteen Points

The series of proposals and war aims outlined by President Woodrow Wilson in 1918 to help achieve a lasting international peace after World War I; eight were made regarding new boundaries centered around people's right for self-determination; five were made around governing international conduct in the future: freedom of the seas, free trade, arms reduction, an end to secret treaties (open covenants), and a method to mediate colonial claims. The final one called for the creation of a League of Nations. Most of them were rejected by other European leaders after the war, despite support for it initially.

Pro-Life/Right-to-Life

The stance of people who are against allowing abortion

McCarthyism

The term associated with Senator Joseph __________ who led the search for communists in America during the early 1950s through his leadership in the House Un-American Activities Committee. It has come to mean an inveterate attempt to investigate and root out Communism and Communists here in America.

baby boom

The time period in which a cohort of individuals born in the United States between 1946 and 1964, which was just after World War II in a time of relative peace and prosperity. These conditions allowed for better education and job opportunities, encouraging high rates of both marriage and fertility.

immigrant ghetto

These were built to ease the transition of immigrants coming to the cities; they were close-knit ethnic communities within the cities.

Insular Cases

These were court cases dealing with islands/countries that had been recently annexed and demanded the rights of a citizen. These Supreme Court cases decided that the Constitution did not always follow the flag, thus denying the title of citizen, along with many of the rights of citizens, to Puerto Ricans (until 1917) and Filipinos.

Easter Offensive

This 1972 large-scale invasion of South Vietnam was fought back by combined US-South Vietnamese forces, and resulted in a new bombing campaign against the North at Hanoi and Haiphong. It was clear that without US forces, South Vietnam would have fallen.

Agricultural Marketing Act

This act established the Federal Farm Board, a lending bureau for hard-pressed farmers. The act also aimed to help farmers help themselves through new producers' cooperatives. They also made loans to national marketing cooperatives. As the depression worsened in 1930, the Board tried to bolster falling prices by buying up surpluses, but it was unable to cope with the flood of farm produce to market. It ultimately failed to help many American farmers.

Gibbons v. Ogden

This case involved New York trying to grant a monopoly on waterborne trade between New York and New Jersey, while another man was given the right to trade between the two states by Congress; Judge Marshall, of the Supreme Court, sternly reminded the state of New York that the Constitution gives Congress alone the control of interstate commerce; gave feds authority over commerce, interstate affairs, and economic activity in general

American Patriots

Those who opposed rule under/reconciliation with the British; encouraged to fight on and reject idea of peace that stopped short of winning independence

Oregon Trail

Two thousand mile long trail from Independence, Missouri to the Willamette River Valley used by many thousands of pioneers during the 1840s.

Yellow Journalism

Type of news reporting that exploits, distorts, or exaggerates the news to create sensations and attract readers; pioneered by Hearst's New York Journal and Pulitzer's New York World

Jeremaid

Type of sermon that Puritan preachers used to scold the people for their waning purity and warn them about hell

minstrel shows

Variety shows (comedy, acting, music, dance) originally performed by white actors (sometimes in black-face to make fun of African Americans); in the post-Civil War era they increasingly included black performers and groups themselves

Toussaint L'Ouverture

Was an important leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first leader of a free Haiti; in a long struggle again the institution of slavery, he led the blacks to victory over the whites and free coloreds and secured native control over the colony in 1797; this was challenged by the French later, but the Haitians ultimately managed to hold on; by refusing to recognize Haiti's independence, Jefferson remained friendly with the French and sympathetic with slavery

Hearts and Minds

What American soldiers were supposed to figuratively win in various interventions throughout history, most notably starting out with the Vietnam War, and extending into the War on Terror (Iraq and Afghanistan). They were supposed to do this by helping out civilians, doling out food, candy, and medical aid, etc. This strategy rarely worked, since, well, it was overshadowed by the fighting.

Fusion

When the Democratic Party nominated William Jennings Bryan for president, many members of the Populist Party were conflicted on whether to support him: if they ran their own candidate, they risked splitting the protest, pro-free-silver vote, but if they supported him, they risked losing their identity and their party. Eventually the Populist Party ended up supporting Bryan in order to give a free-silver candidate the greatest chance of winning. The absorption of the Populist Party by the Democratic Party is given this term.

Joseph McCarthy

Wisconsin senator in the 1950s who claimed to have a list of "card-carrying" communists in the American government, but no credible evidence; he took advantage of fears of communism post-WWII to become incredibly influential; "____________ism" was the fearful accusation of any dissenters of being communists. He was eventually discredited by his Senate colleagues after being challenged by Army counsel Joseph Welch (defending the Army from such investigations) "...have you left no sense of decency?"

Wounded Knee

In 1890, after killing Sitting Bull, the 7th Cavalry rounded up Sioux at this place in South Dakota and 300 Natives were murdered after a small altercation - only a baby survived. Occurred in part in response to the Ghost Dance

Homestead Strike

In 1892, Frick had been reducing the pay for the skilled steelworkers of the namesake steel plant near Pittsburgh, owned by the Carnegie Steel Company. When the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers finally did not want to take it and striked, Frick called in the Pinkertons to secure the plant and help bring in lesser-skilled and lesser-paid labor to the plant, angering the current workers, who met the Pinkerton strikebreakers armed. In the ensuing battle, ten died, and the Pinkertons were forced to leave. Frick then appealed to the governor, who called in the Pennsylvania state militia to escort the Pinkertons. This was the end of the AAISW and helped lower the reputation of unions.

Pullman Strike

In 1894 in Chicago, a railroad car company cut wages but refused to lower rents by the same amount in the "company town" on the south side of Chicago. Eugene V. Debs had the American Railway Union refuse to use Pullman cars. When switch operators were fired for refusing to use Pullman cars, Debs ordered the workers of the said railway company to strike. When Governor Altgeld refused to send in the militia, the original railroad car company appealed to Grover Cleveland, who sent in troops who threw Debs in jail; the strike achieved almost nothing. It brought down much of the railway system in the west when the strike spread throughout the entire American Railway Union. Grover Cleveland ultimately shut it down because it was interfering with mail delivery.

Venezuelan Dispute

In 1895, this was a diplomatic conflict in which the US supported the namesake country in a dispute with Great Britain. The US thought that the United Kingdom was violating the Monroe Doctrine. After threats of war, the United Kingdom agreed to arbitration over the land.

Spanish-American War

In 1898, a conflict originally arising from the Cuban revolt (and more directly from the de Lôme letter that insulted McKinley and the Maine incident) that was fought in places such as Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and the surrounding waters between the namesake countries.

Executive Order 8802

In 1941 Franklin Delano Roosevelt gave this decree which prohibited discriminatory employment practices by federal agencies and contractors and all unions and companies engaged in war-related work. It established the Fair Employment Practices Commission to enforce the new policy. It was issued in response to A. Philip Randolph's threat of a march on Washington if Roosevelt did not integrate the defense complex.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

In 1955, after Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat on a city bus, Dr. Martin L. King led this protest in Montgomery, Alabama. After 11 months the Supreme Court ruled that segregation of public transportation was illegal.

China

In 1972, Richard Nixon unexpectedly visited this country, and later approved the United Nations' recognition of this country (which entailed expelling diplomats from Taiwan)

Iranian Hostage Crisis

In 1979, Iranian fundamentalists seized the American embassy in Tehran and held fifty-three American diplomats for over a year. The Iranian hostage crisis weakened the Carter presidency (especially as a result of the failed rescue effort - Operation Eagle Claw - which saw multiple US soldiers die in an accident); the hostages were finally released on January 20, 1981, the day Ronald Reagan became president. The story of the rescue of a few of the diplomats who managed to avoid being captured initially, and the Hollywood-inspired effort to get them out is documented in the famous novel and movie Argo.

Little Rock Nine

In September 1957 the school board in Little Rock, Arkansas, won a court order to admit nine African American students to Central High: a school with 2,000 white students. The governor ordered troops from Arkansas National Guard to prevent the nine from entering the school. The next day as the National Guard troops surrounded the school, an angry white mob joined the troops to protest the integration plan and to intimidate the AA students trying to register. The mob violence pushed Eisenhower's patience to the breaking point. He immediately ordered the nationalization of the National Guard and ordered them to send troops to Little Rock to protect and escort them for the full school year.

Central Powers

In World War I the alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary and other nations allied with them in opposing the Allies, including the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.

repeating weapons

Samuel Colt's revolver and Oliver Winchester's rifles, which differed from previous ones in that they do not require reload after every single shot

Gay liberation

In the 1970s, homosexuals began an effort to win social and legal acceptance and to encourage gays to affirm their sexual identity. This is the movement that tried to win rights for them. Despite some advances, the movement was slowed by the onset of the AIDS epidemic in the 1980s and the insistence of the military on banning openly gay individuals from the armed services (this eventually led to the Don't Ask, Don't Tell policy under the Clinton administration).

Concentration Policy

In the face of white demand for access to lands in Indian Territory, a new reservations policy emerged, known as "_____________." In 1851, each tribe was assigned its own defined reservation, confirmed by separate treaties. The new arrangements benefited mostly the whites, giving them control of productive lands; it divided the tribes making them easier to control, it allowed the govt. to take over new land for white settlement. However, settlers wanted the natives' land to be restricted even more.

Office of Price Administration

Instituted in 1942, this agency was in charge of stabilizing prices and rents and preventing speculation, profiteering, hoarding and price administration. They froze wages and prices and initiated a rationing program for items such as gas, oil, butter, meat, sugar, coffee and shoes in order to support the war effort and prevent inflation.

Maysville Road Veto

Internal improvement project in Kentucky that Jackson vetoed because tariffs (harmful to southern commoners) were used to raise money for it, and also vetoed to piss of Henry Clay, who was from Kentucky

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

Interracial organization founded in 1909 to abolish segregation and discrimination and to achieve political and civil rights for African Americans.

Operation Just Cause

Invasion of Panama by the US in 1989. Leader Manuel Noriega was deposed and Guillermo Endara was sworn in. Bush cited that 1) the aim was to safeguard US citizens 2) defend human rights and democracy 3) combat trafficking and 4) protect the integrity of Torrijos-Carter Treaties (neutrality of Panama Canal).

barbed wire

Invented by Joseph Glidden and I.L. Ellwood, it ended open range with property boundaries and led to range wars, and also helped increase western settlement and farming.

Samuel F. B. Morse

Inventor of the telegraph and that revolutionized communications in America and in the world

Community Action Program

Invited local communities to establish ____________ _________ Agencies to be funded through the office of economic opportunity; allowed the poor to run antipoverty programs in their own neighborhoods. It helped create public-works programs, charities, and wealth-developing/sharing institutions in these communities.

Saugus Ironworks

Ironworks established in _______, Massachusetts; 'first' effort to establish a significant metals industry in the colonies. Was a financial failure; began operating 1646, ceased operations in 1668

Emancipation Proclamation

Issued by Abraham Lincoln on September 22, 1862, it declared that all slaves in Confederate states free

Amistad

Schooner traveling along the coast of Cuba when the slaves on board rebelled; killing most of the crew, the slaves ordered the navigators to return them to Africa; the navigators instead sailed to NYC, where the slaves were seized as pirates by the predecessor of the Coast Guard; in the resulting case, the Supreme Court ruled that according to trade bans by various countries, the slaves were free men; most of the slaves were returned to west Africa; major victory for abolitionists

Enforcement Acts

Issued by Congress in 1870-1871 in response to the KKK and others, these acts were passed to protect black voters. It prohibited interference in anyone's vote, regardless of race, and for the first time, federal attorney were allowed to bypass the state and directly prosecute the individuals in question. Also allowed for military to intervene, suspend the writ of habeas corpus, and arrest people in areas where the crimes were particularly bad (those powers were only used in nine counties of South Carolina at Grant's order once). It helped to trigger the decline of the KKK.

Specie Resumption Act (1876)

Issued by Congress, it limited the use of greenbacks, and began the full reuse of this payment by January 1879 (replacing greenbacks with cash pegged to gold or by coinage); caused deflation, angering farmers and workers

Specie Circular (Panic of 1837)

Issued by President Jackson July 11, 1836, was meant to stop land speculation caused by states printing paper money without proper specie (gold or silver) backing it - required that the purchase of public lands be paid for in specie (gold or silver coins) or money backed by gold or silver; it stopped the land speculation and the sale of public lands went down sharply, which led to the Panic of 1837

Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts)

Issued in 1774, it shut down the port of Boston, ended self-rule in Massachusetts, tried colonists for high crimes in England, and created the New Quartering Act for all colonies; was part of the reason that the first Continental Congress convened - to demand an end to them

Truman Doctrine

Issued in 1947, it was ________'s policy of providing economic and military aid to any country threatened by communism or totalitarian ideology; it mainly helped Greece and Turkey

Executive Order 9066

Issued of February 19th, 1942, this decree of Franklin Delano Roosevelt led to 112,000 Japanese-Americans being forced into concentration camps dubbed "relocation centers"; caused a loss of homes, businesses, and other property; 600 thousand more renounced their citizenship. It demonstrated the irrational American fear of a Japanese invasion

Brinksmanship

It is a strategy in which adversaries take actions that increase the risk of accidental conflict. The principle of not backing down in a crisis and being willing to use the threat of war in response to any enemy aggression, even if it meant taking the country to the ______ of war. Policy of both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. during the Cold War.

Rocky Mountain School

It was a group of Landscape painters in the Rocky Mountains who painted mostly Western landscapes including Thomas Moran, Thomas Hill, Albert Bierstadt, and William Keith; also aided in Manifest Destiny's romantic portrayal of the West; used large canvases

Committee on Public Information (World War One)

It was headed by George Creel. The purpose of this government agency was to mobilize people's minds for war, both in America and abroad. It tried to get the entire U.S. public to support U.S. involvement in WWI. Creel's organization, employed some 150,000 workers at home and overseas. He proved that words were indeed weapons, publishing massive amounts of literature, posters, and encouraging pro-war sentiment and propaganda.

Knights of Labor

It was open to everyone (skilled workers, blacks, and women included) but lawyers, liquor dealers, professional gamblers, and bankers. Although its overall objective included eight-hour workdays, the abolition of child labor, and producer-consumer cooperation, it was initially a loose organization with no clear goals and initially weak leadership and organization that failed in the 1900s due to events that precipitated from the failed Texas-Pacific Railroad strike. Its most notable leader was Terence V. Powderly.

Revolution of 1800

Jefferson's view of his election to presidency; claimed that the election of 1800 represented a return to what he considered the original spirit of the American Revolution - Jefferson's goals for his revolution were to restore the Republican experiment, check the growth of government power, and to halt the decay of virtue that had set in under Federalist rule

Massachusetts Bay Company

Joint-stock company charted by Charles I in 1629 for a group of Puritans merchants who organized an enterprise designed to take advantage of economic opportunities in America. Obtained a land grant in New England which became a haven for Puritans.

Henry Grady

Journalist and editor of the Atlanta Constitution who coined the term "New South", advocating for an economically diversified and more industrial South, absent of the influence of the pre-war planter elite in the political world. He helped plan Atlanta's International Cotton Exposition

John Peter Zenger

Journalist who questioned the policies of the governor of New York in the 1700's. He was jailed; he sued, and this court case was the basis for our freedom of speech and press. He was found not guilty.

Potsdam Conference

July 26, 1945: at this last of the big three end-of-the-war conferences in southern Germany, Allied leaders Truman, Stalin and Churchill met in Germany to set up zones of control and to inform the Japanese that if they refused to surrender at once, they would face total destruction.

Glass-Steagall Act

June 1933 law that established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, which insures all bank deposits up to $2500, included banking reforms, some designed to control irresponsible speculation by banks, and created a wall between investment banking and commercial banking. Repealed in 1999, opening the door to scandals involving banks and stock investment companies.

Indentured Servitude

Labor under contract to an employer for a fixed period of time, typically three to seven years, in exchange for their transportation, food, clothing, lodging and other necessities. Often used in the late 19th and early 20th century as a replacement to slave labor, but with fairly similar exploitative working conditions. Laborers were often transported thousands of miles and could not easily afford to return home. Typically were Europeans and later Asians.

Selective Service Act

Law passed by Congress in 1917 that required all men from ages 21 to 30 to register for the military draft.

Tea Act

Law passed by parliament allowing the British East India Company to sell its low-cost tea directly to the colonies - undermining colonial tea merchants who had to pay the tea duty left over from the Townshend Duties; Lord North thought Americans would be happy because it meant cheaper tea; instead led to the Boston Tea Party

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Law that invalidated the use of any test or device to deny the vote and authorized federal examiners to register voters in states that had disenfranchised blacks; as more blacks became politically active and elected black representatives, it brought jobs, contracts, and facilities and services for the black community, encouraging greater social equality and decreasing the wealth and education gap

Black Codes

Laws passed in the south just after the civil war aimed at controlling freedmen and enabling plantation owners to exploit African American workers legally; was counteracted by the Civil Rights Act of 1866

Slave Codes

Laws that controlled the lives of enslaved African Americans and denied them basic rights.

slave codes

Laws that controlled the lives of enslaved African Americans and denied them basic rights.

Navigation Acts

Laws that governed trade between England and its colonies. Colonists were required to ship certain products exclusively to England. Imposed to make the colonies dependent on England, they made the colonists very angry because they were forbidden from trading with other countries.

Alien and Sedition Acts

Laws that increased the waiting period for an immigrant to become a citizen from 5 to 14 years, empowered the president to arrest and deport dangerous aliens, allowed the arrest and deportation of citizens of countries at war with the US, and also made it illegal to publish defamatory statements about the federal government or its officials; enacted in response to hatred of French after XYZ Affair and an attempt to stifle Democratic-Republican resistance; led to Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions

Jim Crow Laws

Laws that limited the rights of African Americans. They included disenfranchisement laws such as literacy tests, poll taxes (those two also hurt poor whites' ability to vote, not that the rich whites cared), grandfather clauses (if your ancestors could vote in the pre-Reconstruction period, that you can vote), and segregation laws (separate-but-equal, or in some cases just separate, schools, hospitals, rail cars, etc.)

William Jennings Bryan

Lawyer and politician and Democratic candidate for president in 1896 and 1900 under the banner of "free silver coinage" which won him support of the Populist Party. He is also famous for having prosecuted John Scopes (1925) for teaching evolution in a Tennessee high school (1860-1925).

Pat Robertson

Leader and television evangelist of the religious Right Fundamentalist Christians or Christian Coalition, a group that supported Reagan; their rallying cry was "family values"; anti-feminist, anti-homosexuality, anti-abortion, favored prayer in schools.

Chief Joseph

Leader of Nez Perce, he fled with his tribe to Canada instead of the reservations in 1877. However, US troops came and fought and brought them back down to their reservations. His speech "I Will Fight No More Forever" mourned the young Indian men killed in the fighting.

Alain Locke

Leader of the "New Negro" movement after being editor of The New Negro — an anthology of writings by African Americans. Its publishing led to numerous white publishers taking notice in the writers he helped launch.

Mao Zedong

Leader of the Communist Party in China that overthrew Chiang Kai-Shek and the Nationalists.; established China as the People's Republic of China and ruled from 1949 until 1976.

Emilio Aguinaldo

Leader of the Filipino independence movement against Spain (1895-1898). He proclaimed the independence of the Philippines in 1899 after the Philippine Revolution and Spanish-American War, but he turned his attention to the Americans when he saw they wanted to colonize the islands. He was subsequently defeated by the US Army in 1901.

Terence Powderly

Leader of the Knights of Labor, a skilled and unskilled union, who wanted equal pay for equal work, an 8hr work day, an end to child labor, and was for producer-consumer cooperation, temperance, and was welcoming of blacks and women (allowing segregation).

American Indian Movement (AIM)

Led by Dennis Banks and Russell Means, this organization's purpose was to obtain equal rights for natives; they protested at the site of the Wounded Knee massacre, fought for Indian rights guaranteed by treaties that had previously been broken by the U.S. government many times, and advocated for better conditions and opportunities for themselves.

Yalta Conference

Second of the three major end-of-the-war conferences, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin met at this Ukrainian port city in the Crimean peninsula on the Black Sea. The USSR agreed to declare war on Japan after the surrender of Germany and in return Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Churchill promised the USSR concessions in Manchuria and the territories that it had lost in the Russo-Japanese War (Sakhalin Island and a to-this-day disputed portion of the Kuril Islands)

National Bank Act

Legislation passed in 1863 to make banking safer for investors. Its provisions included a system of federally chartered banks, new requirements for loans, and a system for the inspection of banks. It raised money for the Union in the American Civil War by enticing banks to buy federal bonds, and taxed state bonds out of existence. It also prohibited state banks from issuing their own notes and forced them to apply for the aforementioned federal charters. It helped the Union war effort economically.

Payola scandals

Secret payments made by record promoters to disk jockeys or station owners to get their songs on the air, these payments produced a sensational series of scandals when they were exposed in the late 50's.

Legal Tender Act

Lincoln signed this in 1862, authorizing $150 million in greenbacks. Confederacy never made its paper money legal tender, responding instead by making more paper money, which accelerated southern inflation.

Genizaros

Literally "Indians without tribes", they were Native Americans from non-Pueblo (who were allied with the Spanish) tribes who had either been captured and enslaved or had voluntarily left their tribe; were considered to be at the bottom level of the Spanish caste system.

Echo Park

Located near the northern portion of the border between Utah and Colorado in Dinosaur National Monument, it is where the government sought to build a dam to create source of hydroelectric power. American environmentalists led fight to maintain this place, and they won. It helped create widespread environmental consciousness and led to the revival of the Sierra Club under David Brower.

Cane Ridge

Location of a large gathering (camp)/religious event where 10,000 men, women, children, white and black went to hear dozens of ministers preaching the gospel; high point of Second Great Awakening

Huey Long

Louisiana governor who built numerous roads, hospitals, schools, and other public infrastructure and institutions with little opposition, as once he gained power, he minimized the power of his political opponents. Critics referred to him as a dictator. Afterward, he became a senator, and although he initially supported FDR, he believed Roosevelt's New Deal did not do enough. He preached his "Share Our Wealth" programs. It was a 100% tax on all annual incomes over $1 million and appropriation of all fortunes in excess of $5 million. With this money, he proposed to give every American family a comfortable income: a minimum "homestead" of $5,000 and an annual wage of $2,500. This gradually morphed into the Share-Our-Wealth Society. He was nicknamed Kingfish and was assassinated in 1935 by the son-in-law of a judge he opposed and helped remove from power in a Louisiana state district court.

Colored Alliances

Many white Populists in the south struggled with the question of accepting African Americans in the People's Party. But when white Populists became willing to accept the assistance of blacks, as long as they were still in control, southern conservatives became angry, believing the Populists were undermining white supremacy, causing the interracial movement to end. These were formed when the Farmers' Alliances and the Populists did not include them.

Associationalism

Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover's approach to managing the economy. Firms and organizations in each economic sector would be asked to cooperate w/ each other in pursuit of efficiency, profit, and public good, usually through trade associations. Although it worked to support business, in line with the New Era administrations, it was through a government-supported, hands-on approach as opposed to the laissez faire approach usually used by Harding, Coolidge, and Mellon.

Nicaraguan intervention (1920s)

Secretary of State Philander Knox (Taft administration) encouraged US bankers to extend loans to the new government; when the pro-American governments faced opposition, US troops installed and protected a new government for ten years in the country in question; primary fighting was against the Sandinistas led by Augusto Sandino

John Quincy Adams

Secretary of State under Monroe and successor to Monroe; in 1819, he drew up a treaty in which Spain gave the United States Florida in exchange for the United States dropping its claims to Texas; the Monroe Doctrine was mostly his work; the specter of his election in 1824 (the Corrupt Bargain in which he got Clay's endorsement allegedly for the guarantee that he would choose Clay as Secretary of State) prevented his reelection against Jackson in 1828; instituted hated Abominable Tarriffs

Hamilton Fish

Secretary of State under Ulysses S. Grant administration from 1869 to 1877, he was an able diplomat who peacefully settled conflicts with Great Britain through the Treaty of Washington, in which Canada gave the U.S. permanent fishing rights to the St. Lawrence River and got the British to apologize for the "escape" of the Alabama and other ships to the Confederate States of America, and prevented the filibustering unauthorized military campaigns against Cuba from blowing up into war against Spain

William Seward

Secretary of State who was responsible for purchasing Alaskan Territory from Russia. By purchasing Alaska, he expanded the territory of the country at a reasonable price, but was made fun of for it, as many did not see the value of Alaska, calling it his "folly" or his "icebox".

William Seward

Secretary of State who was responsible for purchasing Alaskan Territory from Russia. By purchasing Alaska, he expanded the territory of the country at a reasonable price. He served under Abraham Lincoln.

Charles Sumner

Massachusetts senator and leader of the Radical Republicans along with Thaddeus Stevens. His two main goals were breaking the power of wealthy planters and ensuring that freedmen could vote.

Henry Stimson

Secretary of War during War World II under both Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Harry S Truman who trained 12 million soldiers and airmen, secured the purchase and transportation to battlefields of 30 percent of the nation's industrial output, and agreed to the building of the atomic bomb (Manhattan Project) and the decision to use it. A Republican, he was also Hoover's Secretary of State earlier, who sought sanctions against Japan for its aggression in Manchuria.

Haymarket Bombing

May 4, 1886, conflict in which both workers and policemen were killed or wounded during a labor demonstration in Chicago. The violence began when someone threw a bomb into the ranks of police at the gathering. The incident created a backlash against labor activism. This occurred during McCormick Harvester Company strike in Chicago that coincided with the American Federation of Labor's nationwide strike (but was not part of it). Seven cops were killed, and four strikers were killed in retaliation (in addition to four killed the previous day). Eight anarchists were falsely convicted of being responsible. It led to a downfall in the reputation of unions and also led to anarchists being associated with terrorism.

Hartford Convention

Meeting of Federalists near the end of the War of 1812 in which the party listed it's complaints against the ruling Republican Party; rumors spread that if the demands were not met, they would have the northeast secede from the union (in actuality those in favor of secession were a minority); these actions were largely viewed as traitorous to the country and lost the Federalists much influence

Elihu Root

Secretary of War under Roosevelt (also later Secretary of State, along with having been Secretary of War under McKinley), he reorganized and modernized the U.S. Army (expanding it from 25,000 to 100,00 and establishing the National Guard as a formal part of the Army). He is also responsible for establishing the Joint Chiefs of Staff in the Army. Later he served as the ambassador for the U.S. temporarily to Russia in 1917 and won the 1912 Nobel Peace Prize.

Greensboro Sit-Ins

Members of the SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) organized a ______ of all-white lunch counters at the Woolworth in the namesake city. Despite white harassment, it eventually led to the desegregation of lunch counters. Large numbers of blacks were motivated to end racial segregation and discrimination.

Braceros

Mexican workers that were brought to America to work when so many men and women were gone from home during World War II that there weren't enough workers.

Horace Mann

Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education; "father of the public school system"; a prominent proponent of public school reform, he set the standard for public schools throughout the nation; lengthened academic year; advocated professional training and higher salaries for teachers

William McAdoo

Secretary of the Treasury and son in law of Woodrow Wilson, he had the idea for Liberty Bonds by selling war bonds to Americans he raised more than $20 billion. He was a Democratic candidate in the 1924 election, representing the rural Democrats, but neither he nor his urban rival Al Smith were chosen, in favor of an obscure compromise candidate.

Joseph and Mary Brant

Mohawk Indians (brother and sister), that had allied themselves with the British, causing a division in the already weakened Iroquois Confederacy, when three of the nations (Mohawk, Seneca, Cayuga) followed them in support of the British. The Oneida supported the Americans, and the Onondoga split up into factions.

Redeemers

Mostly former slave owners (some merchants and industrialists) who hated Reconstruction and retook power in the state governments after the process. Staged a major counterrevolution to "__________" the south by taking back southern state governments for the Democratic Party. Their foundation rested on the idea of racism and white supremacy. These governments waged an aggressive assault on African Americans, cut taxes and spending on state programs (like public education) and had a lot of corruption.

Sodbusters

Name given to Great Plains farmers because they had to break through so much thick soil in order to farm; this led to many dust storms in times of drought

Chicanos

Name given to Mexican-Americans, who in 1970, were the majority of migrant farm labor in the U.S. Originally used as a derisive nickname, the Latino activists of the 1970s used the name as a way to unite all Spanish-speaking Americans.

Clovis People

Named after a town in New Mexico, these people or Mongolian/Siberian descent are believed to be the first people to cross the Bering land bridge into the Americas

de facto segregation

Segregation resulting from economic or social conditions or personal choice. It occurs by unwritten custom or tradition.

code-talkers

Native Americans, primarily Navajo, recruited by the U.S. Marine Corps to transmit messages in the Navajo language.

General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

Seized power in Mexico after collapse of empire of Mexico in 1824; after brief reign of liberals, seized power in 1835 as caudillo; after a victory at the Alamo, he was defeated by Texans at San Jacinto in the Texas War for Independence in 1836; defeated by United States in Mexican-American War in 1848; unseated by liberal rebellion in 1854.

Second Seminole War

Seminoles in Florida resisted the pressures to relocate; Chief Osceola staged an uprising in 1835 to defend their land; Jackson kept sending troops into Florida but the natives were masters of guerrilla warfare; Osceola was captured by white troops when invited to a "peace treaty", although elements of his forces continued the fight; government gave up on the war by 1842; most Seminoles had been killed or moved west at that point, but a few managed to hide and stay

Dwight D. Eisenhower

Nicknamed "Ike", he was an American General who began his World War II campaigns in North Africa with Operation Torch and became the Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces in Europe starting with Operation Overlord (the invasion of Normandy). Afterward, he was governor of the US zone of occupation in Western Germany and then chief of staff for the US Army. Then he became Supreme Allied Commander in Europe under NATO command and even supreme commander of NATO forces along with the president of Columbia University. He later became 34th president of the United States from 1953 (defeating Democrat Adlai Stevenson in the 1952 elections) to 1961. His presidency saw the end of the Korean War, the start of the Space Race, and the U-2 aircraft incident.

Scottsboro Case

Nine black teenagers were taken off a freight train in a small town near its namesake town in Alabama and were arrested for vagrancy and disorder. Later, two white women accused the boys of raping them, and although there was significant evidence to suggest the women were lying, an all-white jury convicted all of the boys and eight were sentenced to death. However, with the Supreme Court's decision to overturn the convictions in 1932 and with the support of an organization associated with the Communist Party, the International Labor Defense, all of the defendants eventually gained their freedom.

Zimmerman Telegram

Sent in March of 1917 from German Foreign Secretary Arthur ____________, addressed to the German minister in Mexico City, this document proposed that Mexico should attack the US if the US goes to war with Germany. In return, Germany would give back Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and other formerly Mexican lands to Mexico in the aftermath of the war.

Order of the Star Spangled Banner

Oath-bound secret society in NYC created by Charles Allen in 1849 to protest the rise of the Irish, Roman Catholic, and German immigration into the U.S.; associated with the "Know-nothings" because they kept the society a secret.

First Continental Congress

September 1774, delegates from twelve colonies sent representatives to Philadelphia to discuss a response to the Intolerable Acts; resulted in demand for removal of the Coercive Acts and an order to the colonies to begin military preparations in secret

Aroostook War

Series of clashes in 1839 between American and Canadian lumberjacks in the disputed territory of northern Maine and southern New Brunswick that resulted in the militia being called in by both sides; resolved when a permanent boundary was agreed upon in 1842 when the Webster-Ashburton Treaty was signed.

Confiscation Acts

Series of laws passed by the federal government designed to liberate slaves in seceded states; authorized Union seizure of rebel property, and stated that all slaves who fought with Confederate military services were freed of further obligations to their masters; virtually emancipation act of all slaves in Confederacy

Panic of 1893

Serious economic depression beginning in 1_____ originating with the bankruptcy of the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad and the National Cordage Company. Precipitated due to rail road companies over-extending themselves and the failure of banks who invested too heavily in their stock. The resulting constriction of credit caused more businesses to fail as crop prices tumbled. It was the worst economic collapse in the history of the country until that point, and, some say, as bad as the Great Depression of the 1930s.

Zachary Taylor

Serving from 1849 to 1850, Whig president who was a Southern slave holder, and veteran of the War of 1812 and a hero of the Mexican-American War. Won the 1848 election. Surprisingly did not address the issue of slavery at all on his platform. He died during his term and his Vice President, Millard Fillmore, succeeded him, becoming the last Whig president.

Gerald Ford

Serving from 1974 to 1977, he was the 38th president of the United States. He was Vice President under Richard Nixon when Nixon resigned over the Watergate Scandal. When he became president, he pardoned Nixon. He is the first president to have never been elected to the office (other have ascended by virtue of death, but were elected to another term; this man did not seek reelection).

Gerald Ford

Serving from 1974 to 1977, this Republican, the only President to have never actually been elected to the office once (other Vice Presidents who ascended to the office by virtue of death later ran successfully) pardoned Nixon, who he served as Vice President under. He was the 38th President and prior to that the House Minority Leader (as a representative from Michigan).

Battle of Leyte Gulf

October 23rd-26th, 1944: World War II naval battle between the United States and Australian navies and the Imperial Japanese Navy; it was the largest naval engagement in World War II, and by some criteria, in history. It occurred off the east coast of the Philippines, just after US forces has landed on an island of the same name to begin the liberation of the Philippines. The last major fleets of the IJN: the 2nd, 3rd, and 5th, were mobilized to destroy, or at least scatter, the naval forces backing the landing and to cut off the troops from support. The USN, led by William Halsey (3rd fleet) and Thomas Kinkaid (7th fleet), managed to repel the Japanese forces, destroying 28 ships, including the operational last Japanese fleet aircraft carriers plus 300+ aircraft, to a loss of six of their own ships and 200+ aircraft. The Imperial Japanese Navy would have no major sea force left after this battle. Part of the reason for the victory was the actions of the small anti-submarine task force Taffy 3 under Clifton Sprague, in which four hopelessly outgunned destroyers (USS Johnston, USS Samuel B. Roberts, USS Hoel, and USS Heerman) charged the far larger/more heavily armed/armored Japanese force (an entire fleet) to give time for the escort carriers to retreat and launch their aircraft. All four destroyers were sunk, but the Japanese admiral, convinced that they were engaging an actual US fleet as opposed to a few destroyers and escort carriers, retreated. The 3rd and 7th fleets managed to stop the rest of the Japanese force.

National Defense Research Committee

Set up in June 1940 by FDR to coordinate military research, including a top-secret effort to develop an atomic bomb. It was headed by MIT scientist Vannevar Bush, who had been a pioneer in the early development of the computer. By the end of the war, this new agency had spent more than $100 million on research, more than four times the amount spent by the government on military research and development in the previous forty years. It was superseded by the Office of Scientific Research and Development partway through the war.

Hull House

Settlement home designed as a welfare agency for needy families. Founded by Jane Addams in Chicago in 1889, it provided social and educational opportunities for working class people in the neighborhood as well as improving some of the conditions caused by poverty.

Antifederalists

Opponents of ratification of the Constitution; opposed a strong central government and favored state governments as they viewed them as closer to the people

Committees of Correspondence

Organization founded by Samuel Adams consisting of a system of communication between patriot leaders in New England and throughout the colonies; helped spread news and revolutionary sentiment

Millerites

Seventh-Day Adventists who followed William ______. They sold their possessions because they believed the Second Coming of Jesus Christ would be sometime around 1842. This would be during Armageddon, and the end of the world would occur. Sort of fell apart when that did not happen.

Black Panther Party

Organization of armed black militants formed in Oakland, California, in 1966 to protect black rights. The Panthers represented a growing dissatisfaction with the non-violent wing of the civil rights movement, and signaled a new direction to that movement after the legislative victories of 1964 and 1965. They provided aid to black neighborhoods; often thought of as radical or violent, they showed themselves as militant but rarely resorted to violence.

Federal Structure

Organizational structure with a central government that shares power with strong regional governments as well

Anti-Coolie Clubs

Organizations that aimed to prevent immigration of people of East Asian origin, as well as banning Chinese labor/boycotting goods made with Chinese labor.

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

Organized formally for the first in the fall of 1960 by Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. as a student civil rights movement inspired by sit-ins, it challenged the status quo and walked the back roads of Mississippi and Georgia to encourage Blacks to resist segregation and to register to vote.

Sarah Bagley

Organized the Lowell Female Labor Reform Association in the 1849s which sent a petition to the state legislature demanding no more than a ten-hour workday

Zoot suits

Oversized suits of clothing in fashion in the 1940s, particularly among young male African Americans and Mexican Americans. In June 1943, a group of white sailors and soldiers in Los Angeles, seeking revenge for an earlier skirmish with Mexican American youths, attacked anyone they found wearing this in what became known as the _____ ______ riots. They were considered to be unpatriotic.

Lockerbie bombing

Pan Am Flight 103 was from Heathrow to JFK. On December 21, 1988, the aircraft was blown up as it flew over the namesake town in Scotland. It was widely regarded as an assault on a symbol of the United States, and with 189 of the victims being Americans, it stood as the deadliest attack on American civilians until September 11, 2001. United Nations sanctions against Libya and protracted negotiations with the Libyan leader Colonel Muammar Gaddafi secured the handover of the accused on April 5, 1999. The United States actually bombed Libya in reaction to this event.

Palmer Raids

Part of the Red Scare, these were measures to hunt out political radicals and immigrants who were potential threats to American security. The operation occurred in 1920, coordinated by Attorney General Alexander Mitchell ________ with assistant J. Edgar Hoover, and entailed federal marshals ______ing the homes of suspected radicals and the headquarters of radical organizations in 32 cities, looking for weapons and explosives caches that did not exist. It still led to the arrest of nearly 5,500 people, and although most citizens were acquitted, most non-citizens were deported.

Immigration Act of 1965

Passed by the Johnson administration, this law abolished the national-origins quotas and providing for the admission each year of 170,000 immigrants from the Eastern Hemisphere and 120,000 from the Western Hemisphere. It also established a population cap of 20,000 on immigrants from any single nation.

Homestead Act (1862)

Passed in 1862, it gave 160 acres of public land to any settler who would farm the land for five years. Other acts were later passed to expand this law to include larger parcels of land and nonarable land for small fees; still many farmers failed due to inability to produce a lot of crops; many corporations took advantage of it, using false registrants

Homestead Act (1862)

Passed in 1862, it gave 160 acres of public land to any settler who would farm the land for five years. The settler would only have to pay a registration fee of $25. After those five years and the registration fee, the land would officially be owned by the settler.

Emergency Banking Relief Act

Passed in 1933, it gave the President power over the banking system to set up a system by which banks would be reorganized or reopened after thorough inspection following the Banking Holiday.

Dr. Benjamin Spock

Pediatrician and author of the Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care (1946), which emphasized children's need for the love and care of full-time mothers. This 1950s doctor told the whole baby boomer generation how to raise their kids. He also said that raising them was more important and rewarding than extra money would be.

Priggs v. Pennsylvania

Pennsylvania legislature passed laws in 1788 and 1826 prohibiting removal of Negroes out of the state for the purpose of enslaving them. Margaret Morgan moved from Maryland to __________, never formally emancipated, owner John Ashmore granted her virtually full freedom. Ashmore's heirs wanted her returned as a slave and sent Edward _____ to capture her. After returning Morgan to Maryland, _____ was convicted in a __________ court for violating the 1826 law. _____ unsuccessfully argued before the Pennsylvania Supreme Court that both the 1788 and 1826 laws violated the constitutional guarantee of extradition among states and the federal government's Fugitive Slave Law of 1793.

Jayhawkers

People in Kansas who were anti-slavery and willing to use violence in their disputes; they not only made attacks on pro-slavery Kansans, but also across the border in Missouri; they frequently robbed and killed civilians

Jayhawkers

People in Kansas who were anti-slavery and willing to use violence in their disputes; they not only made attacks on pro-slavery Kansans, but also across the border in Missouri; they frequently robbed and killed civilians; extended from Bleeding Kansas into Civil War to include bands of anti-slavery armed citizens who skirmished with pro-slavery groups and raided towns

Creoles

People of Louisiana who were largely descended from French Acadians forced out of Nova Scotia by the British during the Seven Years War; often included mixed culture with the Spaniards and even natives; often known as Cajuns

Mestizos

People of mixed Native American and European ancestry

freesoilers

People who were against the imposition of slavery in new territories. Shifted the focus of the anti-slavery-spreading argument from the morality of slavery to the ways which slavery posed a threat to northern expansion. The doctrine of these people established a direct link between expansion, which most Americans supported, and sectional politics. They were generally anti-black, not anti-slavery; they just did not want southerners to gain a political foothold in new territory.

Saul Bellow

Perhaps the foremost among the American novelists who came into prominence after World War II, this 1976 Nobel Prize winner is a part of the novelistic mainstream. His books have the rich flavor of his urban Jewish upbringing. Henderson the Rain King, The Adventures of Augie Marsh, Seize the Day, and Herzog are his most famous works. He chronicled the difficulties American Jewish men had in finding fulfillment in modern urban America.

Life Magazine

Photographic journal/humor and general interest periodical bought by Time founder Henry Luce in 1936 had largest reader group in US. It had some articles on politics and economics, but it was known for photos of sports and theater, natural landscapes and public projects. A popular feature was "____ goes to a party" showing the rich and famous. Its popularity demonstrated people's desire for escape during the Great Depression.

Massive resistance

Policy declared by U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd, Sr. on February 24, 1956 to unite other white politicians and leaders in Virginia in a campaign of new state laws and policies to prevent public school desegregation after the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision in 1954

Omaha Platform

Political agenda adopted by the populist party in 1892 at their Nebraska convention. It called for unlimited coinage of silver (bimetallism), government regulation of railroads and industry, graduated income tax, and a number of election reforms.

Free Silver

Political issue involving the unlimited coinage of silver, supported by farmers and William Jennings Bryan. They intended to use the namesake precious metal in all aspect of currency in order to raise prices for agricultural products. However, this system was not adopted because all other countries used a gold standard. Supported by William Jennings Bryan

People's Party/Populist Party

Political party formed in 1892 by the Farmers' Alliance to advance the goals of this movement. They sought economic democracy, promoting land, electoral, banking, and monetary reform. The Republican victory in the presidential election of 1896 effectively destroyed it. They supported Samuel B. Weaver for president in 1892, and supported Leonidas Polk of North Carolina, Tom Watson of Georgia, and Jeff Davis of Arkansas.

March to the Sea

Sherman's march from Atlanta, Georgia, to Savannah, Georgia which cut off confederate supplies received by the sea. They wanted to destroy the Southern economy and morale, leading to Southern surrender. This serves as an example of total war.

Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini

Shi'ite philosopher and cleric who led the overthrow of the Shah of Iran in 1979 and created an Islamic republic, all the while preaching that the United States was the Great Satan. He is technically the supreme leader of Iran, able to select eligible candidates for presidential elections and make a final ruling on decisions made by the government.

Soap Operas

Shows that were nicknamed this because they were often sponsored by makers of laundry soaps. They were serial dramas on television or radio that used melodramatic situations. They primarily targeted women.

Coolies

Poor laborers from primarily China (later India too) who left their homelands to do hard manual and agricultural work in other parts of the world in the 19th and early 20th centuries; they were technically indentured servants, but worked in conditions that resembled slavery

Godey's Lady's Book

Popular magazine marketed specifically for women which contained art, poetry and articles; a place where women could get their works published and important topics could be discussed

Missouri Compromise

"Compromise of 1820" over the issue of slavery in its namesake; it was decided it would enter as a slave state and Maine would enter as a free state and all states North of the 36th parallel (except the namesake itself) were free states and all Southern states were slave states.

James Madison

"Father of the Constitution" and "Father of the Bill of Rights", he was a Federalist leader (coauthor of the Federalist Papers) prior to the Constitution's creation but helped create the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the degree of centralization sought after by Alexander Hamilton; became 4th president

Virginia Plan

"Large state" proposal for the new constitution, calling for proportional representation in both houses of a bicameral Congress; stated that upper house would be elected by lower house (later revised to be elected by state legislature so each state would have at least one representative in the upper house); the plan favored larger states and thus prompted smaller states to come back with their own plan for apportioning representation; eventually revised finally by "Great Compromise"

Denmark Vesey

(1767-1822) Winning enough money in a lottery to buy his own freedom, this mulatto inspired a group of slaves, starting with church get-togethers, to seize Charleston, South Carolina in 1822, but one of them betrayed him and he and his thirty-seven followers were hung before the revolt started.

John Brown

(1800-1859) Anti-slavery advocate who believed that God had called upon him to abolish slavery. May or may not have been mentally unstable. Devoted over 20 years to fighting slavery, due to misunderstanding, in revenge he and his followers (his sons and others) killed five men in the pro-slavery settlement of Pottawatomie Creek. Triggered dozens of incidents throughout Kansas in which some 200 people were killed. He was executed after staging a revolt and capturing the federal armory at Harpers Ferry.

Edgar Allen Poe

(1809-1849). Orphaned at young age, he was an American poet, short-story writer, editor and literary critic, and is considered part of the American Romantic Movement; best known for his tales of mystery and the macabre with poems such as "The Raven" and stories like "The Fall of the House of Usher"; after a failed suicide attempt, he began drinking; died in Baltimore shortly after being found drunk in a gutter.

Harriet Beecher Stowe

(1811-1896) A feminist and abolitionist and author of the famous antislavery novel, Uncle Tom's Cabin; she was also primarily a writer of sentimental romantic novels

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

(1815-1902) A suffragette who, with Lucretia Mott, organized the first convention on women's rights, held in Seneca Falls, New York in 1848. Issued the Declaration of Sentiments which declared men and women to be equal and demanded the right to vote for women. Co-founded the National Women's Suffrage Association with Susan B. Anthony in 1869.

Frederick Douglass

(1817-1895) American abolitionist and writer, he escaped slavery and became a leading African American spokesman and writer. He published an autobiography and founded the abolitionist newspaper, the North Star. He was also a great orator, delivering speeches in places as far away as Europe.

Martin Van Buren

(1837-1841) Advocated lower tariffs and free trade, and by doing so maintained support of the south for the Democratic party; succeeded in setting up a system of bonds for the national debt; also created independent treasury because he thought that banks that held federal money held an unfair competitive advantage as they were able to advertise that they banked with the US government; his downfall was the crisis of 1837, which was really Jackson's fault for issuing the specie circular

William Henry Harrison

(1841), was an American military leader, politician, the ninth President of the United States, and the first President to die in office; his death created a brief Constitutional crisis, but ultimately resolved many questions about presidential succession left unanswered by the Constitution until passage of the 25th Amendment; led US forces in the Battle of Tippecanoe and Battle of the Thames (frequently fought the natives)

William Henry Harrison

(1841), was an American military leader, politician, the ninth President of the United States, and the first President to die in office;death created a brief Constitutional crisis, but ultimately resolved many questions about presidential succession left unanswered by the Constitution until passage of the 25th Amendment; led US forces in the Battle of Tippecanoe (standalone battle) and Battle of the Thames in the War of 1812, both against Tecumseh

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

(1848) treaty signed by the U.S. and Mexico that officially ended the Mexican-American War; Mexico had to give up much of its northern territory to the U.S (Mexican Cession); in exchange the U.S. gave Mexico $15 million and said that Mexicans living in the lands of the Mexican Cession would be protected.

Bleeding Kansas

(1856) a series of violent fights between pro-slavery and abolitionist forces in ______ who had moved to Kansas to try to influence the decision of whether or not Kansas would a slave state or a free state. The dispute further strained the relations of the North and South, making civil war imminent.

Frederick Winslow Taylor

(1856-1915) He created the basis for the scientific management of business in his quest for efficiency by using shops and large plants as models; he succeeded in spreading his ideas on efficiency to several industries and wrote books on the subject of scientific management, also known as "______ism"

Jane Addams

(1860-1935) Founder of the Settlement House Movement with the creation of the Hull House in Chicago in 1889, which provided English lessons, daycare, and other services intended to help lift families out of poverty. First American Woman to earn Nobel Peace Prize in 1931 as president of Women's International League for Peace and Freedom.

Frederick Jackson Turner

(1861-1951) American historian who stressed the role of the western frontier in American history and said that humanity would continue to progress as long as there was new land to move into. He wrote the essay "The Significance of the Frontier in American History", in which he argued that the spirit and success of the United States was directly tied to the country's westward expansion. He also believed the frontier provided a place for homeless and solved social problems.

New York City Draft Riots

(1863) People against conscription (primarily poor Irish opposed to African American job competition and the ability of rich people to pay for a substitute contributed to their vision of the Civil War being a "rich man's war but a poor man's fight) violently protested in New York City for four days. 100 people were killed and many black homes, businesses and even an orphanage was burnt down. The violence was only halted when federal troops, fresh out of Gettysburg, stepped in.

Henry Ford

(1863-1947) American businessman, inventor of the Model T and founder of Ford Motor Company, the father and first major user of modern assembly lines. He is credited with 161 patents.

Wilbur Wright

(1867-1912) Bicycle shop owner and inventor who, with his younger brother Orville, developed the first airplane and flew it successfully in Kitty Hawk in 1903. Eventually would go on to continue manufacturing aircraft and assisting the military in adopting them. Rival of Howard Hughes.

Douglas MacArthur

(1880-1964), U.S. Army General. He was originally commander of US forces in the Philippines when they were invaded by Japan. After leaving, he became commander of U.S. (later Allied) forces in the southwestern Pacific during World War II and led a spearhead north that started with the New Guinea campaign. He accepted Japan's surrender in 1945 and administered the ensuing Allied occupation. He was commander of UN forces in Korea 1950-51, before being forced to relinquish command by President Truman after having pushed too far north (too close to the Chinese border). He is famous for his "I Shall Return" speech regarding the Philippines.

William Howard Taft

(1908-1912) 27th president who was endorsed by Roosevelt because he pledged to carry on progressive program (he didn't appoint any Progressives to the Cabinet). He actively pursued anti-trust law suits, appoints Richard Ballinger as Secretary of the Interior who outright opposed conservation and favored business interests. He fired Gifford Pinchot (head of U.S. forestry) and ran for re-election in 1912 but lost to Wilson

Richard Wright

(1908-1960) He was an African American author who wrote about racial oppression. His novels included Uncle Tom's Children (1938), Native Son (1940), and Black Boy (1945). He joined the Communist Party for a brief time in the early 1930s.

Geneva Conference

(1954) This agreement ended the war between France and Vietnam. Vietnam was partitioned into the North and South to provide for the two opposing governments. It also set up an election in 1956 which would decide if the government of the South or the North would become the head of Vietnam (never accepted). Ultimately the country was split at 17ºN latitude. The USA did not actively participate in or sign on to the accords.

Osama Bin Laden

(1957-) Founder of al Qaeda, the terrorist network responsible for the attacks of September 11, 2001, and other attacks, he was a former member of the mujahideen, trained and supplied by the United States to fight the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan from 1979 to 1989. Born in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia to a wealthy family, it is believed he became radically anti-American when he and his group were refused by the government of Saudi Arabia to participate in the Persian Gulf War (after their offer of help was rejected, the United States joined the coalition, and it is speculated that this is why he began to hate the United States).

The Other America

(1962) - This novel was an influential study of poverty in the U.S, published by Michael Harrington & it was a driving force behind the "war on poverty" under the Johnson administration. As much as 1/5 of U.S was living below poverty line, as this novel wished to expose that not all of American was the affluent society that espoused middle-class consumer culture, mainly because they were victims of a cycle of poverty.

Jimmy Carter

(1977-1981) 39th President of the United States, this peanut farmer, when president created the Department of Energy and the Department of Education. He was criticized for his return of the Panama Canal Zone, and because of the Soviet war in Afghanistan, he enacted an embargo on grain shipments to USSR and boycotted the 1980 Olympics in Moscow. His last year in office was marked by the takeover of the American embassy in Iran, fuel shortages, and the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, which caused him to lose to Ronald Regan in the next election. Among the biggest foreign policy disasters was the failed Operation Eagle Claw, which was supposed to rescue the American hostages in Tehran but was aborted when bad weather at a checkpoint en route to the target caused some of the aircraft to collide on the ground, killing multiple soldiers.

Persian Gulf War

(1990 - 1991) Conflict between Iraq and a coalition of countries led by the United States to remove Iraqi forces from Kuwait, which they had invaded in hopes of controlling their oil supply. A very one-sided war with the United States' coalition emerging victorious, it saw a little over one hundred fatalities for the US (a majority of which were to friendly fire).

lyceum

(From the Greek name for the ancient Athenian school where Aristotle taught.) Public lecture hall that hosted speakers on topics ranging from science to moral philosophy. Part of a broader flourishing of higher education in the mid-nineteenth century, it's original purpose in the United States was to entertain, but it ended up informing people as well.

Sack of Lawrence

(May 1856) an attack, led by pro-slavery men, on abolitionists living in the city of Lawrence, Kansas; these pro-slavery men were sent to arrest antislavery leaders in Lawrence and in the process, they (the pro-slavery men) burned the town, robbed many buildings, and destroyed printing presses used to print abolitionist newspapers.

Plymouth Plantation

Site of the first Thanksgiving in 1621, and the first permanent European settlement in southern New England

Appomattox Courthouse

Site where Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant in April 1865 after almost a year of brutal fighting throughout Virginia in the "Wilderness Campaign" and the Battle of Petersburg; often regarded as the official end of the Civil War, it really only signified the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia under Lee

Charles Grandison Finney

Presbyterian minister and late leader of the Second Great Awakening, helped lead revival in upstate New York; also an abolitionist and women's rights advocate, he later became president of Oberlin College

Great Society

President Johnson called his version of the Democratic reform program this, intent on fighting poverty and racial injustice. In 1965, Congress passed many of these measures, including Medicare, civil rights legislation, and federal aid to education.

Border Ruffians

Pro-slavery Missourians who traveled in armed groups to vote in Kansas' election during the mid-1850's, in order to make it a pro-slavery government; they often battled anti-slavery forces at times

initiative

Process that permits voters to put legislative measures directly on the ballot.

Urban renewal

Program in which cities identify blighted inner-city neighborhoods, acquire the properties from private members, relocate the residents and businesses, clear the site, build new roads and utilities, and turn the land over to private developers. Occasionally, the land would be given back to the residents as public housing, which was sometimes better, but also often far worse in condition that the residences they replaced.

Command of the Army Act

Prohibited the president from issuing military orders except through the commanding general of the army (General Grant), who could not be relieved or assigned elsewhere without the consent of the Senate.

Apollo program

Project initiated by John F. Kennedy in 1961 to surpass the Soviet Union in space exploration and send a man to the moon.

William Lloyd Garrison

Prominent American abolitionist, journalist and social reformer. Editor of radical abolitionist newspaper "The Liberator", and one of the founders of the American Anti-Slavery Society. He also held radical views with regard to pacifism, gender equality, the Constitution, and other issues

Booker T. Washington

Prominent black American, born into slavery, who believed that racism would end once blacks acquired useful labor and economic skills/education and proved their economic value to society. Founder and head of the Tuskegee Institute in 1881. He wrote the book "Up from Slavery." In a way, he supported segregation.

The Man Nobody Knows

Published in 1925 by Bruce Fairchild Barton. Barton presents Jesus as "the founder of modern business," in an effort to make the Christian story accessible to businessmen of the time. One of the best selling non-fiction books of the 20th century. The book was controversial because it depicted Jesus as being "the world's greatest business executive" or the ultimate salesman when the opposite description was usually the one given.

Cotton Mather

Puritan theologian and scholar who urged the inoculation against smallpox and believed strongly in witches (played a role in Salem Witch Trials)

Sarah and Angelina Grimké

Quaker sisters from a wealthy South Carolina plantation-owning who came north and became active in the abolitionist movement; the latter married Theodore Weld, a leading abolitionist and the former wrote and lectured on a variety of reforms including women's rights and abolition

de jure segregation

Racial segregation that occurs because of laws or administrative decisions by public agencies.

George Wallace

Racist governor of Alabama in 1962 who famously advocated for "segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever"; he ran for president inn 1968 as the nominee of the American Independent Party ticket (emphasized racism and law and order). He loses to Nixon and runs again in 1972 but gets shot.

SALT 1/Strategic Arms Limitation Talks 1/Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty 1 (1972)

Ratified by the Senate in October 1972, this agreement limited both the US and USSR to two antiballistic missile systems, froze each side's offensive nuclear ICBMs for five years, and committed both the United States and Russia to strategic equality rather than nuclear superiority.

Burke Act

Reformed the Dawes Act; said that citizenship was granted after the 25 year probationary period instead of when the natives were 'allowed' the land. Also said that the Secretary of Interior could decide if an Indian was "competent" enough to handle the land allotment. If not, then they didn't get the land.

Dust Bowl

Region of the Great Plains that experienced a drought and subsequent ____ storms in the 1930s, leaving many farmers without work or substantial wages.

The Prophet (Tenskwatawa)

Religious leader and brother of Tecumseh who used religious visions to help forge alliance of native tribes; his defeat at the Battle of Tippecanoe ruined Tecumseh's plans for a new Native American confederacy and caused many people to lose faith in his visions

Thaddeus Stevens

Representative from Pennsylvania and leader of the Radical Republicans, he was a crucial proponent of the 13th and 14th Amendments (banning slavery and making all people born in the United States to be citizens with associated rights, respectively), he was a fierce opponent of President Andrew Johnson.

Dartmouth v. Woodward

Republican New Hampshire legislature wanted to convert the namesake's charter from private to state-owned; Marshall said the charter was a contract and that states could not force their way into private business, ruling in favor of the namesake.

Newt Gingrich

Republican Speaker of the House from 1995 to 1999, this Georgia representative pushed for more conservative legislation during Clinton's presidency. He demanded tax cuts and a balancing of the budget, and led the "Contract with America".

Herbert Hoover

Republican candidate who assumed the presidency and became the 31st president in March 1929 promising the American people prosperity and attempted to first deal with the Depression by trying to restore public faith in the community. He was formerly head of the Food Administration during World War I, which encouraged people to consume less food rather than institute an actual rationing program. He also became Secretary of Commerce, a position which he used to promote business associationalism.

Metacomet

1639-1676 Wamponoag sachem known to the English as King Philip. He led one of the last Native Americans battles against the colonist in New England in 1676.

King Philip's War

1675 - A series of battles in New Hampshire between the colonists and the Wompanoags, led by a chief known as King Philip. The war was started when the Massachusetts government tried to assert court jurisdiction over the local Indians. The colonists won with the help of the Mohawks, and this victory opened up additional Indian lands for expansion.

Bacon's Rebellion

1676 rebellion led by its namesake and other western Virginia settlers who were angry at Virginia Governor Berkeley for trying to appease the Doeg Indians after the Doegs attacked the western settlements. The frontiersmen formed an army, with Nathaniel ________ as its leader, which defeated the Indians and then marched on Jamestown and burned the city. The rebellion ended suddenly when ________ died of an illness.

Abraham Lincoln

16th president (Republican) of the United States; helped preserve the United States by leading the defeat of the secessionist Confederacy during the Civil War; an outspoken opponent of the expansion of slavery; issued the Emancipation Proclamation and presided over the passing of the 13th Amendment

Abraham Lincoln

16th president of the United States; helped preserve the United States by leading the defeat of the secessionist Confederacy in the American Civil War; an outspoken opponent of the expansion of slavery. Drafted the Emancipation Proclamation, made the Gettysburg Address; he was killed in 1865 at Ford Theater by John Wilkes Booth.

Currency Act

1764 British act forbidding the American colonies to issue paper money as legal tender; act was repealed in 1773 by the British as an effort to ease tensions between themselves and the colonies.

Shakers

1770's by "Mother" Ann Lee; Utopian group that splintered from the Quakers; believed that they and all other churches had grown too interested in this world and were neglectful of their afterlives; prohibited marriage and sexual relationships; practiced celibacy

Andrew Johnson

17th President of the United States, A Southerner form Tennessee and originally a Democrat, he was vice president when Lincoln was killed, and became the 17th president. He opposed radical Republicans who passed Reconstruction Acts over his veto. The first U.S. president to be impeached, he survived the Senate removal by only one vote. He was extremely unpopular with the Radical Republicans for his southern Democratic roots, racism, and opposition to their plans

John Locke

17th century English philosopher who opposed the Divine Right of Kings and who asserted that people have a natural right to life, liberty, and property; emphasized the social contract between the government and the governed

The Embargo

1807 act and policy enacted by Thomas Jefferson that banned all trade with all foreign countries; was issued in response to British impressment policies and French and British prohibition of trade between a country (including the United States) and the other of the two rivals; repealed soon later due to the fact it caused more problems for American industry; was replaced by the Non-Intercourse Act, which allowed trade with everyone except the United Kingdom and France

Goodwill Tour

1817 election victory lap by James Monroe through the northeast, mostly; was part of start of the "Era of Good Feelings"; happened in large part due to the lack of political resistance

McCulloch v. Maryland

1819 case of Supreme Court under Marshall in which they ruled against Maryland's ability to tax (and indirectly ruling against other states' ability to ban) the Federal Bank, thereby giving the feds more authority over state governments

Monroe Doctrine

1823 - Declared that Europe should not interfere in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere and that any attempt at interference by a European power would be seen as a threat to the U.S.; also declared that a New World colony which has gained independence may not be recolonized by Europe; utilized mainly after 1900

Hudson River School

1825-1875 group of American landscape painters including Thomas Doughty, Thomas Cole, George Inness, and Samuel Morse (yes that Morse); first native school of landscape painting in the U.S.; attracted artists rebelling against the neoclassical tradition, painted many scenes of New York's Hudson River, and later on of nature in general

Tariff of Abominations

1828 tariff that raised tariff rates because British were dumping their goods in America at extremely artificially low prices; helped northern industry but was hated by southerners since it taxed the goods that they needed; helped lead to the Nullification crisis arising from the South Carolina Exposition and Protest Bill

Removal Act

1830 Act by Andrew Jackson that authorized federal agents to start negotiating treaties with the southeastern native tribes; often treaties were signed with people who did not officially represent the tribes; ultimately led to the forced removal of the natives to Indian Territory (Oklahoma)

Webster-Hayne Debate

1830 debate in the Senate between the namesake senators from Massachusetts and South Carolina; arose after the "Tariff of Abominations" incident in 1828; [SC senator], backed by Vice President Calhoun first responded to [MA senator]'s argument of national power over states' rights with the idea of nullification; Webster then spent 2 full afternoons delivering his response which he concluded by saying that "Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable"

Know-Nothings (1840s and 1850s)

1840s/50s political movement that supported Americans and American ideals over the influence of immigrants; influenced by German and Irish Catholic immigration during the period, they suspected the immigrants of anti-Americanism and feared the influence of the Pope in Rome; the name of the movement came from its roots in secrecy' in its early days, member were supposed to answer that they did not know about the organization if asked by outsiders; movement grew in size and political representation in 1854 and 1855, but it was split by the slavery issue, and most members joined joined the Republican Party by the 1860 presidential election

Commonwealth v. Hunt

1842 case heard by the Massachusetts Supreme Court; was the first judgement in the U.S. that recognized that the conspiracy law is inapplicable to unions and that strikes for a closed shop are legal; also decided that unions are not responsible for the illegal acts of their members. Essentially protected the legality of strikes and unions

Webster-Ashburton Treaty

1842 treaty between the US and UK; settled boundary disputes between Maine and New Brunswick and other borders around the Great Lakes, banned oceanic slave trade, and included formal apology by the UK for the Caroline and Creole ship incidents.

Kansas-Nebraska Act

1854 act that created Nebraska and Kansas as states and gave the people in those territories the right to chose to be a free or slave state through popular sovereignty. Caused great disheval that led to dissension amongst the entire nation regarding slavery and state's rights.

Robert La Follette

1855-1925. Progressive Wisconsin senator and governor. Staunch supporter of the Progressive movement, and vocal opponent of railroad trusts, bossism, WWI, and the League of Nations. He helped end restrict machine politics and establish direct primaries.

Theodore Roosevelt

1858-1919. 26th President who increased the size of Navy to become the "Great White Fleet". He added his own corollary to the Monroe Doctrine and was champion of the "Big Stick" policy. Received Nobel Peace Prize for mediation of end of Russo-Japanese War and later arbitrated split of Morocco between Germany and France. Before his presidency, he had been Assistant Undersecretary of the Navy, head of the Rough Riders in the Spanish American War, and a rancher in the Dakotas. He was also a conservationist.

Crittenden Compromise

1860 attempt to prevent a Civil War by Senator John __________ (KY); he offered a Constitutional amendment recognizing slavery in the territories south of the 36º30' line, noninterference by Congress with existing slavery, and compensation to the owners of fugitive slaves; this attempt at compromise was defeated by Republicans

Morrill Tarriff

1861 - It brought up rates to protect industry and the wages of the industrial workers. It helped protect trade during the Civil War. It was able to be passed because the Southerners, who had a tendency to oppose the tariffs, were out of the Union. It reduced the status of the once-dominant planter elite in national politics, replacing them with the northern captains of industry

Morrill Land Grant Act (1862)

1862 act in which the federal government donated public land to the states for the establishment of college; as a result 69 land-grant institutions (state universities) were established.

National Bank Acts

1863 acts created a system that would allow existing and newly formed banks to join the system if they had enough capital and could invest a third of it into the government securities; in return they could issue US currency; these acts eliminated most of the chaos associated with multiple relatively unavailable currencies

Wade-Davis Bill

1864 bill that proposed far more demanding and stringent terms for reconstruction than the 10% plan; required 50% of the voters of a state to take the loyalty oath and permitted only non-confederates to vote for a new state constitution, in addition to having them abolish slavery, disenfranchise Confederate leaders, and repudiate debts accumulated during the war; Lincoln refused to sign the bill, pocket vetoing it after Congress adjourned.

Freedmen's Bureau

1865 agency set up to aid former slaves in adjusting themselves to freedom. It furnished food and clothing to needy blacks, helped build schools, and even helped them get jobs and land of their own; occasionally helped poor whites as well

Tenure of Office Act

1866 act enacted by radical Congress that forbade the president from removing civil officers without consent of the Senate. It was meant to prevent Johnson from removing radicals, like Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, from office. Johnson broke this law when he fired Stanton from his cabinet, and he was impeached for this "crime".

Military Reconstruction Act

1867; divided the South into five districts and placed them under military rule; required Southern States to ratify the 14th amendment; guaranteed freedmen the right to vote in convention to write new state constitutions; one of three major Reconstruction Acts

Chinese Exclusion Act

1882 law that denied any additional Chinese laborers to enter the country while allowing students and merchants to immigrate for ten years; was extended for another decade in 1892; became permanent in 1902

Pendleton Act

1883 law that created a Civil Service Commission and stated that federal employees could not be required to contribute to campaign funds nor be fired for political reasons. This was a huge win for the Half-Breed Republicans, who wanted civil service based on merit to be included in the government employee selection process.

American Federation of Labor

1886 national union founded by Samuel Gompers; sought better wages, less hours, and better working conditions; it was for skilled laborers and craftsmen and arose out of dissatisfaction with the Knights of Labor; they rejected socialist and communist ideas and were mostly nonviolent but were incorrectly associated with anarchists (who were in turn incorrectly associated with terrorism) and violence following the Haymarket bombing, which although it happened on the same day as their strike, was not part of it. They utilized collective bargaining. They were also against females working due to the competition they provided against males, but if women did work, they were for raising their wages.

Dawes Severalty Act

1887 bill passed that dismantled American Indian tribes as legal entities, eliminated tribal ownership of land and set up individuals as family heads with 160 acres, and tried to make rugged individualists out of the Indians in an attempt to assimilate the Indian population into that of the mainstream American one. The bill was resisted by the tribes, ineffective, and disastrous to native tribes.

McKinley Tariff

1890 tariff that raised protective tariff levels by nearly 50%, making them the highest tariffs on imports in the United States history; the Wilson Gorman Tariff later lowers rates

Atlanta Compromise

1895 speech and argument put forward by Booker T. Washington that African Americans should not focus on civil rights or social equality via political demonstrations and outcries but concentrate on economic self-improvement first - then rights will follow once people prove their economic value.

Boxer Rebellion

1899 rebellion in Beijing, China started by a secret society of Chinese who opposed the "foreign devils". The rebellion was ended primarily by British troops, in addition to other foreign powers including the United States. They forced the Chinese open to trade (on terms favorable to the western powers).

National Reclamation Act (1902)

1902 law that gave the federal government the power to decide where and how water would be distributed through the building and management of dams, canal, reservoir and irrigation projects.

Great White Fleet

1907-1909 - Term used to describe the size of the US Navy. Roosevelt sent sixteen battleships that were freshly painted to pressure Japan into the "Gentlemen's Agreement" (the US would not restrict Japanese immigration; instead Japan would ban emigration to the United States). By 1906, the US Navy has passed Germany's in size to become the second largest navy in the world, only beaten by the UK.

Seventeenth Amendment

1913 constitutional amendment allowing American voters to directly elect US senators

Sabotage Act (World War 1)

1916 law that penalized anyone who damaged or destroyed war supplies, property, or transport.

Betty Friedan

1921-2006. American feminist, activist and writer who was best known for starting the "Second Wave" of feminism through the writing of her book "The Feminine Mystique". She also helped found the National Organization for Women (NOW).

Bonus Army

1932 - Facing the financial crisis of the Depression, WW I veterans tried to pressure Congress to pay them their $1,000 retirement war bonuses early (they were due in 1945). Congress considered a bill authorizing immediate assurance of $2.4 billion, but it was not approved. Angry veterans marched on Washington, D.C., and Hoover called in the army to get the veterans out of there.

Indian Reorganization Act (1934)

1934 Government legislation that allowed the Indians a form of self-government and thus willingly shrank the authority of the U.S. government. It provided the Indians direct ownership of their land, credit, a constitution, and a charter in which Indians could manage their own affairs. This also allowed the land to be owned communally by natives. Natives were still poor and on mostly arid land, but their income grew massively as a result.

Share-Our-Wealth Society

1934 group founded by Louisiana Senator Huey "Kingfish" Long. Long, a populist, criticized FDR for not doing more to help those on the lower end of the scale. He proposed a radical taxation plan on the wealthy to make "every man a king". When Long was assassinated, the society lost its drive.

Bretton Woods Conference

1944, (FDR) , The common name for the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held in New Hampshire, 44 nations at war with the Axis powers met to create a world bank to stabilize international currency, increase investment in under-developed areas, and speed the economic recovery of Europe.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

1949 alliance of nations that agreed to band together in the event of war and to support and protect each nation involved. Article V states that other countries can be called in if any one member is attacked. It now has 29 member states, including the US, Canada, Turkey, Iceland, the United Kingdom, Norway, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal, etc. (all of Europe except Ireland, Switzerland, Austria, Liechtenstein, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Serbia, Macedonia, Ukraine, Sweden, Finland, the Vatican City, San Marino, Monaco, Andorra, Malta, Moldova, and Belarus).

McCarran Internal Security Act

1950 law that required Communist individuals and organizations to register with the office of the Attorney General and prohibited them from working for the government. It also established the Subversive Activities Control Board to investigate persons thought to be engaged in "un-American activities", among which was homosexuality. Truman described it as a long step toward totalitarianism. It was a response to the onset of the Korean war.

Elvis Presley

1950s; a symbol of the rock-and-roll movement of the '50s when teenagers began to form their own subculture, dismaying to conservative parents; created a youth culture that ridiculed phony and pretentious middle-class Americans, celebrated uninhibited sexuality and spontaneity; foreshadowed the coming counterculture of the 1960s. He is often considered the King of Rock and Roll, and his highly esteemed career began with his song Heartbreak Hotel.

Malcolm X

1952 civil rights activist and agitator who renamed himself to signify the loss of his African heritage; he converted Islam and joined the Nation of Islam; jailed in the 50s, became Black Muslims' most dynamic street orator and recruiter; his beliefs were the basis of a lot of the Black Power movement built on separationist and nationalist impulses designed to achieve true independence and equality. After repudiating the Nation of Islam and its more violent methods, he was later assassinated by three members of the organization.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka

1954 - The case in which the Earl Warren Supreme Court overruled Plessy v. Ferguson, declared that racially segregated facilities are inherently unequal and ordered all public schools desegregated. It led to a "massive resistance" by the south to desegregation efforts., which in turn led to Eisenhower calling in the National Guard to forcefully integrate Little Rock Central High three years later.

Cuban Missile Crisis

1962 crisis that arose between the United States and the Soviet Union over a Soviet attempt to deploy long range weapons in the namesake country. President Kennedy responded harshly, deployed warship to the Atlantic to prevent Soviet ships from reaching Cuba and drawing a line, ordering the Soviets to withdraw the weapons, which they eventually did in return for the US dismantling Jupiter missiles it had stationed in Turkey.

Freedom Summer

1964 initiative/movement when blacks and whites together challenged segregation and led a massive drive to register blacks to vote, primarily in Mississippi.

Miranda v. Arizona

1966 Supreme Court decision that held that criminal suspects must be informed of their right to consult with an attorney and of their right against self-incrimination prior to questioning by police. The so called ____________ Rights (the right to remain silent, the right to an attorney - if you cannot afford one, one will be provided to you) gained their name and fame from this case.

Mai Lai Massacre

1968 event in which American troops had brutally massacred innocent women and children in a South Vietnamese village. It led to more opposition to the war after it was soon televised in America.

Tet Offensive

1968; the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces launched a huge attack on the Vietnamese New Year, which was defeated after a month of fighting and many thousands of casualties; it was a major defeat for the communist faction, but Americans reacted sharply, with declining approval of Lyndon B. Johnson and more anti-war sentiment.

Clean Air Act

1970 law signed by Richard Nixon that established national standards for states, strict auto emissions guidelines, and regulations, which set air pollution standards for private industry

Clean Water Act

1972 law signed by Richard Nixon setting a national goal of making all natural surface water fit for fishing and swimming by 1983, banned polluted discharge into surface water and required the metals be removed from waste.

Ronald Reagan

1981-1989, this 40th President of the United States was viewed as the "Great Communicator". A former actor, this Republican with conservative economic policies replaced liberal Democrats in the upper house with conservative Democrats or "boll weevils" , at reelection time. He is known for his economics policy, his arms buildup, and his hard line with the Soviet Union.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

1992 treaty that allowed for the free movement of goods between Canada, the United States of America, and Mexico. It was replaced in 2018 by the USMCA (United States - Mexico - Canada Agreement)

Rutherford B. Hayes

19th president of the United States (Republican) who was famous for being part of the ______-Tilden election in which 20 electoral votes were contested in 4 states. He was losing 165-184 to Samuel Tilden, but with Republican congressmen securing the Compromise of 1877, he won all twenty votes and became president. The process was considered corrupt by many.

Horatio Alger

19th-century American author, best known for his many formulaic juvenile novels about impoverished boys and their rise from humble backgrounds to lives of middle-class security and comfort through hard work, determination, courage, and honesty. He unrealistically portrayed the frequency of "rags-to-riches" stories. Admittedly, he said his characters' success was a combination of "pluck and luck" and he had some misgivings about industrial society; however, his readers misinterpreted his works as an unconditional justification of laissez-faire capitalist policies. Formerly a minister, he was driven from his pulpit as a result of a sexual scandal. He was, in fact, homosexual.

Articles of Confederation

1st Constitution of the U.S. 1781-1788 that lacked a formal executive or judicial component and had no power to directly levy taxes or regulate trade on the "states"; sole powers were regarding war and diplomacy; lack of revenue caused its downfall

George Washington

1st President of the United States; commander-in-chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolution (1732-1799)

James Garfield

20th President; he was a Half-Breed member of the Republican Party who was heavily for civil-service reform. He defeated General Winfield Scott Hancock in the election of 1880, and was assassinated four months after his inauguration.

Grover Cleveland

22nd and 24th president, he was a Democrat who fought corruption, vetoed hundreds of wasteful bills, achieved the Interstate Commerce Commission and further civil service reform, but violently suppressed many strikes.

Benjamin Harrison

23rd President; after winning the 1888 election over Grover Cleveland on the issue of tariffs (this guy supported raising them), this Republican president often regarded as a poor leader; he introduced the McKinley Tariff and increased federal spending to a billion dollars.

William McKinley

25th President responsible for Spanish-American War, Philippine-American War, and the Annexation of Hawaii, and imperialism. He defeated Democrat William Jennings Bryan in both the 1896 and 1900 elections, but was later assassinated by an anarchist in 1901. He was for the gold standard.

Woodrow Wilson

28th president of the United States, he started out as a professor of political science at Princeton University. He later became president of the University and governor of New Jersey. Elected in 1912, he is known for his World War I leadership, the creation of the Federal Reserve, the creation of the Federal Trade Commission, the passing of the Clayton Antitrust Act, the creation of a progressive income tax, lower tariffs, and women's suffrage (reluctantly). During the Treaty of Versailles, he sought a 14 points post-war plan and intended to create the League of Nations (but failed to win U.S. ratification). He won Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts. He is also known for his New Freedom platform, advocating for progressive, anti-monopoly and anti-trust policies.

Boston Police Strike (1919)

3/4 of this city's fifteen thousand ____________ went on strike for better pay and working conditions; for a few days the streets belonged to rioters with chaos and looting widespread; Governor Calvin Coolidge called out the National Guard which restored order and broke the strike, citing that "there is no right to strike against the public safety by anybody, anywhere, any time".

Harry Truman

33rd President of the United States; he led the U.S. to victory in WWII making the ultimate decision to use atomic weapons for the first time. Shaped U.S. foreign policy regarding the Soviet Union after the war. He was also president for all but the very end of the Korean War.

Richard Nixon

37th President of the United States, he was a former representative from California and a Republican who helped prosecute Alger Hiss in the House Un-American Activities Committee hearings; he advocated "Vietnamization" (replace US troops with Vietnamese), but also bombed Cambodia and Laos (targeting the Ho Chi Minh Trail), and created a "credibility gap". The Paris Peace Accords, which ended direct US involvement, were signed under his tenure. He took US off gold standard (currency was instead valued by strength of economy); created the Environmental Protection Agency, and was president during first moon landing. He was president at the signing of SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) and the institution of the new policy of detente between US and Soviet Union. Due to his knowledge of the Watergate scandal, he resigned just before he would have been impeached.

George H. W. Bush

41st U.S. President from 1989-1993 and former Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. He oversaw the Persian Gulf War and is the father of the 43rd President. He was also a Navy pilot earlier during the Korean War.

Bill Clinton

42nd President (1993-2001) who advocated economic and healthcare reform; he was the second president to be impeached (for perjury). He is responsible for the Don't Ask Don't Tell policy used for gays in the military, the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993, Travelgate, Operation Desert Fox (bombing campaign in Iraq), etc.

George W. Bush

43rd president of the United States (2001-2009) who made a move towards energy self-sufficiency and initiated the war on terror (Afghanistan War) in response to 9/11 and invaded Iraq over the belief that they possessed chemical weapons of mass destruction.

Barack Obama

44th President of the United States (2009-2017), this Democrat was the first African American president of the US. He saw the passing of the Affordable Care Act, the New Horizon BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, the huge stimulus package to bring the United States out of the 2008 recession, the removal of troops from Iraq, strengthened numbers in Afghanistan, the repeal of Don't Ask Don't Tell (replaced by a policy in the military open to gays and lesbians), and New START (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks) Treaty with Russia.

Al Gore

45th Vice President of the United States from 1993 to 2001 under President Bill Clinton. He ran for president in 2000 and won the popular vote but lost the electoral college due to a key decision over Florida.

Mercy Otis Warren

A 18th century female American historian, poet, and playwright who wrote a 3-volume history of the American Revolution; prior to the Revolution, wrote for American propaganda and to make fun of the British

Roosevelt Corollary

A 1904 extension of the Monroe Doctrine, stating that the United States has the right to protect its economic interests in South and Central America by using military force. He stated that the United States not only had the right to protect countries of the Americas from European intervention but also the right to intervene in countries facing instability for severe financial problems (such as debt to European countries). Arose from the Venezuelan dispute, it was applied to the Dominican Republican following a revolution and massive debt (to Europe), and also to Cuba.

Scopes Monkey Trial

A 1925 court case in Tennessee that focused on the issue of teaching evolution in public schools. John T. ________ had taught evolution in a school in Dayton, Tennessee and was subsequently arrested as per a state law declaring it illegal to teach anything that opposed the divine creation of man. Defended by Clarence Darrow of the ACLU, and prosecuted by William Jennings Bryan, his defeat was a foregone conclusion due to the existence of the law. However, Darrow's brilliant cross-examination of Bryan as a "bible expert" exposed many contradictions in the fundamentalist belief. Darrow even got Bryan to admit that there are multiple possible interpretations of the Bible.

Atlantic Charter

A 1941 pledge signed by US president Franklin Delano Roosevelt and British prime minister Winston Churchill not to acquire new territory as a result of World War II and to work for peace after the war.

Pentagon Papers

A 7,000-page top-secret United States government report on the history of the internal planning and policy-making process within the government itself concerning the Vietnam War. An analysis by the RAND Corporation essentially stated that the war in Vietnam was a stalemate at best and being lost at worst.

Lusitania

A British passenger ship that was sunk off the coast of Ireland by a German U-Boat on May 7, 1915. 128 Americans died. The sinking greatly turned American opinion against the Germans, helping them move towards entering the war. The ship was carrying both munitions and passengers; nonetheless, Wilson demanded that the Germany not repeat such an attack and demanded that the Central Powers recognize neutral countries' rights.

Henry George

A California printer, journalist, influential activist, and controversial reformer whose ideas about taxes and reform, expressed in Progress and Poverty (1879), were widely propagated. He advocated solving problems of economic inequality by a tax on land, which he said was the source of the rich's wealth (not through on work but through the development of society around such land by happenstance). He was a major opponent of the capitalism views of the captains of industry/robber barons.

Jacob Riis

A Danish immigrant, he became a reporter ("muckraker") who pointed out the terrible conditions of the tenement houses of the big cities where immigrants lived during the late 1800s. He wrote How The Other Half Lives in 1890 on the social and political evils that lead to the squalor in which the urban poor live in places like New York City and Hell's Kitchen.

Mississippi Plan

A Democratic Party strategy to win victory in the _____________ elections of 1875, it entailed on occasion purchasing but mostly threatening, intimidating, and coercing African Americans and on occasion other Republicans into not participating in the elections of this state.

Hindenburg

A German lighter-than-air dirigible that crashed and burned (after a trans-Atlantic voyage) in New Jersey in 1937.

Dred Scott

A Missouri slave who sued for his freedom, claiming that his four year stay in the northern portion of the Louisiana Territory made free land by the Missouri Compromise had made him a free man. The U.S, Supreme Court decided he couldn't sue in federal court because he was property, not a citizen.

Immigration Restriction League (1890s)

A Nativist group who wanted to restrict immigration into the U.S. to certain groups they deemed desirable. Because of them, Congress passed a bill in 1897 requiring a literacy test for immigrants (vetoed by Cleveland)

William Bradford

A Pilgrim, the second governor of the Plymouth colony, 1621-1657. He developed private land ownership and helped colonists get out of debt. He helped the colony survive droughts, crop failures, and Indian attacks.

Anne Hutchinson

A Puritan woman who was well learned that disagreed with the Puritan Church in Massachusetts Bay Colony. Her actions (preached the idea that God communicated directly to individuals instead of through the church elders) resulted in her banishment from the colony; later took part in the formation of Rhode Island. She displayed the importance of questioning authority.

William Penn

A Quaker that founded Pennsylvania to establish a place where his people and others could live in peace and be free from persecution.

Lucretia Mott

A Quaker who attempted to attend an anti-slavery convention in 1840; her group was refused admission; with Elizabeth Cady Stanton called the first women's right convention in Seneca Falls, New York in 1848

Andrew Carnegie

A Scottish-born American industrialist and philanthropist who founded the Carnegie Steel Company in 1892. By 1901, his company dominated the American steel industry. He eventually sold his company to JP Morgan.

George McGovern

A Senator from South Dakota who ran for President in 1972 on the Democrat ticket. His promise was to pull the remaining American troops out of Vietnam in ninety days which earned him the support of the Anti-war party, and the working-class supported him, also. He lost however to Nixon, because his radical views on race and other things were opposed by the middle-class. He later served as UN Global Ambassador on Hunger.

Tecumseh

A Shawnee chief who, along with his brother, Tenskwatawa, a religious leader known as The Prophet, worked hard to unite the Northwestern Indian tribes against the threat he saw in the United States' expansionism; the league of tribes was defeated by an American army led by William Henry Harrison at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811; later he was killed fighting for the British during the War of 1812 at the Battle of the Thames (part of US invasion attempt of Canada) in 1813.

American Colonization Society

A Society that thought slavery was bad and offered to buy land in Africa and get free blacks to move there (one of these such colonies was made into what now is Liberia); most sponsors just wanted to get blacks out of their country; failed due to cost of paying owners to free slaves and then cost of transporting blacks to Africa

The Alamo

A Spanish mission converted into a fort, it was besieged by Mexican troops in 1836. The Texas garrison held out for thirteen days, but in the final battle, all of the Texans, including famous men such as Davy Crockett and Jim Bowie, were killed by the larger Mexican force, although they inflicted far more casualties on the Mexicans under Santa Anna. Became a rallying cry for Texan troops at San Jacinto.

Ex parte Merryman

A Supreme Court case that Chief Justice Taney's ruled that the suspension of habeas corpus was unconstitutional without an act of Congress. Lincoln openly defied the ruling by suspending it for the arrest of anti-Unionists during the Civil War. This shows how a president can sometimes overstep their power.

Whittaker Chambers

A TIME magazine editor and confessed former Communist and a star witness for the House Un-American Activities Committee in 1948 when he testified against Alger Hiss. He famously produced microfilms of the documents that he alleged Hiss passed on to the Soviets (these documents were called the Pumpkin Papers because Chambers kept them hidden in a pumpkin in his garden). He also named other people as spies, some of whom were in Franklin Delano Roosevelt's cabinet.

James G. Blaine

A U.S. Representative, Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, U.S. Senator from Maine, two-time United States Secretary of State, and champion of the Half-Breeds. He was a dominant Republican leader of the post Civil War period, obtaining the 1884 Republican nomination, but ended up losing to Democrat Grover Cleveland. He forced the "mugwumps" to defect.

Containment

A U.S. foreign policy adopted by President Harry Truman in the late 1940s, in which the United States tried to stop the spread of communism by creating alliances and helping weak countries to resist Soviet advances. Essentially, it resisted further expansion of communism around the world.

Women's Trade Union League

A U.S. labor organization of working class, middle-class, and elite women formed in New York in 1903 to support the efforts of women to organize labor unions and to eliminate sweatshop conditions, primarily among garment workers. Their issue was that they failed to mobilize any major strikes or similar actions, so instead they shifted their focus to advocating for legislation.

No Child Left Behind Act

A U.S. law enacted in 2001 that was intended to increase accountability in education by requiring states to qualify for federal educational funding by administering standardized tests to measure school achievement.

Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp

A United States detention camp and interrogation facility on the namesake Naval Base in Cuba. It detains prisoners determined to be opponents in the war on terror. Some of the prisoners have complained that the US tortures the prisoners but Bush denied it.

George Dewey

A United States naval officer remembered for his victory at Manila Bay in the Spanish-American War, he was the U.S. Navy commander who led the American attack on the Philippines.

direct primary

A ballot vote in which citizens select a party's nominee for the general election.

J. P. Morgan

A banker who took control and consolidated bankrupt railroads in the Panic of 1893. In 1900, he led a group that purchased Carnegie Steel, which was renamed U.S. Steel. He was a philanthropist in a way; he gave all the money needed for WWI and was paid back. He is often considered a robber baron.

Federal Trade Commission Act

A banner accomplishment of Woodrow Wilson's administration, this law empowered a standing, presidentially-appointed commission to investigate illegal business practices in interstate commerce like unlawful competition, false advertising, and mislabeling of goods. This was intended to help regulate and crush monopolies.

Little Bighorn

A battle in Montana near this River between United States cavalry under Custer and several groups of Native Americans, primarily Sioux under the command of Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse (1876); resulted in the death of all of Custer's forces, himself included.

Saratoga

A battle that took place in New York where the Continental Army under Horatio Gates defeated the British under John Burgoyne. It proved to be the turning point of the war. This battle ultimately led France to openly support the colonies with military forces in addition to the supplies and money already being sent.

Chicago Race Riots

A black teenager was swimming in Lake Michigan when he unintentionally neared a white beach - a group of white men stoned him to unconsciousness and he drowned; this caused a ______ _______ when blacks retaliated (and whites retaliated in return); 15 whites and 23 blacks died and hundreds were injured; thousands were left homeless because of arsonists. It was the worst _____ in The Red Summer, which saw 120 people die in various ones, usually the result of black indignation at being laid off from factory jobs following white troops' return home and embitterment at not achieving social gains despite their participation in the war.

Tulsa Race Riot (1921)

A bloody and violent confrontation between whites and blacks in 1921 that arose from the accusations against a black man that he had sexually assaulted a white woman in an elevator. While being held at the jail, a white crowd gathered outside to lynch him. Eventually acquitted of the charges and released, a battle ensued outside between the African Americans there to defend him and the whites there to lynch him. The police joined the whites, and soon, significant parts of the black residential areas were burned and many were left dead. It was possibly the deadliest race riot in US history (more people believe it was the 1863 New York City draft riot).

Gospel of Wealth

A book written by Andrew Carnegie that described the responsibility of the rich to be philanthropists. This softened the harshness of Social Darwinism as well as promoted the idea of philanthropy. It expressed the belief that, as the guardians of society's wealth, the rich have a duty to serve society. Carnegie ended up donating more than $350 million to libraries, school, peace initiatives, and the arts

Silent Spring

A book written to voice the concerns of environmentalists. It launched the environmentalist movement by pointing out the effects of civilization development. Written by Rachel Carson in 1962, it asked readers to imagine a world where birds stopped singing in the spring, and where the rest of the ecosystem was affected by the loss of other creatures.

Popular Front

A broad coalition of "antifascist" groups on the left, of which the most important was the American Communist Party. They were harsh and unrelenting critics of traditional American capitalism and claimed the government was controlled by it. They softened their stance toward FDR (on directions of the USSR, believing correctly that FDR could be a future potential ally) and began to loosely ally with other progressive groups, and were strong exponents for the New Deal.

The Benevolent Empire

A broad-ranging campaign of moral and institutional reforms inspired by evangelical Christian ideals and endorsed by upper-middle-class men and women in the 1820s and 1830s; included providing schools for blind and other handicapped and reforming prisons and providing asylums for those with mental illness

Erie Canal

A canal connecting the Hudson River at Albany and Lake Erie at Buffalo, completed in 1825; considered a marvel of the modern world at the time, allowed western farmers to ship surplus crops to sell in the North and allowed northern manufacturers to ship finished goods to sell in the West.

Crazy Horse

A chief of the Ogallala Lakota Sioux who resisted the invasion of the Black Hills and joined Sitting Bull in the defeat of General Custer at Little Bighorn (1849-1877). He was later forced to surrender and return to his reservation. He was later killed by reservation police.

Readjusters

A coalition of blacks and whites who determined to lower the state debt through methods other than bonds (would give the wealth to speculators rather than the state government) and spend more money on public education and other services; they captured state offices in Virginia from 1879 to 1883.

Union Party

A coalition party of pro-war Democrats and Republicans formed during the 1864 election to defeat anti-war Northern Peace Democrats or Copperheads; they chose Lincoln as their candidate, who ended up winning.

DDT/dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane

A colorless odorless water-insoluble crystalline insecticide (C14H9Cl5) that tends to accumulate in ecosystems and has toxic effects on many vertebrates via biological magnification; became the most widely used pesticide from WWII to the 1950's; implicated in illnesses and environmental problems, it is now banned in US. It was a pesticide originally intended to control insects that spread typhus and malaria and destroyed crops.

trust

A combination of firms or corporations formed by a legal agreement, especially to reduce competition, usually run by a single board of directors on the behalf of the granter of the trust. Sometimes it was meant to funnel money to a third person or beneficiary after the death of the granter. More often with corporations, it involved "combination ______s" which handed over the majority of shares to a board who would dole out dividends back to the original shareholders every now and then (those shareholders hence can still earn money although they do not control the company anymore, helping them to not look like monopolies until Anti-these laws came around). At the core, these allow companies and assets to be managed by third-parties.

XYZ Affair

A commission had been sent to France in 1797 to discuss the disputes that had arisen out of the U.S.'s refusal to honor the Franco-American Treaty of 1778; France also had begun to break off relations with the U.S. in response to Adams' criticism of the French Revolution; Adams sent delegates (John Jay, John Marshall, and Elbridge Gerry) to meet with French foreign minister Talleyrand, but Talleyrand's three agents told the American delegates that they could meet with Talleyrand only if they paid a bribe; Adams made the incident public, substituting the letters "X, Y and Z" for the names of the three French agents in his report to Congress; helped spark outrage and the Quasi War

America First Committee

A committee organized by isolationists before WWII, who wished to spare American lives. They wanted to protect America before we went to war in another country. Charles A. Lindbergh (the aviator) was its most effective speaker. They did not even support supplying the Allies.

open shop

A company with a labor agreement under which union membership cannot be required as a condition of employment.

ARPANET/Advanced Research Projects Agency Network

A computer network developed by the Advanced Research Project Agency (now DARPA or the Defense Advance Research Projects Agency) in the 1960s and 1970s as a means of communication between research laboratories and universities. It was the predecessor to the internet and was formally decommissioned in 1990.

William Quantrill

A confederate guerrilla, who had 400 men ride with him to Lawrence, Kansas to raid and destroy the town and kill unionists. He was eventually executed, but it resulted in a series of reprisal raids and skirmishes that caused a lot of bloodshed in Kansas even though no single large battle occurred there during the Civil War.

House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)

A congressional investigatory body established in 1938 that investigated Communist influence inside and outside the U.S. government in the years following World War II. They sought to root out "subversion" and expose communist influence in American government and society, especially through the case of Alger Hiss and their attacks on Hollywood.

American Liberty League

A conservative anti-New Deal organization that was originally intended to oppose the prohibition of liquor; members included Alfred Smith, John W. Davis, and the Du Pont family. It criticized the "dictatorial" policies of Roosevelt and what it perceived to be his attacks on the free enterprise system. Many backers were businessmen.

Equal Rights Amendment

A constitutional amendment originally introduced in Congress in 1923 and passed by Congress in 1972, stating that "equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex." Despite public support, the amendment failed to acquire the necessary support from three-fourths of the state legislatures.

USA PATRIOT Act/PATRIOT Act/Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act

A controversial law overwhelmingly passed by Congress in October 2001, after the terrorist attacks of September 11 on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. It greatly expanded the power of federal law enforcement authorities to move against suspected terrorists and expanded the tools used to fight terrorism and improved communication between law enforcement and intelligence agencies.

Gullah

A creole language found on the islands off the coast of South Carolina and Georgia, involving English blended with Yoruba, Ibo, and Hausa

Ghost Dance

A cult that tried to call the spirits of past warriors to inspire the young braves to fight. Started by Wovoka, it was a religious dance that brought visions of the whites leaving the natives' lands and visions of the buffalo returning, etc. It was crushed at the Battle of Wounded Knee after spreading to the Dakota Sioux. The Ghost Dance led to the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887. This act tried to reform Indian tribes and turn them into "white" citizens. It did little good.

Carpetbaggers

A derogatory term applied to Northerners who migrated south during the Reconstruction to take advantage of opportunities to advance their own fortunes by buying up land from desperate Southerners and by manipulating new black voters to obtain lucrative government contracts. They tried to take advantage of the political and economic situation in the disorganized southern states.

Scalawags

A derogatory term for southern white Republicans; they were often made up of ex-Whigs who never fit in with the Southern Democrats and poor, rural farmers who never had slaves and felt left out

New World Order

A description of the international system resulting from the collapse of the Soviet Union in which the balance of nuclear terror theoretically no longer determined the destinies of states, and where the United States remained the sole military superpower, and for the time being, the primary economic superpower.

William M. Tweed

A disgraced American politician who was convicted for stealing millions of dollars from New York City taxpayers through political corruption and died in jail. This "boss" was head of and helped recruit votes for Tammany Hall, the Democratic Party political machine that played a major role in the politics of 19th century New York.

Roger Williams

A dissenter who clashed with the Massachusetts Puritans over separation of church and state and was banished in 1636, after which he founded the colony of Rhode Island to the south

Haight-Ashbury District

A district of San Francisco, in the central part of the city that served as a center for hippies, rock n' roll, and the drug culture in the 1960s; the focus for the so-called San Francisco Renaissance.

Chinatown

A district of any non-Chinese town, especially a city or seaport, in which the population is predominantly of Chinese origin.

Plains Indians

A diverse group of Indian tribes that inhabited the western Great Plains; came into great conflict with settlers because settlers wanted to take over the land; posed a serious threat to western settlers because, unlike the Eastern Indians from early colonial days, the Plains Indians possessed rifles and horses; included people from many Indian nations including Cheyenne, Arapahos, Piutes, and Sioux.

NSC-68

A document issued by the ___________ ____________ __________, approved by President Truman in 1950; it developed in response to the Soviet Union's growing influence and nuclear capability; it called for an increase in the US conventional and nuclear forces to carry out the policy of containment and to "strive for victory". It paved the way for US foreign policy for the next twenty to thirty years, and led to a huge increase in defense spending ($37 billion).

Stalwarts

A faction of the Republican party at the end of the 1800s led primarily by Roscoe Conkling of New York. They supported the political machine and the spoils system/patronage. They hated civil service reforms. They included Chester Arthur (however he became very moderate when he became president).

McNary-Haugen Bill

A farm-relief bill that planned to rehabilitate American agriculture by raising the domestic prices of farm products Effects of the protective tariff and burdens of debt and taxation had created a serious agricultural depression that grew steadily worse. It also authorized the government to buy up surpluses and sell them abroad. It was passed by Congress twice but vetoed by Coolidge both times in the late 1920s.

flapper

A fashionable young woman intent on enjoying herself and flouting conventional standards of behavior by dressing liberally and doing other things that were deemed unseemly along more conservative lines of thought, such as smoking, drinking, and dancing.

George and Cecilius Calvert

A father and son who were the first two Lord Baltimores and wanted to establish a colony in the New World where Catholics could retreat (Maryland), and as a real estate investment. In 1632 the son received a charter with land in present day Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland and Virginia, and became the first proprietor of Maryland

Red Scare

A fear that communists and similar politically radical ideas and organizations were working to destroy the American way of life, aided in particular by the Soviet Union's Communist International (Comintern) organization, whose purpose was to "export revolution".

Medicaid

A federal and state assistance program that pays for health care services for people who cannot afford them.

Panic of 1907

A financial crisis that happened when the New York Stock Exchange crashed. Panic spread through the nation, resulting in many runs on banks and bank failures. It led to the creation of the Federal Reserve. Also known as the Bankers' Panic, it ended when JP Morgan helped pool many assets of New York banks together (such as US Steel's acquisition of the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company). Whether this actually helped or not is unknown, but this event ended soon after.

Triangle Shirtwaist Company Fire

A fire in a New York City garment factory in 1911 that killed 146 people, mostly women. They died because the emergency exit doors were locked to prevent unauthorized breaks. This event dramatized the poor working conditions and led to federal regulations to protect workers. Although the resulting report was a classic example of Progressive thought (statistics, data, and expert testimonial in service of the case that factories were dangerous), Tammany Hall Democrats were the resulting bills' largest supporters.

single tax

A flat tax proposed by Henry George. (A flat tax is one in which every person pays the same amount, regardless of whether they are rich or poor.) It was meant to tax "unearned increments", which are increases in asset value through means other than hard work. George was targeting the rising values of land in particular.

limited liability

A form of business ownership in which the owners are liable only up to the amount of their individual investments. Financial responsibility of business owners, investors, and stockholders is only for what they invested in a business.

Trench Warfare

A form of warfare in which opposing armies fight each other from long snaking man-made mini-valleys in the battlefield, separated by a No-Man's Land filled with barbed wire and mines. It arose from the increasing use of machine guns and artillery, and helped lead to the use of chemical warfare (mustard, sarin, chlorine, etc. gas), armored tanks, and flamethrowers to help combat them.

Daniel Ellsberg

A former American military analyst employed by the RAND Corporation who precipitated a national political controversy in 1971 when he released the Pentagon Papers, a top-secret Pentagon study of government decision-making about the Vietnam War, to The New York Times and other newspapers.

Alger Hiss

A former State Department official who was accused of being a Communist spy for the Soviet Union and was convicted of perjury by Whittaker Chambers, a former fellow member of the Communist Party. The case was prosecuted by Richard Nixon. He was sentenced to serve five years, but he maintained his innocence until his death.

George B. McClellan

A general for northern command of the Army of the Potomac in 1861; nicknamed "Tardy George" because of his failure to move troops to Richmond; lost battle against General Lee near the Chesapeake Bay; Lincoln fired him twice over his incompetence and unwillingness/slowness to attack

Popular Sovereignty

A government in which the people rule by their own consent, founded on the belief that ultimate power is derived from and resides in the people.

Termination

A government policy to bring Native Americans into mainstream society by withdrawing recognition of Native American groups and reservations as legal entities.

Teapot Dome

A government scandal involving a former United States Navy oil reserve in Wyoming (along with another one in Elk Hills, California) that was transferred to from the Navy to the Department of the Interior, which was under the control of Warren G. Harding's friend, Albert B. Fall (former New Mexico senator). It was then secretly leased to a private oil company in 1921 for half a million dollars in "loans". He was later convicted of bribery and served a year in prison.

attrition

A gradual reduction or weakening; a rubbing away; especially refers to a type of warfare strategy in which one side engages the enemy on multiple fronts for a long time, not seeking decisive victory on any one front, but just seeking to wear away enemy forces on all of them until the enemy gives up or runs critically low on certain supplies, equipment, or manpower.

National American Woman Suffrage Association

A group formed by leading suffragists in the late 1800s to organize the women's suffrage movement. Founded by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony.

Universal Negro Improvement Association (1914)

A group founded by Marcus Garvey to promote the settlement of American blacks in their own "African homeland", and more generally to foster black nationalism in general and stimulate a black-run portion of the economy. They also did other things such as stage rallies and parades with opulent uniforms for its members, and establish a chain of African-American run grocery stores, along with other economic actions.

Taliban

A group of fundamentalist Muslims who took control of Afghanistan's government in 1996, and were deposed of by the US military in 2001. After years of conflict in Afghanistan against the new government and the US, they have just begun talks with the United States (refusing to talk with the Afghan government, believing they are just a puppet of the US) and representative Zalmay Khalilzad in Qatar.

Muckrakers

A group of investigative reporters who pointed out the abuses of big business and the corruption of urban politics; included Frank Norris (The Octopus) Ida Tarbell (A History of the Standard Oil Company) Lincoln Steffens (The Shame of the Cities) and Upton Sinclair (The Jungle)

mugwumps

A group of renegade Republicans who supported 1884 Democratic presidential nominee Grover Cleveland instead of their party's nominee, James G. Blaine.

Scots-Irish

A group of restless people who fled their home in _____land in the 1600s to escape poverty and religious oppression. They first relocated to _____land and then to America in the 1700s. They left their mark on the backcountry of Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia. These areas are home to many Presbyterian churches established by them. Many people in these areas are still very independent like their ancestors. Hated the British government.

Weathermen

A group that branched off of the SDS; advocated terrorism (bombings, arson, etc.) in the US to stop another Vietnam from happening. Its name came from the Bob Dylan lyrics "don't need a ______________ to know which way the wind blows". Their already small following diminished after four of them died in an explosion in Greenwich Village. Much of the rest of the movement got incorrectly associated with this bunch.

Smoot-Hawley Tariff

A high protective import tax authorized by Congress in 1930 for imports thereby leading to less trade between America and foreign countries along with some economic retaliation. It was worsened by the depression.

Earth Day

A holiday conceived of by environmental activist and Senator Gaylord Nelson to encourage support for and increase awareness of environmental concerns; first celebrated on March 22, 1970, it provided a more centrist, less controversial cause than many of the other progressive movements of the time period. It helped elevate environmentalism to an issue in the national consciousness.

Preston Brooks

A hot tempered Congressman of South Carolina took vengeance in his own hands. He beat Massachusetts senator Charles Sumner with a cane until he was restrained by other Senators. He later resigned from his position, but was soon reelected.

Committee on the Conduct of the War

A joint investigative committee of the two branches of Congress that was the most powerful voice the legislative branch has every had in formulating war policy; often were a drag on the generals, criticizing them for not being fervid enough in their pursuit of and ruthlessness towards the Confederacy; led by instant abolitionist Congressmen

Crédit Mobilier

A joint-stock company organized in 1863 and reorganized in 1867 to build the Union Pacific Railroad. It was involved in a scandal in 1872 in which high government officials were accused of accepting bribes (stock of the company) in order to prevent word from leaking out that the company had drafted fraudulent contracts for themselves (as also stock holders of Union-Pacific, which received federal subsidies)

Jack Kerouac

A key author of the Beat movement whose best selling novel, On the Road, helped define the movement with it's featured frenzied prose and plotless ramblings.

Gideon v. Wainwright

A landmark case in United States Supreme Court history. In the case, the Warren Court unanimously ruled that state courts are required under the Sixth Amendment of the Constitution to provide counsel in criminal cases for defendants unable to afford their own attorneys.

Gettysburg

A large battle in the American Civil War, took place in southern Pennsylvania from July 1 to July 3, 1863. The battle is named after the town on the battlefield. Union General George G. Meade led an army of about 90,000 men to victory against General Robert E. Lee's Confederate army of about 75,000. It is the war's most famous battle because of its large size, high cost in lives, its location in a northern state, and for President Abraham Lincoln's Address shortly after the battle.

Great Railroad Strike of 1877

A large number of railroad workers went on strike because of wage cuts. After a month of strikes, President Hayes sent troops to stop the strike (example of how government always sided with employers over workers in the Gilded Age), saying it interfered with mail delivery. The worst railroad violence was in Pittsburgh, with over 40 people killed by militia men. State militias were called out in many cases, and other similar acts of violence occurred. It ultimately weakened the railroad unions.

National Origins Act of 1924

A law that severely restricted immigration by establishing a system of national quotas that blatantly discriminated against immigrants from southern and eastern Europe (originally, quotas had set limits on European immigration as 3% of the [country]-American population that already existed in the United States as of 1910, while this new law lowered the percentage to 2% and set it to the 1890 population, which included fewer southern and eastern Europeans) and virtually excluded Asians (targeting the Japanese primarily) The policy stayed in effect until the 1960s.

Patrick Henry

A leader of the American Revolution and a famous orator who spoke out against British rule of the American colonies (1736-1799); famous for his fiery speeches in the Virginia House of Burgesses.

Charles Sumner

A leader of the Radical republicans along with Thaddeus Stevens. He was from Massachusetts and was a senator. His two main goals were breaking the power of wealthy planters and ensuring that freed men could vote. Beaten by Preston Brooks on the floor of the Senate a few days after insulting one of Brooks' relatives.

Allen Ginsberg

A leading member of the Beat movement whose writings featured existential mania for intense experience and frantic motion. Among his works is the poem "Howl", which decried "Robot apartments! invincible suburbs! skeleton treasures! blind capitals! demonic industries!"

Ida Tarbell

A leading muckraker and magazine editor, she exposed the corruption of the oil industry with her 1904 work A History of the Standard Oil Company.

William Randolph Hearst

A leading newspaperman of his times, he ran the San Francisco Examiner and New York Journal and helped create and propagate "yellow (sensationalist) journalism." The movie Citizen Kane was created to satirize his life.

AIDS/Acquired Immune Deficiency syndrome

A life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections. Growing awareness about it has helped slow its spread in the modern era, especially in developed countries.

intercontinental ballistic missile/ICBM

A long-range rocket-like weapon armed with, nowadays, multiple nuclear warheads capable of striking targets anywhere in the world; both the United States and Russia possess large arsenals of these ultimate strategic weapons. Americans ones have included Atlas, Titan, Minuteman, Minuteman II, and Polaris.

De Bow's Review

A magazine that strongly advocated the southern commercial and agricultural expansion and later on convinced many to join in secession; however, shows dependency of the South on the North: had to be printed in the North because the South had no adequate facilities, always ran ads for Northern companies as a source of funding, and never achieved the circulation of Northern magazines

Scientific Management

A management theory using efficiency experts to examine work operations along with the laborers and workers themselves who then come up with and find ways to minimize the time needed to complete it. After finding the most efficient way of doing the thing, they then teach the people those techniques. It essentially applied _____________ principles to increase efficiency in the workplace.

Griswold v. Connecticut

A married couple wanted to get contraceptives, but their right to was struck down by a Connecticut law prohibiting the sale of contraceptives; the Warren Court ruled in favor of the couple and established the "right of privacy" through the 4th and 9th Amendment.

Stamp Act Congress

A meeting of delegations from many of the colonies, the congress was formed to protest the newly passed namesake Act; they agreed not to import British goods. It adopted a declaration of rights as well as sent letters of complaints to the king and parliament, and it showed signs of colonial unity and organized resistance.

Triple Entente

A military alliance between Great Britain, France, and Russia in the years preceding World War I. They were the forerunners of the Allies.

Warsaw Pact

A military defense and strategic alliance between the Soviet Union and other Eastern European nations. Created in response to Nato in 1945, it included Albania (withdrew after the intervention in Czechoslovakia), Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania.

Citizen Genet Affair

A minister to the United States dispatched by the revolutionary Girondist regime of the new French Republic; violated an American proclamation of neutrality in the European conflict and greatly embarrassed France's supporters in the United States by hiring Americans as privateers to prey on British commerce and opening negotiations with several American frontier leaders (among them George Rogers Clark) to attack Spanish Florida and Louisiana; also commissioned several land speculators as officers in the French army before arriving at D.C.; given sanctuary after Girondist regime fell

Al Capone

A mob king in Chicago who controlled a large network of speakeasies with enormous profits. His illegal activities convey the failure of prohibition in the twenties and the problems with gangs.

romanticism

A movement in the arts and literature that originated in the late 18th century, emphasizing inspiration, subjectivity, and the primacy of the individual. Emphasized emotion over reason or religion.

Social Gospel

A movement in the late 1800s / early 1900s which emphasized charity and social responsibility as a means of salvation. Led initially by Washington Gladden, it included people such as Walter Rauschenbusch and Father John Ryan and organizations such as the Salvation Army.

Moral Majority

A movement that began in the early 1980s (primarily by Jerry Falwell) among religious conservatives that supported primarily conservative Republicans opposed to abortion, communism, and liberalism. "Born-Again" Christians became politically active. The majority of Americans were moral people, they reasoned, and therefore are a political force.

General Federation of Women's Clubs

A nation-wide organization that united mostly middle class, white women; discussed civic issues and literary issues, advocated for children clinics, schools, purer food and drug supply, and women's suffrage, and initiated a letter writing campaign for their issues (since they can't vote). However, they were in large part still segregated.

National Farm Bureau Federation

A nationwide organization of agriculture whose goals were to teach better, more scientific farming and marketing methods and to gain political influence. They helped protect the interests of farmers and ranchers.

Al Qaeda

A network of Islamic terrorist organizations, led originally by a few including Osama bin Laden, that carried out the attacks on the US embassies in Tanzania and Kenya in 1998, the USS Cole in Yemen in 2000, and the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in 2001. Harbored primarily in Afghanistan and to a lesser degree in Yemen and Pakistan (with affiliate groups in other countries), they were the target of the 2001 NATO invasion of Afghanistan.

Second New Deal

A new set of programs launched by FDR in the spring of 1935 including additional banking reforms, new tax laws, new relief programs. Also known as the Second Hundred Days, it was more over in its targeting of businesses, such as with the Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935 (regulated electric utilities) and the creation of the National Labor Relations Board (which enforced section 7a of the National Industrial Recovery Act, which covered and formally recognized the right of workers to have collective bargaining).

John Dos Passos

A novelist who wrote of WWI and its impacts on art and civilization. He was a conservative pessimist and had been disillusioned with post-war urban America. He portrayed life in the United State during this time and the Great Depression.

phrenology

A now defunct theory that specific mental abilities and characteristics, ranging from memory to the capacity for happiness, are localized in specific regions of the brain. Practitioners would often take various measures of subjects' heads to determine strengths and weaknesses.

Frederic Remington

A painter and sculptor who captured the romance of the West. His paintings and sculptures portrayed the cowboy as a natural aristocrat living in a natural world in which all the normal supporting structures of "civilization" were missing. He became one of the most beloved and successful artists of the nineteenth century.

John Singer Sargent

A painter known for his portraits. He is usually thought of as an American artist, although he lived most of his life in Europe. His portraits subtly capture the individuality & personality of the sitters. In a time when the art world was focused on impressionism & emphasizing artistic individuality, he emphasized his own form of Realism & regularly did commissioned portraits of the wealthy.

Common Sense

A pamphlet written by Thomas Paine that criticized monarchies and convinced many American colonists of the need to break away from Britain in 1776; used John Locke's concept of a social contract between the colonists and the British monarchy, and the idea that that contract was broken, to justify independence

Camp David Accords

A peace treaty between Israel and Egypt where Egypt agreed to recognize the nation-state of Israel. President Jimmy Carter invited Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin to the namesake site to hash out the treaty.

Stagflation

A period of slow economic growth and high unemployment (stagnation) while prices rise (inflation), associated with falling industrial output of the late 1970s.

Enlightenment

A philosophical movement which started in Europe in the 1700's and spread to the colonies. It emphasized reason and the scientific method. Writers tended to focus on government, ethics, and science, rather than on imagination, emotions, or religion. Many members rejected traditional religious beliefs in favor of Deism, which holds that the world is run by natural laws without the direct intervention of God.

transcendentalism

A philosophy pioneered by Ralph Waldo Emerson in the 1830's and 1840's, in which people were supposed to strive for "reason" (internal intuitive belief of truth and beauty) over "understanding" (values imposed by society); argued each person has direct communication with God and Nature, and there is no need for organized churches. It incorporated the ideas that mind goes beyond matter, intuition is valuable, that each soul is part of the Great Spirit, and each person is part of a reality where only the invisible is truly real. Promoted individualism, self-reliance, and freedom from social constraints, and emphasized emotions; included Henry David Thoreau along with many abolitionists and feminists.

pragmatism

A philosophy which focuses only on the outcomes and effects of processes and situations. It stresses the importance of accepting the facts of life and favoring practicality and literal truth. Pioneered primarily by William James, brother of author Henry James.

Silent Majority

A phrase used to describe people, whatever their economic status, who work hard, do their job, and uphold traditional values, especially against the counterculture of the 1960s. Richard Nixon coined this term to gain support for traditional conservatives in the 1968 and 1972 elections.

Alice Hamilton

A physician and toxicologist who did research on and helped raise public awareness about many dangerous industrial substances and poisons such as lead, ceramic dust, and chemical waste which were making many people unhealthy. She became the first female faculty member of Harvard.

People's Park

A piece of vacant land owned by University of California-Berkley, and a flash-point for the Free Speech Movement. Some people did a bit of landscaping and turned the vacant land into a park for the students to enjoy. On May 15, 1969, the university put up fencing around the park to prepare to build a parking garage. As a result, there were protests, violence, and then-Governor Ronald Reagan had to call in the National Guard. The Memorial Day protest (the largest of the demonstrations for this piece of land) entailed 30,000 people. Subsequently, the city council decided to support park, and the university reluctantly agreed.

Commission Plan

A plan in which a city's government is divided into different departments with different functions, each placed under the control of a commissioner.

Marshall Plan

A plan that the US came up with to revive war-torn economies of European nations after World War II, in order to stabilized the situation and help prevent the spread of Communism. This plan offered $13 billion in aid to western and Southern Europe.

Parity

A plan to rehabilitate American agriculture by raising the domestic prices of farm products. Regardless of how they actually do in the market, farmers would be guaranteed to at least earn back the production cost. It urged high tariffs against foreign agricultural goods and also authorized the government to buy up surpluses and sell them abroad. It manifested itself in the McNary-Haugen bill, which was vetoed.

Indigo

A plant used to make valuable blue dye

flexible response

A policy, developed during the Kennedy administration, that involved preparing for a variety of military responses to international crises rather than focusing on the use of nuclear weapons. The buildup of conventional troops and weapons to allow a nation to fight a limited war without using nuclear weapons were characteristic of this approach. It was especially predominated by intelligence gathering, covert action, and unconventional warfare (special forces like the Green Berets who were trained to work with native guerrilla units and help train them)

Tammany Hall

A political organization within the Democratic Party in New York city (late 1800's and early 1900's) seeking political control by corruption and bossism; William Tweed also know as Boss Tweed became head in 1863

Roscoe Conkling

A politician from New York who served both as a member of the United States House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate. He was the leader of the Stalwart faction of the Republican Party.

Pancho Villa

A popular leader during the Mexican Revolution of 1910. An outlaw in his youth, when the revolution started, he formed a cavalry army in the north of Mexico and fought for the rights of the landless in collaboration with Emiliano Zapata. Wilson backed his efforts to overthrow the Venustiano Carranza regime, but withdrew support when they started losing. In anger, he killed eighteen American engineers in northern Mexico then launched cross-border raids into New Mexico. General John J. Pershing invaded Mexico to arrest this man and his "bandits", but despite managing to go well into Mexican territory, Pershing failed to capture him.

Hungarian Revolution of 1956

A popular uprising attempt by liberal dissidents in Hungary to overthrow the Soviet-backed Communist leadership of the country and demand democratic reforms. The Soviet Union used very repressive means to put down the revolution, sending in the army with tanks and troops. They subsequently restored the orthodox, pro-Soviet regime. Thousands of Hungarian refugees were allowed to come to Canada as immigrants.

Proclamation of 1763

A proclamation from the British government which forbade colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains, and which required any settlers already living west of the mountains to move back east; was an attempt to appease the Natives as well, but was largely ignored by many settlers

Medicare

A program added to the Social Security system in 1965 that provides hospitalization insurance for the elderly and permits older Americans to purchase inexpensive coverage for doctor fees and other health expenses.

Sons of Liberty

A radical political organization for colonial independence which formed in 1765 after the passage of the Stamp Act. They incited riots and burned the customs houses where the stamped British paper was kept. They also formed vigilante groups to coerce people into following boycotts and other actions. After the repeal of the Stamp Act, many of the local chapters formed the Committees of Correspondence which continued to promote opposition to British policies towards the colonies. Their leaders included Samuel Adams and Paul Revere.

Northern Securities Company

A railroad holding corporation and monopoly formed by J.P. Morgan and James J. Hill which violated Sherman Antitrust Act. Roosevelt's legal attack led to the company being "trust-busted" and paved the way for future trust-busts of bad trusts.

Union Pacific Railroad

A railroad that started in Omaha, Nebraska and connected with the Central Pacific Railroad in Promontory Point, Utah; often hired Irish immigrants

Central Pacific Railroad

A railroad that started in Sacramento, and connected with the Union Pacific Railroad in Promontory Point, Utah; often hired Chinese immigrants

Glorious Revolution

A reference to the political events and resulting war in England of 1688-1689, when James II abdicated his throne and was replaced by his daughter Mary and her husband, Prince William of Orange.

Dorothea Dix

A reformer and pioneer in the movement to treat the insane as mentally ill, beginning in the 1820's. She was also responsible for improving conditions in jails, poorhouses and insane asylums throughout the U.S. and Canada. She succeeded in persuading many states to assume responsibility for the care of the mentally ill. She served as the Superintendant of Nurses for the Union Army during the Civil War. Key proponent of the Benevolent Empire.

Sunbelt

A region of the United States generally considered to stretch across the South and Southwest that has seen substantial population growth in recent decades, partly fueled by a surge in retiring baby boomers who migrate domestically, as well as the influx of immigrants, both legal and illegal. Most of the non-immigrant population of this region is conservative.

Nation of Islam

A religious militant group, popularly known as the Black Muslims, founded by Elijah Muhammad to promote black separatism/independence and the Islamic religion/religious beliefs. Among their members was Malcolm X, who later left the organization and was shot by three of its members.

Bear Flag Revolt

A revolt of American settlers in California against Mexican rule led by Captain John C. Fremont (an American tasked with inciting helping incite revolt) and Californians. It succeeded in securing California's independence for a month before American warships and Marines on standby landed and declared California as part of the United States. These actions helped ignite the Mexican-American War and ultimately made California a state.

Molly Maguires

A secret Irish organization of anthracite coal miners in regions of western Pennsylvania and West Virginia in the mid to late 1800s. The miners worked together to achieve better working conditions, and when demands weren't met, they protested by destroying mining equipment and issuing campaigns, threats, and acts of violence against mid-level managers and other administration officials. They were eventually brought down by a Pinkerton detective, and some alleged members had trials and were hanged.

Ku Klux Klan

A secret society created by ex-Confederate general Nathan Bedford Forrest along with other white southerners in 1866 that used terror and violence to keep African Americans from obtaining their civil rights (particularly to prevent them from voting)

tong

A secret society or fraternal organization especially of Chinese in the United States, particularly California; formerly notorious for gang warfare.

The Federalist Papers

A series of 85 essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay (under the pseudonym "Publius") and published in NY newspapers; used to convince readers to adopt the new Constitution

Pacific Railway Act (1862)

A series of acts passed in 1862 by Congress that promoted the construction of a transcontinental railroad in the United States, connecting the West to northeastern industries, through authorizing the issuance of government bonds and the grants of land to railroad companies (Union Pacific and Central Pacific and small Western Pacific Railroads)

Banana Wars

A series of conflicts, interventions, and diplomatic incidents in which the US tried to secure the "these" markets by interventions in Central and South America using troops to preserve the connection from 1898 (Spanish American War) to 1934 (US leaves Haiti). Included interventions in Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Venezuela (not an intervention, but threatened to use force against Europeans on their behalf), Nicaragua, Panama, and Mexico.

9/11

A series of coordinated suicide attacks by Al-Qaeda upon the United States on September 11, 2001, where they hijacked four passenger planes - two were flown into the Twin Towers (World Trade Center) in New York City, causing both tower to collapse. A third plane was flown into the Pentagon. A fourth plane, bound for Washington, D.C. (either the Capitol or White House) crashed in Shanksville, Pennsylvania after the passengers attempted to retake the cockpit. It led to the formal start in the war on terror (Afghanistan War, War on ISIS, various airstrikes and special forces attacks and operations in countries like Somalia and Yemen, etc.)

Freedom Rides

A series of political protests against segregation by Blacks and Whites who rode buses together through the American South in 1961. It was organized by CORE and the SNCC. The rides were designed to test souther states' compliance to the Supreme Court ban of segregation on interstate buses.

Second Great Awakening

A series of religious revivals starting in 1801, based on Methodism and Baptism; stressed a religious philosophy of salvation through good deeds and tolerance for all Protestant sects, and nearly ended predestination in America; the revivals even spread to women, Blacks, and Native Americans.

Caste System

A set of rigid social categories set in place by the Spanish that determined a person's status and role within society, heavily based on race; primarily split between the Spanish, the the Pueblo, then the Genizaros and other non-Pueblo natives.

Allies

A side of World War I consisting of primarily the United Kingdom, France, and Russia (until 1917); later joined by Italy and the United States; also included Canadian and ANZAC (Australia and New Zealand Army Corps) forces under British control, Serbia, Japan, and Belgium, among others.

Black Power

A slogan used to reflect solidarity and racial consciousness, used by Malcolm X. It meant that equality would not be given to, but had to be seized by a powerful, organized Black community. It urged black economic independence and even violence if attacked.

Wild West Show

A spectacular show organized in 1883 by William F. Cody that featured horseback riding and marksmanship on a large scale; the show, which toured the East Coast and Europe, featured cowboys engaged in mock battles with Indians, reinforcing the dime-novel image of the West as an arena of moral encounter where virtue always triumphed.

referendum

A state-level method of direct legislation that gives voters a chance to approve or disapprove proposed legislation or a proposed constitutional amendment.

San Jacinto

A surprise attack by Texas forces on Santa Ana's camp on April 21, 1836. Santa Ana's men were surprised and overrun in twenty minutes. Santa Ana was taken prisoner and signed an armistice securing victory and Texas independence. The Mexicans suffered 1,500 dead and 1,000 captured, while the Texans lost four men.

Primogeniture

A system of inheritance in which the eldest son in a family received all of his father's land. The nobility remained powerful and owned land, while the 2nd and 3rd sons were forced to seek fortune elsewhere. Many of them turned to the New World for their financial purposes and individual wealth.

Spoils System

A system of public employment based on rewarding party loyalists and friends, and appointing them to positions of power - term arose over "The Corrupt Bargain", when John Quincy Adams promoted Henry Clay to Secretary of State after Henry Clay endorsed him for president (which ultimately helped the house choose Adams as winner), despite the fact that Adams came in second in the election and Clay came in fourth - Jackson came in first, and his followers viewed the deal as corrupt, seeing as that the Secretary of State usually became the next president; one spectator commented "to the victor goes the ________".

Checks and Balances

A system that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches in order to prevent abuse of power

Sharecropping

A system used on southern farms after the Civil War in which farmers (often black) were leased land by the landowners to farm and raise crops; in return, the farmer tenants had to give a share of the crops sold as rent

separate sphere

A term used by historians to describe the nineteenth-century view that men and women have different gender-defined characteristics and, consequently, that men should dominate the public one of politics and economics, while women should manage the private one of home and family.

Federalists

A term used to describe supporters of the Constitution during ratification debates in state legislatures; championed by the Federalist Papers written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison (although later a Democratic-Republican Party member), and John Jay

World Trade Center bombing

A terrorist attack hosted by Ramzi Yousef in 1993, in which he set a truck filled with explosives in the garage of one of the towers trying to take down the towers. This attack was supposed to take down the North building, but failed, only demolishing the underneath levels of both buildings.

Darwinism

A theory of organic evolution claiming that new species arise and are perpetuated by natural selection, saying that weaker species eventually die off in competition with more "fit" species. Eventually led to the incorrect concept of "social" this, in which people who are more successful are in such a state due to their own ability alone, and the incapability of others. Also led to pragmatism.

Triangular Trade

A three way system of trade during 1600-1800s Aferica sent slaves to America, America sent Raw Materials to Europe, and Europe sent Guns and Rum to Africa

Woodstock

A three-day rock concert in upstate New York in August 1969, it exemplified the counterculture of the late 1960s. Nearly half a million gathered on the half-acre rural premise to watch multiple popular performers play and sing.

Titusville

A town in Pennsylvania credited for being the birthplace of the modern oil industry; Edwin L. Drake established the first oil well there for Pennsylvania businessman George Bissell.

Dien Bien Phu

A town of northwest Vietnam near the Laos border. The French military base here fell to Viet Minh troops on May 7, 1954, after a 56-day siege, leading to the end of France's involvement in Indochina (and eventually the start of America's involvement in Vietnam). The French asked for American aid in breaking the siege, but Eisenhower, believing US Congress and international allies would never support such an action, refused, to the chagrin of his Secretary of State (Dulles) and Vice President Nixon.

Dien Bien Phu

A town of northwest Vietnam near the Laos border. The French military base here fell to Vietminh troops on May 7, 1954, after a 56-day siege, leading to the end of France's involvement in Indochina, and ultimately the Geneva Conference and the independence of North and South Vietnam. The US refused to intervene, although the CIA did provide limited amounts of material and noncombat personnel support.

Brook Farm

A transcendentalist Utopian experiment, put into practice by transcendentalist and former Unitarian minister George Ripley at a farm in West Roxbury, Massachusetts, at that time nine miles from Boston. The community, in operation from 1841 to 1847, was inspired by the socialist concepts of Charles Fourier. Fourierism was the belief that there could be a utopian society where people could share together to have a better lifestyle.

Norman Rockwell

A twentieth-century American artist and illustrator, known for his warm-hearted paintings of rural and small-town life in the united States. Many of his paintings appeared cover illustrations for the magazine The Saturday Evening Post.

Vaudeville

A type of inexpensive variety popular entertainment show that first appeared in the 1870s and continued to the early 20th century, often consisting of comic sketches, song-and-dance routines, and magic acts

Stonewall Riot

A violent event in New York City in Greenwich Village at a bar called Stonewall Inn that triggered activist protests among gays and lesbians in the area for days to come. It started when police raided a gay bar, arresting people for merely being there, but this time (unlike most previous raids) people fought back; it became symbol of oppression of gays and helped begin the gay pride movement.

Vietnamization

A war policy in Vietnam initiated by Nixon in June of 1969. This strategy called for dramatic reduction of U.S. troops followed by an increased injection of South Vietnamese troops in their place. Initially considerable success (in the sense that it allowed US troops to withdraw), this plan allowed for a drop in troops to 24,000 by 1972. This policy became the cornerstone of the so-called "Nixon Doctrine". However, it ultimately failed, as evidenced by the fall of South Vietnam in 1975.

total war

A war that involves the complete mobilization of resources and people, affecting the lives of all citizens in the warring countries, even those remote from the battlefields; champions by Sherman especially, and Grant to a degree, it makes any civilian infrastructure, private or public, a valid target

Counterculture

A way of life and set of attitudes opposed to or at variance with the prevailing social norm or cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society. This is exemplified by hippies.

Neolin

A western Delaware Indian; in 1761 had a vision in which God commanded Indians to resume their ancestral ways; called for the end of Indian dependence on Anglo-Americans because God was punishing Indians for accepting European ways (such as alcohol); led to Pontiac's Rebellion, which was a rebellion of numerous native tribes against the British after the French and Indian War

Open shop

A workplace that does not require union membership as a condition for employment

Union shop

A workplace that requires union membership after employment

Closed shop

A workplace that requires union membership as a precondition for employment

League of Nations

A world organization established in 1920 to promote international cooperation and peace. It was first proposed in 1918 by President Woodrow Wilson, although the United States never joined it due to Congressional opposition. Essentially powerless due to its lack of ability to mobilize military units, it was officially dissolved in 1946. It is the predecessor to the UN.

Sovereignty

Ability of a state to govern its territory free from control of its internal affairs by other states; debate over where it came from - state or national - was resolved by agreement that it arose from the people

Horizontal Integration

Absorption into a single firm of several firms involved in the same level of production and sharing resources at that level. It is essentially a form of monopoly where a company buys out all of its competition.

Prohibitory Act

Act of Parliament (1775) which removed British protection from the colonies and forbid all further trade with the colonies.

Taft-Hartley Act/Labor Management Relations Act

Act passed in 1947 that put increased restrictions on labor unions, calling some of their actions as unfair labor practices. Also, it outlawed closed shops and allowed states to pass "right to work" laws that prohibited "union shops". It also prohibited secondary boycotts and established that the President has power to issue injunctions in strikes that endangered national health & safety (in what was known as a "cooling off" period)

Compromise of 1850

Admitted California as a free state, established territorial status and popular sovereignty for Utah and New Mexico; resolved the Texas-New Mexico boundaries; the federal government assumed Texas's debt; the slave trade was abolished in DC; new fugitive slave law passed; advocated by Henry Clay and Stephen A. Douglas to help prevent further tension between northern and southern states.

Ida B. Wells

African American female journalist who published statistics about and fiercely criticized lynching, and advocated for African Americans to protest by refusing to ride streetcars or shop in white-owned stores

Marcus Garvey

African American leader during the 1920s who founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and advocated mass migration of African Americans back to Africa. He urged black economic cooperation and founded a chain of UNIA grocery stores and other business. He was deported back to his homeland of Jamaica in 1927 on charges of business fraud.

Langston Hughes

African American poet of the Harlem Renaissance who described the rich culture of African American life using rhythms influenced by jazz music. He wrote of African American hope and defiance in poems such as the "The Negro Speaks of Rivers" and "My People", as well as the culture of Harlem and also had a major impact on the Harlem Renaissance. He said "I am a Negro - and beautiful".

Reconstruction Finance Corporation

Agency established in 1932 by President Herbert Hoover to provide emergency relief to large businesses, insurance companies, railroads, and banks. Congress appropriate two billion dollars for what many called the "millionaire's loan".

Gadsden Purchase

Agreement w/ Mexico that gave the US the southern parts of present-day New Mexico & Arizona in exchange for $10 million; all but completed the continental expansion envisioned by those who believed in Manifest Destiny.

Birmingham

Alabama city whose council was against equal rights; peaceful marches in 1963 were broken up brutally by city police under Police Commissioner Eugene "Bull" Connor. Governor George Wallace had pledged to not allow black students to attend the University of Alabama in this city, but a combination of federal marshal escorts and a visit from then-Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy changed his mind.

Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.

Along with John Marshall, he is often considered one of the greatest justices in Supreme Court history. His opinions and famous dissents in favor of individual liberties are still frequently quoted today. He argued that current necessity rather than precedent should determine the rules by which people are governed; that experience, not logic, should be the basis of law. He and Louis Brandeis were intense advocates for free speech, however unpopular.

Ashcan School

Also known as The Eight, a group of American Naturalist painters formed in 1907, most of whom had formerly been newspaper illustrators, they believed in portraying mostly urban scenes from everyday life in starkly realistic detail. Their sordid depictions often depicted slums, tenements, and overcrowded living spaces in the inner cities. Their 1908 display was the first art show in the U.S. Included John Sloan, known for his paintings of slums and tenements, George Bellows, known for his painting of prize fights and boxing matches, and Edward Hopper, who explored the loneliness and starkness of the city.

Proposition 13

Also known as the "tax revolt", it was a Californian ballot measure (referendum question) in 1978 that slashed property taxes and forced deep cuts in government services.It originated in 1978 with Howard Jarvis.

Iran-Contra Scandal/Iran-Contra Affair

Although Congress had prohibited aid to the Nicaraguan rebels fighting the Sandinista government, individuals in Reagan's administration continued to illegally support the rebels. These officials secretly sold weapons to a Middle Eastern country (in violation of an embargo) in exchange supposedly for the release of American hostages being held in the Middle East. Profits from these sales were then sent to the rebels. The hostage excuse used by the Reagan administration was not valid because the hostages were taken after the first shipment had been sold to the _____ians, so their sole purpose was to provide funding for the Nicaraguan rebels.

Fifteenth Amendment

Amendment that states that the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

Thomas Amendment

Amendment to the Missouri Compromise proposed by Jesse B. ____________ of Illinois; said that slavery would be prohibited in all future states carved out of the Louisiana Territory north of 36 degrees 30'N latitude

Alabama Claims

America's demands that England pay for the damage that the confederate ships caused during the Civil War; the US ultimately got fifteen million. It is named for the CSS _________, built near Liverpool, utilized to harass Union shipping in the Atlantic, and ultimately sunk by the USS Kearsage near France; it never docked at a Confederate port

John Adams

America's first Vice-President and second President; sponsor of the American Revolution in Massachusetts, and wrote the Massachusetts guarantee that freedom of press "ought not to be restrained"; became a moderate member of the Federalist Party

Benedict Arnold

American General and mastermind behind many American victories who was labeled a traitor when he assisted the British in a failed attempt to take the American fort at West Point.

Thomas Paine

American Revolutionary leader and pamphleteer (born in England) who supported the American colonist's fight for independence and supported the French Revolution (1737-1809); author of Common Sense

Samuel Adams

American Revolutionary leader and patriot, Founder of the Sons of Liberty and the first Committee of Correspondence and one of the most vocal patriots for independence; signed the Declaration of Independence

Ngo Dinh Diem

American ally in South Vietnam from 1954 to 1963; his repressive regime caused the Communist Viet Cong to thrive in the South and required increasing American military aid to stop a Communist takeover. He was killed in a coup in 1963.

John Deere

American blacksmith that was responsible for inventing the steel plow; this new plow was much stronger than the old iron version; therefore, it made plowing farmland in the west easier, making expansion faster.

Thurgood Marshall

American civil rights lawyer, first black justice on the Supreme Court of the United States. He was a tireless advocate for the rights of minorities and the poor. He helped prosecute the Topeka Board of Education in Brown v Board of Education on the behalf of the NAACP.

Loyalists

American colonists who remained loyal to Britain and opposed the war for independence for reasons such as they held imperial posts, they thought the Americans would lose, their trade or skill depended heavily on British consumers, etc.

Catharine Beecher (1800s)

American educator and the daughter of Lyman Beecher, she promoted education for women in such writings as An Essay on the Education of Female Teachers. She founded the first all-female academy, and greatly advocated for the expansion of female education opportunities. She was actually an anti-suffragist, believing the women could be more influential in their traditional roles.

Billy Sunday

American fundamentalist minister; he used colorful language, knowledge of marketing, and powerful, energetic sermons to drive home the message of salvation through Jesus and to oppose radical and progressive groups. He was pro-temperance, extremely progressive with regard to poverty and urban labor issues, was anti-war until the war started (then flipped sides), but also criticized "radicalism" and "foreignness".

Nathanael Greene

American general of Rhode Island, helped to turn the tide against Cornwallis and his British army in the southern battles; used geography of land to pull a victory at King's Mountain and inflict heavy casualties on Cornwallis's forces at Cowpens and Guilford Court House despite tactical loss.

Francis Cabot Lowell

American industrialist who developed the _________ system, a mill system that included looms that could both weave thread and spin cloth, after developing an industrialized method of weaving after viewing similar machines in England; hired young women to live and work in his mill

Robert Fulton

American inventor who designed the first commercially successful steamboat and the first steam warship (1765-1815)

John Marshall

American jurist and politician who served as the chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1801-1835) and helped establish the practice of judicial review; helped Supreme Court gain much respect and power; was secretary state under Adams

Margaret Sanger

American leader of the movement to legalize birth control during the early 1900's. As a nurse in the poor sections of New York City, she had seen the suffering caused by unwanted pregnancy and large family sizes. She founded the first birth control clinic in the U.S. and the American Birth Control League, which later became Planned Parenthood, and advocated for more birth control awareness in general.

US Chamber of Commerce

American lobbying group that represents the interests of many businesses and trade associations in various parts of America.

Theodore Dreiser

American naturalist who wrote "The Financier", "Sister Carrie", "An American Tragedy", and "The Titan". Like Jacob Riis, he helped reveal the poor conditions people in the slums faced and influenced reforms.

Sinclair Lewis

American novelist who satirized middle-class America and its popular culture (things such as the small town, the modern city, the medical profession, popular religion, etc.) in his 22 works, including Babbitt, Elmer Gantry, Main Street, and Arrowsmith. He was the first American to receive (1930) a Nobel Prize for literature.

John Steinbeck

American novelist who wrote "The Grapes of Wrath". (1939) It is a story of Dustbowl victims who travel to California to look for a better life.

Stephen Crane

American novelist, short story writer, poet, journalist, raised in New York and New Jersey whose style and technique employed naturalism, realism, and impressionism, and whose themes included conflict between ideals and realities, spiritual crises, and fears. He is known for writing "The Red Badge of Courage", "The Open Boat", and "Maggie: A Girl of the Streets".

Walt Whitman

American poet and transcendentalist who was famous for his beliefs on nature, as demonstrated in his book, Leaves of Grass. He was therefore an important part for the buildup of American literature and breaking the traditional rhyme method in writing poetry.

Jonathan Edwards

American theologian whose sermons and writings stimulated a period of renewed interest in religion in America (1703-1758) and helped start the First Great Awakening; famous for his "sinners in the hands of an angry god" sermon.

Henry David Thoreau

American transcendentalist who advocated civil disobedience against a government that supported slavery, stating that morals supersede one's obligation to follow the laws and government. He started the movement of civil-disobedience when he refused to pay the toll-tax to support the Mexican-American War. He wrote down his beliefs regarding concepts from civil disobedience to nature's role in spirituality and all matter of transcendentalist beliefs in the essay "Walden" while staying near Walden Pond

Ralph Waldo Emerson

American transcendentalist who was against slavery and stressed self-reliance, optimism, self-improvement, self-confidence, and freedom; was a prime example of a transcendentalist and helped further the movement; author of essays "Nature" on the importance of nature and other transcendentalist concepts and "Self Reliance" on the importance of the individual

Washington Irving

American writer remembered for the stories "Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," contained in The Sketch Book (1819-1820).

Henry James

American writer who lived in England. Wrote numerous novels around the theme of the conflict between American innocence and European sophistication/corruption, with an emphasis on the psychological motivations of the characters. Famous for his novel "Washington Square" and his short story "The Turn of the Screw". His novels "The American", "Portrait of a Lady", and "The Ambassadors" showed his apathy towards the new character of modern, industrial civilization.

Herman Melville

American writer whose experiences at sea provided the factual basis of "Moby-Dick" (1851), considered among the greatest American novels; differed from other writers in the fatalistic approach of his novels' characters, such as Captain Ahab or Bartleby in "Bartleby the Scrivener"

Louisa May Alcott

American writer, suffragist, and reformer best known for her novels Little Women, Little Men, and Jo's Boys, which displays Jo March as a freethinking lady wanting to be an author and willing to not follow the norms of society. It is reflective somewhat of the author herself (aside from the fact that March marries). This writer was also a suffragist.

Nisei

American/Canadian-born children of Japanese immigrants; second-generation Japanese-Americans and Japanese-Canadians.

Adams-Onís Treaty

An 1819 treaty in which John Quincy Adams persuaded Spain to cede the Florida territory to the United States; in return, the American government accepted Spain's claim to Texas and agreed to a compromise on the western boundary for the state of Louisiana.

Plessy v. Ferguson

An 1896 Supreme Court decision which legalized state-ordered segregation so long as the facilities for blacks and whites were equal; was made regarding a Louisiana law requiring separate rail cars for blacks and whites on railroads

George F. Kennan

An American advisor, diplomat, political scientist, and historian, best known as "the father of containment" and as a key figure in the emergence of the Cold War. He later wrote standard histories of the relations between Russia and the Western powers.

Ulysses S. Grant

An American general and the eighteenth President of the United States (1869-1877). He achieved international fame as the leading Union general in the West during the American Civil War and overall commander starting in 1864.

Clifford Odets

An American playwright, screenwriter, socialist, and social protester. His dramatic style is distinguished by a kind of poetic, metaphor-laden street talk, by his socialist politics, and by his way of dropping the audience right into the conflict with little or no introduction. He was a Marxist influenced by Chekhov. "Waiting for Lefty"

Jefferson Davis

An American statesman and politician from Mississippi who served in Congress and later as President of the Confederate States of America for its entire history from 1861 to 1865. Upon surrender, he fled to Georgia but was captured.

Atlantic Charter

An August, 1941 pledge signed by US president Franklin Delano Roosevelt and British prime minister Winston Churchill not to acquire new territory as a result of World War II and to work for peace after the war

Stephen A. Douglas

An Illinois senator and moderate in the slavery debate who introduced the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854 and popularized the idea of popular sovereignty; also was proponent of the Freeport Doctrine (letting states decide to include slavery or not based on popular sovereignty - letting the people of the state decide)

Jacob Coxey

An Ohio socialist businessman and populist who led his "Army" in a march on Washington DC in 1894 to seek government jobs for the unemployed through a series of public works programs. He supported and helped establish paper money.

Elizabeth Blackwell

An abolitionist, women's rights activist, and the first female doctor in the United States

Stamp Act

An act passed by the British parliament in 1756 that raised revenue from the American colonies by a duty in the form of a (namesake) required on all newspapers and legal or commercial documents

Orson Welles

An actor, director, producer, and writer. He created one of the most renowned radio broadcasts of all time ' The War of The Worlds", which led to mass panic for those who did not realize it was a work of fiction, along with directing the movie Citizen Kane, which satirized the life of William Randolph Hearst.

Chautauquas

An adult education movement in the United States, highly popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. _____________ assemblies expanded and spread throughout rural America until the mid-1920s. The ______________ brought entertainment and culture for the whole community, with speakers, teachers, musicians, entertainers, preachers and specialists of the day.

Rural Electrification Administration

An agency established in 1935 to promote nonprofit farm cooperatives that offered loans to farmers to install power lines the country.

Triple Alliance

An alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy in the years before WWI. Italy would eventually leave to join the Allies due to Italian irredentism - their desire to take back primary Italian parts of southwestern Austria-Hungary.

Iroquois Confederacy

An alliance of five (Mohawk, Seneca, Cayuga, Onondoga, Oneida) northeastern Amerindian peoples (after 1722, the Haudenosaunee as well) that made decisions on military and diplomatic issues through a council of representatives. Allied first with the Dutch and later with the English, it dominated W. New England until after the Seven Years War, when the English viewed their relative non-participation as a sign of duplicity

Quitrent

An annual rent or tax paid by settlers to the lord proprietors for land granted by them, often through the headright system

The Liberator

An anti-slavery newspaper written by William Lloyd Garrison. It drew attention to abolition, both positive and negative, causing a war of words between supporters of slavery and those opposed.

Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)

An antiestablishment New Left group, founded in 1960 by college students, that called for greater individual freedom and responsibility and advocated for social change. They protested shortcomings in American life, notably racial injustice and the Vietnam War. It led thousands of campus protests before it split apart at the end of the 1960s.

Welfare Capitalism

An approach to labor relations in which companies meet some of their workers' needs without prompting by unions, thus preventing strikes and keeping productivity high. This included health insurance, better safety, wages, and hours, paid vacations/leave, occasionally even pensions, along with company unions (less-effective than independent unions but effective enough to prevent workers from joining the independent unions). It effectively ended in 1929 with the Great Depression. It was pioneered primarily by Henry Ford.

Vertical Integration

An approach typical of traditional mass production in which a company controls all phases of a highly complex production process. It is where a single entity controls the entire process of a product, from the raw materials to distribution

Indian Territory

An area covering most of present-day Oklahoma to which most Native Americans in the Southeast were forced to move in the 1830s under the Removal Act and the subsequent treaties

Middle Ground

An area in which disparate peoples and cultures coexist, i.e. early America, and no one group quite dominates the other

Back Bay

An area of marshy land in Boston that was filled in to create this new neighborhood/outward expansion of cities; example of how entirely new cities were created when the desire for them was expressed; took over 40 years to create; done by Chicago and DC too

The Grange

An association founded by former Secretary of Agriculture Oliver H. Kelley formed by farmers in the last 1800s to make life better for farmers by sharing information about crops, prices, and supplies. Furthermore, they established cooperative stores, storage facilities, and other buildings for farmers to share and use. They also helped circumvent middle managers. They were heavily in favor of government ownership or railroads rather than corporate ownership. Their decline came about in a series of court decisions against their anti-railroad monopoly policies.

Fair Deal

An economic extension of the New Deal proposed by Harry Truman that called for higher minimum wage, low-income housing and full employment. It led only to the Housing Act of 1949 and the Social Security Act of 1950 due to opposition in Congress.

Mercantilism

An economic policy under which nations sought to increase their wealth and power by obtaining large amounts of gold and silver and by selling more goods than they bought. Nations, not individuals, were primary economic actors, and due to the finite supply of wealth in the world, countries needed to gain more wealth than they gave away (maximize exports and limit imports)

William Cody (Buffalo Bill)

An employee of the Kansas Pacific railroad company, he killed over 4,000 buffalo in 18 months; helping shape the image of a cowboy, he later started his own Wild West show.

Strategic Defense Initiative

An expensive plan to put computer-controlled lasers or particle beam weapons in space to defend the United States against a nuclear attack. The lasers or particle beam weapons would be used to target and damage intercontinental ballistic missiles to the point that, if they were not outright destroyed, they would fall apart upon reentry and descent through the atmosphere. Critics called it "Star Wars" and argued that the costly program would only escalate the arms races. Other critics said a laser could never be refined enough to burn a hole through the missile - diffraction and other issues would lessen its effectiveness. Space-based anti-ballistic missiles were also considered. Reagan's goal with this program was to end the concept of mutually assured destruction by giving an option to deny offensive ___________ weapons capabilities to any opponent.

Cross of Gold Speech

An impassioned address by William Jennings Bryan at the 1896 Democratic Convention, in which he attacked the "gold bugs" who insisted that U.S. currency be backed only with gold, and told Americans to "not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns; you shall not ___ify mankind upon a _________ ___ ______". He was the only nominee who supported free silver.

Veracruz Incident

An incident in which the US seized the Mexican port of __________ by force. Mexico had arrested some US sailors and immediately released them, but Wilson ordered the attack anyway as retaliation, but also in the hopes to strengthen the support for the Venustiano Carranza faction that opposed the Vittoriano Huerta government. 126 Mexicans and 19 Americans were killed, and the US pulled out, but Carranza eventually got the boost he needed to take control in Mexico city.

National Labor Relations Board

An independent agency of the United States government charged with mediating disputes between management and labor unions. It enforces procedures whereby employees may vote to have a union and for collective bargaining. It was established by the Wagner Act in 1935.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

An independent federal agency established to coordinate programs aimed at reducing pollution and protecting natural ecosystems by enforcing antipollution standards on businesses and consumers. It was created by Richard Nixon.

World Wide Web

An information system on the Internet that allows documents to be connected to other documents by hypertext links, enabling the user to search for information by moving from one document to another.

D. W. Griffith

An innovative American filmmaker of the early twentieth century, he carried the motion picture into the new era with his silent epics (The Birth of a Nation, Intolerance, etc.) which introduced serious plots and elaborate productions to filmmaking. Motion pictures were the first truly mass entertainment medium.

land grant institutions

An institution for higher learning, usually state universities, who got their land from the Morrill Land Grant Act

Human Genome Project

An international collaborative effort to map and sequence the DNA of people and determine what genes determine what traits/characteristics.

United Nations

An international organization formed after WWII to promote international peace, security, and cooperation. Successor to the League of Nations, they intervened in a variety of incidents ranging from the Korean War to Rwanda to Somalia to Kuwait, etc. with varying degrees of success. They have also established subsidiary organizations to help with various things like __ESCO and __HCR and the International Court of Justice at the Hague. Its members include all countries of the world with the exception of the Vatican City (an observer) and Taiwan if one recognizes it a country (former members whose spot was handed over to the People's Republic of China). Palestine also has an observer. Western Sahara is the only large territory/country with no representatives or observers at this organization.

Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)

An interracial group founded in 1942 by James Farmer and other pacifists to work against segregation in Northern cities. It was a civil rights organization started in 1944 and best known for its "freedom rides," bus journeys challenging racial segregation in the South in 1961.

Daughters of Liberty

An organization formed by women prior to the American Revolution; they got together to protest treatment of the colonies by their British Rulers, and helped organize boycotts and produce goods domestically

Associated Press

An organization founded for the inter-agency cooperative telegraphic dissemination of news in 1848

Farmers' Alliance

An organization founded in late 1873 that largely replace the Grange; they worked for lower railroad freight rates, lower interest rates, and a change in the governments tight money policy. They also provided social gatherings, educational opportunities, and organized cooperatives. Women were allowed (Mary Lease). They often backed many different candidates (Tom Watson of Georgia and Leonidas Polk of North Carolina) before the Southern and Northeastern ones merged and morphed into the Populist Party.

Vietminh

An organization of Vietnamese Communists and other nationalist groups that between 1946 and 1954 fought for Vietnamese independence from the French. Their primary leader was Ho Chi Minh.

Okinawa/Battle of Okinawa/Operation Iceberg

April 1st - June 22nd, 1945: The last major land battle of the Pacific theater, it also entailed the largest amphibious assault in the theater. In the ensuing war of attrition, 75,000 American soldiers, 85,000-117,000 Japanese soldiers died, and 150,000 Japanese civilians were killed or committed suicide, often by jumping off cliffs (they were taught by the Japanese military to fear the "savage" American troops). Numerous ships were lost in naval operations around the islands (including the Japanese battleship Yamato (sunk by US aircraft), which is tied with her sister ship Musashi for heaviest/most heavily armed battleship ever). It was to provide a staging ground for air raids, and ultimately for the land invasion of Japan. It would remain in US control until 1972, and the US still maintain multiple military installations there.

Burned-Over District

Area of New York State along the Erie Canal that was constantly aflame with revivalism and reform; as wave after wave to fervor broke over the region, groups such as the Mormons, Shakers, and Millerites found support among the residents.

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty

Arms limitation agreement settled by Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev after several attempts. The treaty banned all short medium-range (500 to 1000 km or 310 to 620 miles) and intermediate-range (1000 to 5500 km or 620 to 3420 km) land-based ballistic and cruise missiles as well as their launchers from Europe and marked a significant thaw in the Cold War. The treaty does not apply to SLCMs, SLBMs, ALCMs, or ALBMs (submerged- and air-launched cruise and ballistic missiles). On February 1st, 2019, the US formally suspended the treaty, believing the Russian 9M729 cruise missile could fly at a distance longer than 310 miles. Russia also left the treaty in retaliation.

Julius Rosenberg

Arrested in the Summer of 1950 and executed in 1953, he was convicted of conspiring to commit espionage by passing plans for the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union along with his wife.

Ethel Rosenberg

Arrested in the Summer of 1950 and executed in 1953, she was convicted of conspiring to commit espionage by passing plans for the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union along with her husband

Nicholas Biddle

As President of the Second Bank of the United States, this man occupied a position of power and responsibility that propelled him to the forefront of Jacksonian politics in the 1830s; he, along with others who regarded the bank as a necessity, realized the threat posed by the election of Andrew Jackson in 1828; Jackson was bitterly opposed to the national bank, believing that it was an unconstitutional, elitist institution that bred inequalities among the people; a bitterly divisive issue, the rechartering of the bank dominated political discussion for most of the 1830s, and for many, this man became a symbol of all for which the bank stood; after Jackson's reelection over Clay, the Second Bank of the United States was doomed; he rose interest rates in hopes to get people to blame Jackson for withdrawing federal money from the bank, but it backfired

John Foster Dulles

As Secretary of State under Dwight David Eisenhower, he viewed the struggle against Communism as a classic conflict between good and evil. Opposed containment as too weak and supported an active program of liberation through "massive retaliation" which insinuated that he supported the use of nuclear weapons to fight off communist threats to American allies. He also supported brinksmanship as a way to exact concessions from the Soviets. He supported the Eisenhower Doctrine even though Eisenhower was more of a moderate.

Roger B. Taney

As chief justice, he wrote the important decision in the Dred Scott case, upholding police power of states and asserting the principle of social responsibility of private property; he was Southerner and upheld the fugitive slave laws; was chosen by Jackson to replace John Marshall as chief justice

National Association of Manufacturers

Association of industrialists and business leaders opposed to government regulation. Group promoted free enterprise and capitalism through a publicity campaign of radio programs, motion pictures, billboards, and direct mail.

Watts Riots/Watts Riot/Watts Race Riot/Watts Race Riots

August 11th-16th, 1965, this event consisted of violent fighting and protesting in a depressed African American section of Los Angeles; among the causes included a drunk-driving arrest of a young African American and claims of police brutality. It resulted in thirty-four deaths and over $200 million worth of property damage and helped spark other events like it around the country.

Adolf Hitler

Austrian-born founder of the German Nazi Party and chancellor of the Third Reich (1933-1945). His fascist philosophy, embodied in Mein Kampf (1925-1927), attracted widespread support, and after 1934 he ruled as an absolute dictator. His pursuit of aggressive nationalist policies resulted in the invasion of Poland (1939) and the subsequent outbreak of World War II. His regime was infamous for the extermination of millions of people, especially European Jews. He committed suicide when the collapse of the Third Reich was imminent (1945).

Edward Bellamy

Author Looking Backward, a utopian novel that portrayed a futuristic society in which businesses had conglomerated into one giant business, which was then taken over by the government, which distributed its earnings back to the people; the main character wakes up in 2000 after napping and essentially says socialism will be on top in the end. He said that capitalism supported the few and exploited the many.

Alexis de Tocqueville

Author of Democracy in America; actually came to America to look at American jails and what the French could learn for their own jails; ended up providing a commentary on American society

J. D. Salinger

Author of The Catcher in the Rye, on a prep-school student, Holden Caulfield, who was unable to find any area of society - school, family, friends, city - in which he could feel secure or committed. It was the author's way of critiquing society as it became more bureaucratic and less individual-centric.

Michael Harrington

Author of famous book, The Other America - Poverty in the US, which he wrote in 1962. He argued that 25% of the country was actually in poverty, and highlighted the inequalities that plagued the country. It was regarded as a driving force behind the War on Poverty by the Johnson Administration. He believed that the poor suffered from "a system designed to be impervious to hope." Minorities especially suffered from such circumstances.

Henry Kissinger

Awarded 1973 Nobel Peace Prize for helping to end Vietnam War and withdrawing American forces he was heavily involved in South American politics as National Security Advisor and Secretary of State under Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. He condoned covert tactics to prevent communism and facism from spreading throughout South America, such as in Chile with the overthrow of Salvador Allende by Augusto Pinochet and Argentina's Dirty War. Originally, he was born in Germany but fled to the United States as a Jewish refugee, and served a stint in the US Army.

Compromise of 1877

Bargain in which, in order to secure Democratic support for the Special Electoral Commission giving the last 20 too-close-to-call electoral votes to Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes (who was trailing Samuel Tilden 165 to 184), Republicans promise to remove the military from South (thereby allowing the last few remaining Republican state governments to fall to the Democrats), appoint a Democrat to cabinet (David Key as Postmaster General), and provide federal money for construction of the Texas Pacific Railroad and levees on Mississippi River; the apparent corruption of it leads some to call Hayes "his fraudulency".

Calvin Coolidge

Became president when Harding died of pneumonia (1923-1925) and was reelected for another full term (1925-1929). He was known for practicing a rigid economy in money and words, and acquired the name "Silent ___" for being so soft-spoken. He was a true republican and industrialist. Believed in the government supporting big business with largely laissez-faire concepts and policies.

George Grenville

Became the Prime Minister of England in 1763; proposed the Sugar, Currency, and Stamp Acts to raise revenue in the colonies in order to defray the expenses of the French & Indian War and to maintain Britain's expanded empire in America; he also ordered the creation of Customs Houses, especially in Boston, which curtailed illegal smuggling that violated the Navigation Acts

Court-Packing Plan

Because the Supreme Court was striking down New Deal legislation, Roosevelt decided to curb the power of the Court by proposing a bill to allow the president to name a new federal judge for each who did not retire by age 70 and 1/2. At the time, 6 justices were over the age limit. Would have increased the number of justices from 9 to 15, giving FDR a majority of his own appointees on the court. The true reason for this law was that FDR wanted to pack the court with young progressive justices who would support his 2nd New Deal programs. The court at the time had three progressives, two moderates, and four conservatives, but after Roosevelt's request, the two moderates voted progressive multiple times, making the plan unnecessary. The bill was not passed by Congress anyway. It was a victory for FDR's 2nd New Deal but he lost many conservative and Southern Democratic votes in the process.

Antinomianism

Belief that the elect need not obey the law of either God or man; most notably espoused in the colonies by Anne Hutchinson. An interpretation of Puritan beliefs that stressed God's gift of salvation and minimized what an individual could do to gain salvation; identified with Anne Hutchinson.

Albany Plan

Benjamin Franklin submitted this during the French and Indian War on 1754 gathering of colonial delegates in this town. The plan called for the colonies to unify in the face of French and Native American threats. The delegates approved the plan, but the colonies rejected it for fear of losing too much power. The Crown did not support the plan either, as it was wary of too much cooperation between the colonies.

Lord Cornwallis

Best remembered as the leading British generals in the final southern phase of the American Revolutionary War; after an inconclusive campaign in the Carolinas (defeat at King's Mountain and deadly victories at Cowpens and Guilford Court House); his 1781 defeat by a combined American-French force at the Siege of Yorktown is generally considered to be a de-facto end of the war, as a bulk of British troops surrendered with him.

Orville Wright

Bicycle shop owner and inventor who, with his older brother Wilbur, developed the first airplane and flew it successfully in Kitty Hawk in 1903. Eventually would go on to continue manufacturing aircraft and assisting the military in adopting them. Rival of Howard Hughes. He died not too long afterwards.

Force Bill

Bill passed in 1833 authorizing Jackson to use force if states do not follow particular federal laws (namely South Carolina with regard to the Tariff of Abominations)

David Walker

Black abolitionist who called for the immediate emancipation of slaves. He wrote the "Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World", which called for a bloody end to white supremacy. He believed that the only way to end slavery was for slaves to physically revolt.

Harlem Renaissance

Black literary, musical, and artistic movement centered in the namesake part of New York City that lasted from the 1920s into the early 1930s that both celebrated and lamented black life in America; Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston were two famous writers of this movement.

convict-lease system

Blacks who went to prison (often for debt or other light reasons) were rented out by the state government to work on railroads, plantations, and other projects in slave-like conditions

César Chávez

Born in Arizona, this Latino farmworker created the United Farm Workers, which united itinerant farmworkers across the United States. They demanded recognition of their union and increased wages and benefits, and when those demands were not met, results included strikes along with a boycott of table grapes and lettuce. He backed Robert F. Kennedy in the 1968 election and won major concessions for farmers.

Duke Ellington

Born in a Chicago middle-class family, he moved to Harlem in 1923 and began playing at the famed Cotton Club. He was a composer, pianist, and band leader, and one of the most influential figures in jazz.

Thomas Morgan

Bred fruit flies, and supported the the theory of chromosomal inheritance by finding that a specific gene is carried on a specific chromosome

Charles Townshend (Townshend Acts) (1767-1768)

British Prime Minister who influenced Parliament to pass his namesake Acts, which put duties on paint, iron, paper, tea, and other items; by putting "external" taxes, he hoped to appease the colonists and gain revenue

John Burgoyne

British general in the American Revolution who attacked south from Canada along the Hudson River; retook Fort Ticonderoga but his deputy lost at Fort Stanwix and Oriskany (2nd prong of attack) and another lost at Bennington (supply run); out of supplies and surrounded by Horatio Gates' forces, he surrendered at Saratoga

Ultra

British intelligence operation (with Polish help) that broke the code of German communication device called "Enigma" - used for high-level conversations. The German remained unaware that the British had done this, and the cracking of the code helped boost the Allied war effort significantly. The "Bombe" was an electro-mechanical computer developed by Polish intelligence that could decipher some Enigma message, but at a pace that was not fast enough to keep up with the frequency with which the Germans changed the code. However, Turing's team took the machine and improved it greatly to allow them to decrypt up to 1,000 messages a day.

Klaus Fuchs

British physicist who worked on the atomic bomb project at Los Alamos, was arrested in 1950 and confessed to divulging atomic secrets (particularly about the trigger mechanism) to the Soviets. He was in the same spy ring as Julius Rosenberg, having also worked on the Manhattan Project. He was the director of Britain's nuclear research program.

Treaty of Washington

British-American treaty in 1871, negotiated in part by Hamilton Fisher, addressing grievances from the civil war: the British reimburses the US for damages done by their warship the Alabama; it also gave the US permanent fishing rights in the Saint Lawrence River

Orson and Lorenzo Fowler

Brothers who published the Phrenology Almanac which argues that the shape and size of one's skull was an important indicator of character and intellect

Postwar contract

By the early 1950s large labor unions had developed a new kind of relationship with employers....Workers in steel, automobiles, and other large unionized industries were receiving generous increases in wages and benefits. In return the unions tacitly agreed to refrain from raising other issues like workplace control and planning of production by striking.

Henry Clay Frick

Carnegie's supplier of coke to fuel his steel mills as well as his right hand man. He was very anti-union. He was in charge of the mills when the Homestead Strike occurred in the Carnegie Steel plant outside of Pittsburgh. His decision to barricade the plant and use strike breakers (armed Pinkerton guards who attacked workers) ignited the riot, and helped stain the image of unions.

Marbury v. Madison

Case in which the plaintiff demanded that the defendant deliver his commission for federal judge; Supreme Court ruled that although the defendant ought to deliver the commission, said that the Supreme Court could not force the defendant to do so, because the Congressional ruling (following the Judiciary Act of 1789) that said that the Supreme Court could force other government officials to carry out/enforce incomplete actions was unconstitutional as it was beyond Congress's powers to rule what the Supreme Court could or could not do; through this small concession, Marshall and his court established the major check of JUDICIAL REVIEW

Father John Ryan

Catholic liberal priest who took to heart Pope Leo XIII's message that the minority of people who control the majority of the wealth create a situation not much better than slavery for the poor. He worked to expand the scope of catholic social welfare projects.

1990 Recession

Caused by the debt that corporations and individuals had amassed during the 1980s and a reduction in defense spending, this economic downturn caused bankruptcies and increased the fear and frustration of the middle- and working-class Americans. It also put pressure on the government.

Henry Cabot Lodge

Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, he was a leader in the fight against the Treaty of Versailles, particularly participation in the League of Nations. He was a Republicans from Massachusetts, and a close friend of Theodore Roosevelt. He used every possible tactic to delay the vote and created reservations - amendments to the League of Nations covenant that limited American obligations to the organization. He especially disagreed with the clause that asked member nations to the come to the aid of another member that was threatened.

Eighteenth Amendment

Change to the Constitution that prohibited the manufacture, sale, and distribution of alcoholic beverages in the United States.

Sequoyah

Cherokee who created a notation for writing the Cherokee language (1770-1843)

Five Civilized Tribes

Cherokees, Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws, and Seminoles; "civilized" due to their intermarriage with whites and their relatively sedentary lifestyle; forced out of their homelands by expansion

Earl Warren

Chief Justice during the 1950s and 1960s who used a loose interpretation to expand rights for both African-Americans and those accused of crimes. He served as Chief Justice from 1953 to 1969, this Eisenhower appointee.

George Marshall

Chief of Staff of the Army under Roosevelt and Truman, Secretary of State under Truman, President of the Red Cross, and finally Secretary of Defense under Truman, this general and statesman who as Secretary of State organized the European Recovery Program, which helped prop up western European nations economically. He is also known for having determined that the only way to end the threat posed by Mao Zedong's Communist forces in China was for the United States to intervene - however his unwillingness to drag the United States into another war led the US to focus on bolstering Japan instead to be the center of American influence in east Asia. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953.

Powhatan

Chief of the (namesake) Confederacy and father of Pocahontas. At the time of the English settlement of Jamestown in 1607, he was a friend to John Smith and John Rolfe. When Smith was captured by Indians, Powhatan left Smith's fate in the hands of his warriors. His daughter saved John Smith, and the Jamestown colony. Pocahontas and John Rolfe were wed, and there was a time of peace between the Indians and English until his death.

John Tyler

Chosen as the Vice President under William Henry Harrison, he became the tenth president when Harrison died; an ex-Democrat Whig, he abolished Van Buren's independent treasury and raised tariffs (like the Whigs wanted) but was against rechartering the national bank and internal improvements; his Whig cabinet, including Secretary of State Daniel Webster, resigned in frustration; he chose five ex-Democrats for the cabinet and Calhoun, who had recently rejoined the Democrats (left after his falling out with Jackson over the nullification crisis) as Secretary of State

Hiroshima

City in Japan, the first to be destroyed by an atomic bomb, on August 6, 1945. The bombing hastened the end of World War II. It is located in a prefecture of the same name in southeastern Honshu.

New Left

Coalition of younger members of the Democratic party and radical student groups in the late 1960s who believed in participatory democracy, free speech, civil rights and racial brotherhood; opposed the war in Vietnam; and fought poverty and racism. This was embodied by organizations like Students for a Democratic Society and the Free Speech Movement.

George A. Custer

Colonel of the 7th Cavalry Division who was heavily involved in the Indian Wars of the 1860s and 1870s; his 7th Cavalry Division was sent to defeat the Sioux uprising the occurred in response to miners flocking to the Dakotas for gold; he and all of his troops were killed by the Sioux at the Battle of Little Big Horn

truck farming

Commercial gardening and fruit farming, so named because _____ was a Middle English word meaning bartering or the exchange of commodities.

Bull Moose Party

Common name for Progressive Party led by Theodore Roosevelt, which supported regulation of industry and trusts, sweeping government reforms, workers' accident compensation, pensions for elderly and widows with children, and women's suffrage. It arose from the 1912 Republican convention, which was contested between Wisconsin governor Robert LaFollette to a degree (whose daughter was suffering from illness at the time), but more so between President William Howard Taft and Roosevelt. Although Roosevelt had great popular support, the traditional Republicans favored Taft over Roosevelt's progressive policies. In protest, Roosevelt walked out of the convention and formed this party, for which he was elected the nominee. Taft became the Republican nominee. Roosevelt and this party lost due to the failure of many sympathetic Republicans to leave the party, along with the adoption of many progressive ideals by Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson. However, this party gained the most third-party votes than any election before or since, beating the Republican party.

New Harmony

Communal society of around one thousand members, established in Indiana by Robert Owen. The community attracted a hodgepodge of individuals, from scholars to crooks, and fell apart due to infighting and confusion after just two years.

United Service Organizations

Composed of volunteers who boosted the morale of those who were fighting in the war, these organizations were intended to provide a "home away from home" for those serving in the military. During World War II, they recruited thousands of young women to serve as hostesses in their clubs.

Robert E. Lee

Confederate general who had opposed secession but did not believe the Union should be held together by force; he was also loyal to his native Virginia. He was commander of the Army of Northern Virginia.

Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson

Confederate general who was known for his fearlessness in leading rapid marches, bold flanking movements, and furious assaults. he earned his nickname at the First Battle of Bull Run for standing courageously against Union fire. During the battle of Chancellorsville, his own men accidentally mortally wounded him.

Pequot War

Conflict between English settlers and namesake Indians over control of land and trade in eastern Connecticut; resulted in the burning of the tribe's village and the death of 400 natives

minstrel shows

Consisted of white actors in blackface.; consisted of comedy routines that usually made fun of African Americans, dances, and instrumental solos; while today this is seen as racist, it does speak to the profound effect African American music had on American music

Separation of Powers

Constitutional division of federal powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, with the legislative branch making law, the executive applying and enforcing the law, and the judiciary interpreting the law

Second Continental Congress

Convened in May 1775, they opposed the drastic move toward complete independence from Britain. In an effort to reach a reconciliation, they offered peace under the conditions that there be a cease-fire in Boston, that the Coercive Acts be repealed, and that negotiations begin immediately; these concerns were put in the Olive Branch Petition, which King George III rejected

Yorktown

Cornwallis, ordered to retreat to this location to fortify and regroup, was surrounded by ground forces under George Washington (Continental Army) and Rochambeau (French Expeditionary Force) and naval forces under de Grasse. This location, site of the final majar battle of the Revolution, resulted in Cornwallis's surrender soon after, ending the primary hostilities of the American Revolution.

Alexander Hamilton

Cowriter of the Federalist papers, head of the Federalist Party, and first Secretary of the Treasury; he advocated creation of a national bank, assumption of state debts by the federal government, a tariff system to pay off the national debt, and an excise tax on alcohol distillers; killed in a duel with Aaron Burr

Department of Housing and Urban Development

Created by Congress in 1965, it was 11th in cabinet office. Afro-American economist Dr. Robert C. Weaver was named head, and the department regulated and monitored residences and suburban growth. It also provided rent supplements for low-income families. Formally, it is the United States federal department that administers federal programs dealing with residences and city renewal.

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)

Created in 1934 to supervise stock exchanges and to punish fraud in securities trading, it is executive branch organization that oversees/monitors the stock market, account standard-setting bodies, and U.S. financial markets and enforces laws regulating the sale of stocks and bonds.

Republicans

Created in response to the Federalist Party by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, they believed that the Federalists were trying to gain too much central power and believed that the Federalists were trying to create a wealthy, urban, aristocratic elite

Fidel Castro

Cuban socialist leader who overthrew a dictator (Fulgencio Batista) in 1959 and established a Marxist socialist state in Cuba (born in 1927). He allied Cuba closely with the Soviet Union and presided over the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Bay of Pigs Invasion, among other incidents in the Cold War.

machine tools

Cutting, boring, and drilling machines used to produce standardized metal parts, which were then assembled into products such as textile looms and sewing machines; the rapid development of these by American inventors in the early nineteenth century was a factor in the rapid spread of industrialization.

Battle of the Bulge

December, 1944-January, 1945 - After recapturing France, the Allied advance became stalled along the German border. In the winter of 1944, Germany staged a massive counterattack in Belgium and Luxembourg which pushed a 30 mile dent into the Allied lines. The Allies stopped the German advance and threw them back across the Rhine with heavy losses. It would be the last major German offensive of the war. The largest specific battle of this larger campaign "battle" was the Siege of Bastogne, in which a surrounded American force (consisting primarily of the 101st Airborne Division) was asked to surrender in a long formal letter, a request to which the American commander famously replied with one word: "NUTS!" (meaning "Go to hell").

John F. Kennedy

Democrat and 35th president during part of the cold war and especially during the superpower rivalry and the Cuban Missile Crisis. He was the president who went on TV and told the public about the crisis and allowed the leader of the Soviet Union to withdraw their missiles. Other events which occurred during his presidency was the building of the Berlin Wall, the initiation of the Space Race, and early events of the Vietnamese War.

Strom Thurmond

Democratic governor of South Carolina who headed the State's Rights Party (Dixiecrats); he ran for president in 1948 against Truman and his mild civil rights proposals and eventually joined the Republican Party.

Boston Tea Party

Demonstration (1773) in response to Tea Act (which allowed the British East India Company to import tea into America without the duties normally imposed by what remained of the Townshend Acts) by citizens of Boston who disguised as Mohawks, raided three British ships in Boston harbor and dumped hundreds of chests of tea into the harbor

Hoovervilles

Depression shantytowns built by unemployed and destitute people, mostly in cities, during the Great Depression. Many people blamed him for their troubles.

Nathaniel Hawthorne

Descended from Puritans, he was originally a transcendentalist; later rejected them and became a leading anti-transcendentalist after participating in Brook Farm, which led him to write the Blithesdale Romance; author of the Scarlet Letter

Frederick Law Olmsted

Designer of New York City's Central Park, who wanted cities that exposed people to the beauties of nature. One of his projects, the Chicago Columbian Exposition of 1893, gave a rise to the influential "City Beautiful" movement

Lowell System

Developed in the textile mills of a town in northern Massachusetts, in the 1820s; factories that were part of this used as much machinery as possible, so that few skilled workers were needed in the process, and the workers were almost all single young farm women, who worked for a few years and then returned home to be housewives; managers found these young women were the perfect workers for this type of factory life; women lived in dormitories nearby and their life was strictly monitored

Saddam Hussein

Dictator of Iraq who tried to take over Iran (Iran-Iraq War) and Kuwait (Persian Gulf War) violently in order to gain the land and the resources. He also refused to let the UN into Iraq in order to check if the country was secretly holding weapons of mass destruction. He was deposed in 2003 by a US invasion in search of those WMDs (which did not exist). Leader of the Ba'ath Party, he is known for many human rights violations, among them using chemical weapons on the Kurdish minority in the North.

Henry Clay

Distinguished senator from Kentucky, who ran for president five times until his death in 1852; was a strong supporter of the American System, a war hawk for the War of 1812, Speaker of the House of Representatives, and known as "The Great Compromiser"; helped form Missouri Compromise and outlined the Compromise of 1850 with five main points, but died before if was passed

War Production Board

During WWII, FDR established it to allocated scarce materials, limited or stopped the production of civilian goods, converted factories from civilian to military production, and distributed contracts among competing manufacturers. Akin to the War Industries Board of World War I, it was not as successful because the Army and the Navy often circumvented them while obtaining contracts. Also, small businesses hated them because they (correctly) believed that the defense industrial complex favored large businesses. It was succeeded by the Office of War Mobilization, which war marginally more successful.

Lincoln-Douglas Debates

During a senatorial race in Illinois, these two had multiple of these; certain topics of these were slavery, how to deal with slavery, and where slavery should be allowed, etc.; although one lost the election to the other, the former became very well known throughout the country because of the debates; the former believed that popular sovereignty would allow slavery to perpetuate and also believed that the federal government inherently meant for territories to be free (Northwest Ordinance plus Missouri Compromise), while the latter believed that popular sovereignty was a bipartisan (Whigs and Democrats) agreed-upon solution and that the Compromise of 1850 held jurisdiction over the Missouri Compromise

Whiskey ring

During the Grant administration, a group of officials were importing __________ and using their offices to avoid paying the taxes on it, cheating the treasury out of millions of dollars. When this scandal surfaced, it provided critics of "Grantism" with more cannon fodder.

Intervention in the Dominican Republic/Dominican Republic Intervention

During the Johnson administration, this measure was launched. Various factions in this country had been struggling for dominance ever since the assassination of a repressive dictator (Rafael Trujillo) in 1961. In 1965, a conservative military regime started to collapse under revolt by a broad coalition of left-wing nationalist groups under Juan Bosch. Johnson argued that Bosch planned to create pro-Castro, communist regime and dispatched American troops to stop the revolt. American forces withdrew once a conservative candidate beat Bosch in the 1966 election.

Nixon Doctrine

During the Vietnam War, this foreign policy was created. It stated that the United States would honor its existing defense commitments, but in the future other countries would have to fight their own wars without support of American troops. The US would provide defense equipment and material support but not fight the country's wars for them.

William Howe

During the summer of 1776, he led hundreds of British ships and 32,000 British soldiers to New York, and offered Congress the choice between surrender with royal pardon and a battle against the odds, and despite having far fewer troops, the Americans rejected the offer; in the resulting Battle of Long Island and other locations, he drove the Continental Army back; although losing a few outposts at Trenton and Princeton the following winter, he quickly retook them and occupied Philadelphia, defeating Washington again at Brandywine Creek and Germantown; his failure to attack Valley Forge or rendezvous with Burgoyne (instead of attack Philadelphia) helped the Americans survive

Anti-Masonry

Emerged in the 1820s, it was a movement originating in New York supported by the Whigs, and it formed in response to widespread resentment against the secret and exclusive, supposedly undemocratic, Society of Freemasons; in this movement the Whigs launched spirited attacks on Jackson and Van Buren, both Freemasons, implying that the Democrats were connected with the antidemocratic conspiracy; it eventually became its own party

Calvert Vaux

English landscape designer who helped plan New York Central Park. They deliberately created a public space that would look as little like the city as possible.

Herbert Spencer

English philosopher and sociologist who applied the theory of natural selection to human societies and is regarded as a pioneer in the concept of social darwinism.

2nd Bank of the United States

Established in 1816, it dominated state banks by ordering them to only issue particular, sound, agreed upon currency or face being shut down; Advocated somewhat for soft money and tight credit. Andrew Jackson caused its charter to run out in 1836 despite Webster's, Clay's, and Director Nicholas Biddle's best efforts; collapse helped worsen the Panic of 1837

Currency Act of 1900

Established nation's Gold Standard because Great Britain and France did not want free silver; it was successful because because foreign crops failed and farm prices increased

Interstate Commerce Act (1897)

Established the ICC (__________ __________ Commission) which monitors the business operation of carriers (particularly railroads) transporting goods and people between states. They regulated railroad prices (banned differences in rates between short - usually intrastate - and long - usually interstate - hauls) and schedules. This was seldomly enforced by the courts.

Great Compromise

Event of the Constitutional Convention that resolved that there would be proportional representation based on population in the House of Representatives (source of all tax and revenue bills), and equal representation in the Senate.

Daniel Webster

Famous American politician and orator, and senator from Massachusetts, he advocated renewal and opposed the financial policy of Jackson; many of the principles of finance he spoke about were later incorporated in the Federal Reserve System; he would later push for a strong union.

Alan Greenspan

Federal Reserve Board chairman whose firm and astute leadership helped American business and industry witness record profits as the twentieth century came to a close. He supported deregulation but warned of "irrational exuberance" with which Americans were pursuing profits in the stock market.

Harpers Ferry

Federal arsenal in Virginia seized by abolitionist John Brown in 1859. He intended to then arm former and current slaves in the area and help start a revolt in the south. Though Brown was later captured and executed by US Marines with help from Robert E. Lee, his raid alarmed Southerners who believed that Northerners shared in Brown's extremism.

Fort Sumter

Federal fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina; the Beauregard's attack on the fort, under the command of Anderson, marked the start of the Civil War; resulted in a Union surrender of the Fort

Civil Works Administration (CWA)

Federal government agency that paid men and women to do various public projects, such as roads, schools, and parks.

Federal Highway Act of 1956

Federal legislation signed by Dwight D. Eisenhower to construct thousands of miles of modern highways in the name of national defense (he said it was so tanks and other military vehicles could be mobilized much quicker). Officially called the National Interstate and Defense ___________ _______, this bill dramatically increased the move to the suburbs, as white middle-class people could more easily commute to urban jobs.

Sherman Antitrust Act

First federal action against monopolies, it was signed into law by Harrison and was extensively used by Theodore Roosevelt for trust-busting. However, it was initially misused against labor unions, and rarely enforced against corporations. It technically bans any trust that restrains interstate trade or commerce.

Issei

First generation Japanese immigrants to North America. They were often unable to attain citizenship, and subject to a large amount of racism, such as legislation that made it harder for them to buy land.

John Winthrop

First governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, he was instrumental in forming the colony's government and shaping its legislative policy. He envisioned the colony, centered in present-day Boston, as a "city upon a hill" from which Puritans would spread religious righteousness throughout the world.

Tehran Conference

First major meeting (1943) of the big three conferences between the Big Three (United States, Britain, Russia) in joint Soviet/British-occupied Iran at which they planned the 1944 assault on France and agreed to divide Germany into zones of occupation after the war (controlled by their three countries and France).

American Society for the Promotion of Temperance (1826)

First national temperance organization founded in 1826, which sent agents to preach total abstinence from alcohol; the society pressed individuals to sign pledges of sobriety and states to prohibit the use of alcohol.

Seminole War

First of a series of three wars between the namesake native American tribe and the US Army; this one started when American forced under Andrew Jackson used native cross-border raids as an excuse to invade Spanish Florida; although they failed to hunt down the ones they had been targetting, the Americans did take some Spanish forts; in the Second War, their chief Osceola was captured dishonestly (they invited him to a peace settlement, where they captured him), but the resistance continued

national party convention

First utilized by the Anti-Mason Party and the Democratic Party, it differs from the caucus in that select, separate representatives from regions (not legislators of the party) nominate the candidate; it allowed more people to participate than before

Perestroika

Russian for "reform"; a policy initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev that involved restructuring of the social and economic status quo in communist Russia towards a market-based economy and society

Afghanistan War

Following 9/11, George W. Bush invoked NATO Article V, and a coalition of NATO forces led by the US invaded ________________ in 2001 to depose of the Taliban (who were harboring Al Qaeda) and hunt down and destroy Al Qaeda. Although they succeeded in getting rid of Al Qaeda, the Taliban has remained a constant presence in the country, opposing US and Afghan government forces.

trunk lines

Following the Civil War, four major eastern railroad networks emerged from a flurry of mergers and consolidations; all were designed to connect the eastern seaports to the Great Lakes and western rivers; even before the civil war they started to form by the consolidation of numerous mini-railroads

Dollar Diplomacy (Taft)

Foreign policy created under President Taft that had the U.S. exchanging financial support ($) for the right to "help" countries make decisions about trade and other commercial ventures. Basically it was exchanging money for political influence in Latin America and the Caribbean with the intention to make the banana republics dependent on the US. It was responsible for the US intervention in Cuba.

Free-Soil Party

Formed in 1847 - 1848, this was dedicated to opposing slavery in newly acquired territories such as Oregon and ceded Mexican territory, primarily for non-abolition reasons, such as wanting to keep new land for the whites, and wanting to ensure that any new states would be closer, ideologically and politically, to the northern states.

National Consumers League

Formed in the 1890's in New York under the leadership of Florence Kelly, this progressive organization attempted to mobilize the power of women as consumers, through their shopping decisions, to force retailers and manufacturing to improve wages and working conditions, especially for female laborers.

Robert F. Kennedy

Former attorney general, New York senator, and Democratic presidential candidate in 1968 who stirred a response from workers, African Americans, Hispanics, and younger Americans; he would have captured Democratic nomination but was assassinated by Sirhan Sirhan after a victory speech during the California primary in June 1968.

Joseph Smith

Founded Mormonism (Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints) in New York in 1830 with the guidance of an angel. 1843, his announcement that God sanctioned polygamy split the Mormons and let to an uprising against Mormons in 1844; translated the Book of Mormon and was killed after being jailed by locals after establishing a settlement for the Mormons in Nauvoo, Illinois. His post was taken up by Brigham Young, who led the Mormons to Salt Lake City.

National Labor Union

Founded by William Sylvis in 1866, this largely unskilled organization supported 8-hour workdays, the end of convict labor, the creation of a federal department of labor, the institution of banking reform, the emplacement of immigration restrictions to increase wages; however it excluded blacks and women.

American Antislavery Society

Founded in 1833 by William Lloyd Garrison and other abolitionists; argued for "no Union with slaveholders" until they repented for their sins by freeing their slaves; this group advocated for the immediate abolition of all slaves in the United States

national trade unions

Founded in 1834 it was the first attempt at a national labor organization; trade unions fared better than working-men's parties; analogous to the guilds of old

National Greenback Party

Founded in 1878, the party was primarily composed of prairie farmers who went into debt during the Panic of 1873. The Party fought for increased monetary circulation through issuance of paper currency and bimetallism (using both gold and silver as legal tender), supported inflationary programs in the belief that they would benefit debtors, and sought benefits for labor such as shorter working hours and a national labor bureau. They had the support of several labor groups and they wanted the government to print more greenbacks.

Women's Peace Party

Founded in 1915 and was the first autonomous national women's political organization in the U.S. It was considered the most radical organization of its time. The chairwoman was Jane Addams, and was created with the help of Carrie Chapman Catt. Its main purpose was for women to connect the responsibilities of the home with political rights, and to also advocate for pacifism. However, upon US entry into the war, many (Catt included), defected from their anti-war viewpoint.

National Organization for Women (NOW)

Founded in 1966, this organization called for equal employment opportunity and equal pay for women, along with increased educational opportunities and better treatment in other areas. It also championed the legalization of abortion, changes to the divorce law, and passage of an Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution. Inspired by Betty Friedan, they used demonstrations, lobbying, and testing laws with court cases as their primary method of publicizing and highlighting disparities.

Ku Klux Klan

Founded in the 1866 in the south, it was a secret society created by white southerners that was meant to control newly freed slaves and limit their civil rights through threats, intimidation, and violence. They were reinitiated in 1915 in a meeting near Stone Mountain, Georgia; they began to have other targets including Catholics, Jews, immigrants, and others thought to be un-American, and even attacked Protestants accused of irreligion, sexual promiscuity, and drunkenness. They managed to have chapters in the west and north, and not all (but many) were violent: some were merely political in purpose; they fell out of favor following David Stephenson's (Indiana Klan leader) rape and the subsequent death of a secretary. They were also significant in that they began to urbanize significantly.

U.S. Sanitary Commission

Founded with the help of Elizabeth Blackwell, the government agency trained nurses, collected medical supplies, and equipped hospitals in an effort to help the Union Army. This organization helped professionalize nursing and gave many women the confidence and organizational skills to propel the women's movement in the postwar years.

James Oglethorpe

Founder and governor of the Georgia colony. He ran a tightly-disciplined, military-like colony. Slaves, alcohol, and Catholicism were forbidden in his colony. Many colonists felt that he was a dictator, and that (along with the colonist's dissatisfaction over not being allowed to own slaves) caused the colony to break down and ________ to lose his position as governor.

Panic of 1873

Four year economic depression caused by over speculation by the major banking firm Jay Cooke and Co. on railroads and western lands, and worsened by Grant's poor fiscal response (refusing to coin silver). It hurt debtors even more with the Specie Resumption Act by causing deflation, which was beneficial for creditors.

Jerry Falwell

Fundamentalist minister from Virginia and leader of the Religious Right Fundamentalist Christians, a group that supported Reagan; their rallying cry was "family values", and their stances included anti-abortion and favored prayer in schools. He launched a movement called the Moral Majority, which attacked the rise of "secular humanism", which was a term evangelicals used to describe the rejection of religion in American culture.

Chiang Kai-shek

General and leader of Nationalist China after 1925. Although he succeeded Sun Yat-sen as head of the Guomindang/Kuomintang, he became a military dictator whose major goal was to crush the communist movement led by Mao Zedong. He and his nationalist followers were eventually forced to flee to Taiwan, where they established the Republic of China.

General John J. Pershing

General of the American Expeditionary Force in western Europe during World War I, he is also known for invading Mexico to arrest Pancho Villa (a mission that went far into Mexico but failed to capture Villa).

Long Drive

General term for the herding of cattle from the grassy plains to the railroad terminals of Kansas, Nebraska, and Wyoming; cattle were sold to settlers, railroads, and Native Americans.

Alexander Stephens

Georgia Congressman who supported the Georgia Platform in 1850 and fought against secession in 1861 but eventually became the Vice President of the Confederate States of America. Like the other leaders of the Confederacy, he was under indictment for treason after the war was over. However, he managed to be pardoned and became a senator for Georgia again.

Worcester v. Georgia

Georgia wanted to limit white citizens in the Cherokee country, saying they needed state-issued licenses to enter Cherokee country; Marshall said the Cherokees are a separate nation, and that Georgia can't make laws regarding or offer treaties to them; that is a federal power

Jacob Leisler

German immigrant, merchant, leader of New York dissidents, his militia captured the fort and he became the new head of the goverment in New York, William and Mary appointed a new governor and forced him out, later hanged for treason

Hessians

German soldiers hired by George III to smash Colonial rebellion; proved trained and effective in a mechanical sense but they were more concerned about money than duty.

Al Smith

Governor of New York four times, and Democratic candidate in the 1924 presidential election (but he along with his rural-sector rival William McAdoo were not nominated in favor of an obscure compromise candidate who lost to Coolidge) was the Democratic U.S. presidential candidate in 1928. He was the first Roman Catholic and Irish-American to run for President as a major party nominee. He lost the election to Herbert Hoover, in large part because he couldn't secure the rural sector of the Democratic vote in the South (Prohibitionists, religious fundamentalists, and Klansmen, among others).

Lost Generation

Group of writers in 1920s who shared the belief that they were lost in a greedy, materialistic world that lacked moral values and often chose to flee to Europe to escape the lack of appropriate culture in America.. They believed that World War I was pointless and fought in vain, since the consequence was such a culture. Included prominent authors such as T. S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, Ernest Hemingway, Sinclair Lewis, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and journalist H. L. Mencken.

Warren G. Harding

Having become president in 1921 (beating out James Cox, whose running mate was Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin Roosevelt), he was an advocate for laissez-faire policy with little regard for the government or the presidency. He campaigned on his "return to normalcy" following Wilson's idealistic progressive plans. His office became corrupt: he allowed drinking in prohibition, had an affair, surrounded himself with his cronies who used office for private gain (Secretary of Interior leased government land with oil for $500,000 and took money for himself). He died after 3 years in office in 1923, and Calvin Coolidge took over.

General Oliver O. Howard

He was a Civil War general who took part in the Bull Run, Antietam, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, and Chattanooga campaigns. As commissioner of the Freedmen's Bureau after the war, he was unable to prevent many abuses to freedmen, but managed to provided needed food and medical and employment aid to many people.

Russell Conwell

He was a Reverend and a staunch advocate of Social Darwinism. He helped the justification of the rich and the need to not help the poor in his "Acres of Diamonds" lecture, emphasizing that everyone had "Acres of Diamonds" within in reach and that it was their responsibility to get them.

Wovoka

He was a prophet in the Paiute tribe, who promised to restore the Sioux and other natives to their original dominance on the Plains if they performed the Ghost Dance in 1890; led to Wounded Knee Massacre.

John D. Rockefeller

He was an American industrialist and philanthropist who revolutionized the petroleum industry and defined the structure of modern philanthropy. He is known for establishing a monopoly (horizontal integration) with his Standard Oil Company.

John Peter Altgeld

He was the 20th governor of Illinois from 1893 until 1897 the first democratic governor since 1850. A leading figure of the Progressive movement. He improved workplace safety and child labor laws pardoned three of the men convicted in the Haymarket Affair and rejected calls in 1894 to break up the Pullman strike with force. In 1896 he was a leader of the progressive wing of the Democratic Party, against President Grover Cleveland and the conservative Bourbon Democrats. He was defeated in 1896 in an intensely fought, bitter campaign.

Erskine Caldwell

He wrote Tobacco Road in 1932. He was an author who depicted rural southern life, mainly poverty-stricken white farmers and the basic hungers of human life.

Daniel Shays

Head of his namesake Rebellion; he and several other angry farmers (1786-1787) violently protested against debtor's jail and demanded the end to their debts and increasing taxes; eventually crushed; aided in the creation of constitution because land owners now wanted to preserve what was theirs from "mobocracy"

Gifford Pinchot

Head of the Federal Division of Forestry under Roosevelt (and later the first head of the US National Forest Service), who believed that it was possible to make use of natural resources while conserving them; he placed rational use over strict preservationism.

Alice Paul

Head of the National Woman's party that campaigned for an equal rights amendment to the Constitution. She opposed legislation protecting women workers because such laws implied women's inferiority. Most condemned her way of thinking.

Mikhail Gorbachev

Head of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991. His liberalization effort improved relations with the West, but he lost power after his reforms led to the collapse of Communist governments in eastern Europe.

John Smith

Helped found and govern Jamestown. His leadership and strict discipline helped the Virginia colony get through the difficult first winter.

Frank Capra

Hollywood movie director who celebrated simple values, idealism, and the common man and criticized the wealthy and politicians in films like Mr. Deeds Goes to Town and Mr. Smith Goes to Washington.

Dominion of New England

In 1686, the British government combined the colonies of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and Connecticut into a single province headed by a royal governor (Andros). Ended in 1692, when the colonists revolted and drove out Governor Andros

Whiskey Rebellion

In 1794, farmers in Pennsylvania rebelled against Hamilton's excise tax, and several federal officers were killed in the riots caused by their attempts to serve arrest warrants on the offenders; in October, 1794, the army, led by Washington, put down the rebellion nearly bloodlessly; the incident showed that the new government under the Constitution could react swiftly and effectively to such a problem, in contrast to the inability of the government under the Articles of Confederation to deal with Shay's Rebellion; was one response of federal government to frontier issues (other example of response was Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee's statehood)

Handsome Lake

In 1799, angelic figures in traditional Iroquois garb appeared to him and said that if the Iroquois (he was a Seneca) did not mend their immoral ways, they would die out; worked to revive old Iroquois customs and affirm family values, as well as forsake alcohol; died in 1815, but his teachings live on in the form of the longhouse religion.

Tallmadge Amendment

In 1819, the namesake representative proposed an amendment to the bill for Missouri's admission to the Union, which the House passed but the Senate blocked; the amendment would have prohibited the further introduction of slaves into Missouri and would have mandated the emancipation of slaves' offspring born after the state was admitted; eventually led to Missouri Compromise

John C. Calhoun

In 1828, he lead the fight against protective tariffs which hurt the south economically; advocate for the doctrine of nullification which said that a state could decide if a law was constitutional; he said South Carolina (his home state) could declare the 1828 "Abominable Tariffs" void within the state, and he backed Hayne in the Webster-Hayne Debate; at the time he was vice president under Jackson, but due to this issue a rift grew between them and he ultimately resigned, later becoming a South Carolina senator; proponent of the Fugitive Slave Law, which forced the cooperation of Northern states in returning escaped slaves to the south; also argued on the floor of the senate that slavery was needed in the south and that society is supposed to have an upper ruling class that enjoys the profit of a working lower class.

Factory Girls Association

In 1834, mill workers in Lowell organized a union known as this, which staged a strike to protest a 25 percent wage cut. Two years later the association struck again, against a rent increase in boardinghouses. Both Strikes failed, and a recession in 1837 nearly killed the organization.

Dorr Rebellion

In 1841, Rhode Island was governed by a 1663 charter which said that only property holders and their eldest sons could vote (1/2 the adult male population); Thomas _____ led a group of rebels who wrote a new constitution and elected a new separate government with _____ as governor in 1842; the state militia was called in to stop the rebellion; _____ was sentenced to life imprisonment, but the sentence was withdrawn; this event caused conservatives to realize the need for reform - a new constitution in 1843 gave almost all men the right to vote.

Taos Indian Rebellion

In 1847, these Native Americans rebelled, killing the new military governor of New Mexico General Stephen Kearny and other Anglo-American officials before subdued by US Army forces. New Mexico would remain under military rule for 3 years, until it gained an organized territorial government in 1850.

Trent Affair

In 1861 the Confederacy sent emissaries James Mason to Britain and John Slidell to France to lobby for recognition. A Union ship captured both men from the ship of this name, which belonged to the British, and took the two to Boston as prisoners. The British were angry and Lincoln ordered soon ordered their release and issued an indirect apology.

liberal Republicans

In 1872, Republican reformers, alarmed by the corruption and scandals in the Grant administration, organized this branch of the Republican Party and nominated Horace Greeley for president. They were laissez faire liberals who opposed legislation that benefited any particular group.

Susan B. Anthony

Social reformer who campaigned for women's rights, the temperance movement, and abolitionism; helped form the National Woman Suffrage Association (NSWA)

Margaret Fuller

Social reformer, leader in feminist movement and a transcendentalist; edited "The Dial" which was the publication of the transcendentalists; it appealed to people who wanted "perfect freedom" "progress in philosophy and theology and hope that the future will not always be as the past".

Upton Sinclair

Socialist writer, novelist, and muckraker who shocked the nation when he published "The Jungle", a novel that revealed gruesome details about the meat packing industry in Chicago. The book was fiction but based on the things he had seen. In the process, he portrayed the moral depravity of capitalism.

Lester Frank Ward

Sociologist and philosopher of Reform Darwinism who wrote Dynamic Sociology in 1883 and other books, in which he argued that civilization was not governed by natural selection but by human intelligence, which was capable of shaping society as it wished, and he believed that an active government engaged in positive planning was societies best hope.

Open Door Policy

Statement of U.S. foreign policy toward China. Issued by U.S. secretary of state John Hay (1899), it reaffirmed the principle that all countries should have equal access to any Chinese port open to trade instead of the principle of establishing territories in China.

Andrew Mellon

Steel and aluminum tycoon and Secretary of Treasury under President Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover, who instituted a Republican policy of reduced government spending, lower taxes to the wealthy and higher tariffs. He felt it was best to invest in tax-exempt securities rather than in factories that provided prosperous payrolls. He believed in trickle down economics (Hamiltonian economics).

Levittown

Suburban communities with mass-produced tract houses built in the New York and Philadelphia metropolitan areas in the 1950s by William Levitt and Sons. Typically inhabited by white middle-class people who fled the cities in search of homes to buy for their growing families. The first one was built in suburban Long Island, followed by two others in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. It became a symbol of the movement to the suburbs in the years after World War II.

drys

Supporters of prohibition

ex parte Milligan

Supreme Court decided that the suspension of habeas corpus was unconstitutional because civilian courts were still operating, and the Constitution of the United States (according to the Court) only provided for suspension of habeas corpus if these courts are actually forced to be closed. In essence, the court ruled that military tribunals could not try civilians in areas where civil courts were open, even during wartime, unless the region was under martial law.

City-Manager Plan

System of city government in which a small council, chosen on a nonpartisan ballot, hires a single professional who exercises broad executive authority

Richard A. Ballinger

Taft's anti-conservationist Secretary of the Interior who allowed a private group of business people to obtain several million acres of Alaskan public lands. Louis Glavis, an investigator in the Department of the Interior, took this evidence to Gifford Pinchot, head of the US Forest Service, who presented it to President Taft. Taft, who found the claims baseless, fired Glavis. When Pinchot, with indignation, leaked the story to the press in the hopes that Congress would take up the case, not only did Taft dismiss him, but Congress exonerated this man (they were traditional conservatives who were anti-progressive).

Solid South

Term applied to the one-party (Democrat) system of the South following the Civil War. For 100 years after the Civil War, the South voted Democrat in every presidential election.

Young America

Term coined by Ralph Waldo Emerson referring to the new era of commercial development, technological progress, and territorial expansion led by progressive new young generation; it generalized the confident, manifest destiny spirit of the Americans in the 1840's and 50's. Expansionists began to think about transmitting the dynamic, democratic spirit of the US to other countries by aiding revolutionaries, opening up new markets, and annexing foreign lands

Seward's Folly (Seward's Icebox)

Term referring to the purchase of Alaska from Russia; used to make fun of the Secretary of State

fire-eaters

Term that refers to a group of extremist pro-slavery politicians from the South who urged the separation of southern states into a new nation, which would became known as the Confederate States of America.

Boston marriages

Term that refers to the relationship between women who lived together, often in long-term, usually professional but sometimes romantic, relationships.

American Plan

Term that some U.S. employers in the 1920s used to describe their policy of refusing to negotiate with unions and their promotion/protection of the "open shop" policy. Some managers also strengthened communication with their workers and offered benefits like pension and insurance in order to further subvert the influence of unions. Demonstrated laissez-faire economics.

Corrupt Bargain

Term used by Jackson supporters to refer to the Election of 1824, where Jackson won the largest share of electors but failed to secure fifty percent; Clay, in fourth place, was immediately out, and told his electors to choose John Quincy Adams; Adams won and chose Clay for Secretary of State, which was viewed as the _________ __________ because the Secretary of State usually became the next president

Manifest Destiny

The 19th-century doctrine or belief that the expansion of the US throughout the American continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, was both justified and inevitable.

William Jefferson Clinton/Bill Clinton

The 42nd president of the United States (1993-2001), he became the second president in the U.S. history to be impeached by the House. This man can best be described as a conservative liberal. He was the previous governor of Arkansas and became the first member of the baby-boomer generation to win the presidency. He led the Democratic party in a more moderate direction. He is the wife of Hillary __________.

Trail of Tears

The Cherokee Indians were forced to leave their lands along what was dubbed this; they traveled from North Carolina and Georgia through Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas - more than 800 miles (1,287 km) - to the Indian Territory; more than 4,000 Cherokees died of cold, disease, and lack of food during the 116-day journey.

Peace Democrats (Copperheads) (Early 1860s)

The Democrats split into two factions over continuing the war, and this group wanted a constitutional convention to restore peace through ending the war and reuniting the country. The National Union Party coined their nickname, as if they were snakes with treacherous plots.

Thomas E. Dewey

The Republican presidential nominee in 1944, he was the popular governor of New York. Roosevelt won a sweeping victory in this election of 1944. He also ran against Harry Truman in the 1948 presidential election. He, arrogant and wooden, seemed certain to win the election, and the newspapers even printed, "________ DEFEATS TRUMAN" on election night using telephone polls that captured a disproportionately large number of upper-class voters. However, the morning results showed that Truman swept the election, much to his embarrassment.

Army-McCarthy Hearings

The Trials in which Senator Joseph ____________ of Wisconsin accused this branch of the US military, especially Secretary Robert Stevens, of harboring possible communists. These trials were one of the first televised trials in America, and helped show the senator's irresponsibility and cruelty. The most famous line of the trial was when Army Counsel Joseph Welch asked the Senator "Have you left no sense of decency?" The Senate overwhelmingly voted to condemn him for "conduct unbecoming a senator."

Social Darwinism

The application of ideas about evolution and "survival of the fittest" to human societies - particularly as a justification for their imperialist expansion, but also to justify why the rich were rich and the poor were destitute. Unlike the original form, which applied to the scientific evolution of species, it applied to human political, economic, and social struggles.

Oklahoma City bombing

The blast, set off by Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols, killed 168 people, including 19 children in the building's day-care center, at the Murrah Federal Building in this city in 1995.

Sixteenth Amendment

The constitutional amendment adopted in 1913 that explicitly permitted Congress to levy an income tax.

Nineteenth Amendment

The constitutional amendment adopted in 1920 that guarantees women the right to vote.

Fourteenth Amendment

The constitutional amendment that gave the full rights of citizenship to all people born or naturalized in the United States, except for American Indians. It also said that any state that did not allow any adult males to vote (including African Americans) would see their representation in Congress and their number of electoral college vote diminished as punishment. It also prevented former Congressmen and other federal officials who defected to the Confederate States of America from holding office at the state or federal level again unless pardoned by two-thirds of Congress.

Thirteenth Amendment

The constitutional change ratified in 1865 after the Civil War that forbade slavery and involuntary servitude.

Bank War

The fight between Jackson and his hard money supporters (along with soft money people from the state ones) against Nicholas Biddle (director of the National one) and his congressional allies like Daniel Webster and Henry Clay; Jackson viewed the National one as another piece of a too-strong central government trying to gain more power and influence for the wealthy aristocracy; when Jackson vetoed a recharter, Clay ran against him with that as a central issue but promptly lost; before the charter ran out, Jackson impatiently withdrew all federal funds from the national one and put the money in multiple state "pet" ones; Biddle drove up interest rates extremely high and blamed it on Jackson; as people went to Jackson for answers, he told them to "go to Biddle"; eventually Biddle lowered interest rates; the national charter expired in 1836

Jackie Robinson

The first African American player in Major League Baseball. His actions helped to bring about other opportunities for African Americans, especially in the world of sports. His number, 42, was retired as a result.

Armory Show

The first art show in the U.S., this was a New York Painting exhibition organized by the Ashcan School in 1913. It was most Americans' first exposure to European (particularly French) Impressionist and Post-Impressionist art. Featuring American abstract painting as well, it was part of the beginning of a modernist revolution in American art.

Boston Massacre

The first bloodshed that helped start events leading up to the American Revolution (1770), as British guards at the Boston Customs House opened fire on a crowd killing five Americans

Antietam

The first major battle in the American Civil War to take place on Northern soil, it was the bloodiest single-day battle in American history, with almost 23,000 casualties. Occurred in northwestern Maryland near a little creek of the same name. After this "win" for the North, Lincoln announced the Emancipation Proclamation. McClellan's inability to quickly route Lee's retreating forces from this battle furthered Lincoln's belief in McClellan's incompetency

Bull Run

The first major battle of the Civil War, it resulted in a Confederate victory; Gen. Jackson stands as strong against the advancing Union soldiers, earning his nickname Stonewall, and turns tide of battle in favor of Confederates; resulted in a realization for the North that the war would neither be quick nor easy; also the site of a second major battle later on between John Pope and Robert E. Lee that also resulted in a Confederate victory

The Jazz Singer

The first movie with sound synchronized to the action; this "talkie" starring Al Jolson was about the life of a famous musician.

Virginia House of Burgesses

The first representative assembly in the new world. Created due to distance between Great Britain and the colonies.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the Constitution; the first nine specified individual rights while the tenth stated that anything not particularly under federal jurisdiction was under state jurisdiction

Anti-Mason Party

The first third party; core belief was against the elite and secretive Society of Freemasons

Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge

The former had a charter for a toll bridge since 1785; then the latter was allowed to build a toll-free bridge near the same place; although Marshall established precedent of contracts as sacred, new Chief Justice Roger B. Taney overturned that by ruling in favor of the latter, saying that the former's charter could be ignored since establishing a second ________ was in the public interest, for sake of lessening traffic

Slidell Mission

The last ditch attempt to gain California for America; James K. Polk sent John __________ of Louisiana to offer a maximum of $25 million for it, but it was rejected by the Mexicans. This prompted Polk to provoke war with the Mexicans.

American Party

The political party formed by the Know-Nothings

Ostend Manifesto

The recommendation from US envoys in Belgium to then-President James K. Polk that the U.S. offer Spain $20 million for Cuba, and that if they refused that the use of force was justified. It was not carried through in part because the North feared Cuba would become another slave state.

mass politics

The reforms that increased suffrage from elite landowning/tax-paying males to white males in general; includes the change from electors being chosen by state legislatures to electors being chosen directly by popular vote

Eugenics

The science and study of factors that influence the hereditary qualities of the human race and ways to improve those qualities through controlled breeding in order to increase the occurrence of desirable traits. This was used as an argument by nativists who sought immigration restriction.

SALT II/Strategic Arms Limitation Talks II/Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty II (1979)

The second series of talks and a treaty signed in the late 1970s. This treaty also set limits on the numbers of weapons produced. It placed limits on long-range missiles, bombers and nuclear warheads. It was not passed by the Senate as retaliation for U.S.S.R.'s invasion of Afghanistan, this was later superseded by the START treaty.

Andrew Jackson

The seventh President of the United States (1829-1837), who as a general in the War of 1812 defeated the British at New Orleans (1815) and later helped start the First Seminole War; as president he opposed the Bank of America, objected to the right of individual states to nullify disagreeable federal laws, and increased the presidential powers.

Seneca Falls

The site of the women's rights convention that met in July in 1848 in the Wesleyan Chapel; three hundred men and women attended. At the convention, they wrote the Declaration of Sentiments, which outlined their demands for women's rights in a format that mirrors the Declaration of Independence

Pro-Choice

The stance of people who are for allowing abortion

Treaty of Versailles

The treaty imposed on Germany by the Allied powers in 1920 after the end of World War I which demanded exorbitant reparations from the Germans. German resentment, plus Italian and Japanese feelings of disinclusion would eventually lead to the formation of the Axis Powers. It was never ratified by the United States, who negotiated separate treaties with the Central Powers.

Ludlow Massacre

The violent deaths of 39 people, 11 of them children, during an attack by the Colorado National Guard on a tent colony of 1,200 striking coal miners and their families at the namesake town in Colorado in the on April 20, 1914. Although the National War Labor Board pressured companies to grant laborers certain rights (8 hour days, equal pay for women, better living conditions, right to organize and bargain collectively) in return for the union members not striking during the war, the Western Federation of Miners still staged many strikes, such as this one in coal mines owned by Rockefeller. Most of the workers were Italians, Greeks, and Slavs.

Iraq War (2003)

The war in which the United States invaded the namesake country on the basis that Saddam Hussein had weapons of mass destruction (which wasn't true) and wanted to do a regime change. There were massive anti-war demonstrations everywhere, even before the war started. Although the Hussein regime was toppled in 2003, US presence there would continue until 2011, and fighting would continue for much longer, although the current government is relatively stable.

Panamanian Revolution

The war in which this country revolted against Colombia after Roosevelt pushed for it, outraged by Colombians' demands for a higher price than previously offered for a lease for a potential canal construction zone. Previously there had been strong nationalist movements in this country, but all had failed. US recognized it as a new nation 2 days after they gained independence, and landed troops from the USS Nashville to back their forces and prevent the Colombians from intervening. The war was primarily engineered by Philippe Bunau-Varilla (French engineer and soldier).

Keynesian economics

Theory based on the principles of John Maynard ________, stating that government spending should increase during business slumps and be curbed during booms. By varying the flow of government spending and taxation (fiscal policy) and managing the supply of currency (monetary policy), the government could stimulate the economy to cure recession and dampen growth to prevent inflation. Sometimes referred to as new economics, it was truly taken to heart by the Kennedy and Johnson administrations.

Turner Thesis

Theory that claimed that the frontier had played a key role in forming the American character and that the frontier was now closed and that this fact would affect the nation's vitality and strength. It also argued that the spirit and success of the United States were directly tied to the country's westward expansion. Also said the frontier provided a place for homeless and solved social problems. Stated in "The Significance of the Frontier in American History", presented to the American Historical Association in 1893.

Half-Breeds

They were a moderate Republican party faction led by Senator James G. Blaine of Maine in the late 1800s that favored some reforms of the civil service system and a restrained policy toward the defeated South, along with other reform-minded anti-machine policies. They included James Garfield.

Emergency Quota Act (1921)

This 1921 immigration law pleased nativists who associated immigration with a wave of strikes and radicalism. It established a limit on annual immigration from any country. The immigration was not to exceed 3% of the number of people of that nationality that were in the United States in 1910.

Lyndon B. Johnson

This Democrat was the 36th president of the United States, following John F. Kennedy's assassination and his election to a full term in 1964. He signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. He held a war on poverty. In an attempt to win in the 1964 elections, he set a few goals, including the "great society", the economic opportunity act, and other programs that provided food stamps and welfare to needy families. He also created a department of housing and urban development. his most important legislation was probably medicare and medicaid.

W. E. B. Du Bois

This Massachusetts native and Fisk University graduate fought for African American rights. He helped to found Niagara Movement in 1905 to fight for and establish equal rights. This movement later merged with white progressivists, an action that led to the establishment of the NAACP. He disagreed with Booker T. Washington, believing that African Americans should fight for their rights politically.

John McCain

This Republican senator from Arizona was a prisoner of war during the Vietnam War (Navy fighter pilot who got shot down and was tortured following his capture) and the Republican presidential candidate in 2008 against Obama.

Ross Perot

This Texas billionaire was a third-party candidate in the 1992 presidential election who won 19 percent of the popular vote. His strong showing that year demonstrated voter dissatisfaction with the two major parties.

Foraker Act

This act established Puerto Rico as an unorganized U.S. territory. Puerto Ricans were not given U.S. citizenship, but the U.S. president appointed the island's governor and governing council.

Federal Reserve Act

This act established its namesake System, which established 12 distinct reserve to be controlled by the banks in each district; in addition, a namesake board was established to regulate the entire structure; improved public confidence in the banking system and gave government control over the money supply with namesake notes.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

This act made racial, religious, and sex discrimination by employers illegal and gave the government the power to enforce all laws regarding this, including desegregation of schools and public places. In detail, it banned discrimination in public accommodations, prohibited discrimination in any federally assisted program, outlawed discrimination in most employment; enlarged federal powers to protect voting rights and to speed school desegregation; this and the Voting Rights Act helped to give African-Americans equality on paper, and more federally-protected power so that social equality was a more realistic goal

Shiloh

This battle was fought by Grant in an attempt to capture a railroad of the South. The battle was fought in western Tennessee. The Confederacy prevented the north from obtaining an easy victory, but their ultimate loss helped the north secure half of the state and the lower Tennessee River.

Beats

This cultural group/movement of young poet, writers, and artists supported bohemianism and harsh critiques of U.S. society; they were a strong influence on 1960s counterculture. There were some called _____niks as their critics associated them with Communists. Included poets like Allen Ginsberg, authors like Jack Kerouac, and actors like James Dean.

March on Washington

This demonstration and event was held in August, 1963 to show support for President Kennedy's Civil Rights Bill in Congress. Martin Luther King gave his famous "I Have a Dream" speech in front of the Lincoln Memorial during this event. 250,000 people attended the rally.

Mary E. Lease

This fiery populist orator was a fixture in the Farmers' Alliance circuit in 1890s. She made 160 speeches in 1890 alone, and told farmers to "raise less corn and more hell".

Reagan Doctrine

This foreign policy entailed that the US would support freedom fighters, guerrillas, and rebels who were trying to overthrow Soviet-backed Communist regimes and client-states; it was applied in Nicaragua (Contras), Angola, Cambodia, and Afghanistan (mujahideen).

Paris Peace Accords

This intended to establish peace in Vietnam and an end to the Vietnam War. It ended direct U.S. military combat and the Vietnam War as a whole - or at least the US phase of it (the North would soon later successfully invade the South).

GI Bill of Rights/Servicemen's Readjustment Act (1944)

This law made low-interest government loans available to veterans for the purchase of homes, farms, and businesses, or for college tuition.

Espionage Act

This law, passed after the United States entered WWI, imposed sentences of up to twenty years on anyone found guilty of aiding the enemy, obstructing recruitment of soldiers, or encouraging disloyalty. It allowed the postmaster general to remove from the mail any materials that incited treason or insurrection (often broadly interpreted - such as to include all socialist mail).

Louis Brandeis

This man graduated from Harvard not only at the top of his class, but with the best academic record in the history of Harvard's law school. A lawyer and jurist, he created the "Brandeis Brief," which succinctly outlines the facts of the case and cites legal precedents, in order to persuade the judge to make a certain ruling. This concept was pioneered in the Muller v. Oregon case. In 1916 he was nominated for the Supreme Court by Woodrow Wilson, and became the first justice to have served on the Supreme Court without having served in public office prior, and the first Jewish justice.

factory system

This new system gradually replaced localized cottage industry; workers were paid by the hour instead of for what they produce; on one hand it decreased the need for skilled labor, but in other ways it increased the amount of specialization due to labor being concentrated in factories; was characterized by bringing many workers and machines under the same roof for a manufacturing process

Beirut Barracks Bombing

This occurred during the Lebanese Civil War, when two truck bombs struck separate buildings housing US Marines and French paratroopers — members of the Multinational Force in Lebanon who were there to keep the peace during the Lebanese Civil War and the invasion by Israel (to prevent the Palestinian Liberation Organization from gaining a foothold in Lebanon) — killing 299 American and French servicemen. The Islamic Jihad Organization claimed responsibility for the bombing.

Tiananmen Square

This public space in Beijing is overlooked by the entrance of the Forbidden City along with other famous buildings. It was where Chinese students and workers gathered to demand greater political openness in 1989. The demonstration was crushed by the Chinese military with great loss of life.

Ocala Demands

This series of demands was the result of an 1890 farmers' convention held in a namesake town in Florida by leaders of what would later become the Populist Party. The farmers demanded: (1) the direct election of senators, (2) lower tariff rates, (3) a graduated income tax, and (4) a new banking system regulated by the federal government.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964)

This statement was issued as a joint measure of the U.S. Congress passed on August 7, 1964 in direct response to a minor naval engagement of the same name that took place in the name sake gulf between northern Vietnam, mainland China, and the island of Hainan (allegedly the destroyers USS Maddox and USS Turner Joy were fired on by Vietnamese gunboats; the actual progression of the incident remains unclear to this day). It is of historical significance because it gave U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson authorization, without a formal declaration of war by Congress, for the use of military force in Southeast Asia to assist South Vietnam in its defense against North Vietnamese aggression.

Roosevelt Recession

This term refers to the period when FDR cut government spending to balance the budget, as encouraged by Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau; this led to an economic downturn as many were laid off from federal relief programs like the WPA. It occurred from 1937 to 1938.

10% Plan

This was Lincoln's reconstruction plan for after the Civil War. Written in 1863, it proclaimed that a state could be reintegrated into the Union when this much of the state's voters in the 1860 election pledged their allegiance to the U.S. and pledged to abide by emancipation, and then formally erect their state governments. This plan was very lenient to the South, would have meant an easy reconstruction.

cult of honor

This was the male southern code of chivalry. It included dueling and protecting women, and southern men fiercely protected it; it was important for southern white males to keep their dignity, authority and manhood; this often took the form of avenging insults, which was a social necessity and the gentlemen's obligation; an example of this is the scenario with Senators Preston Brooks and Charles Sumner.

Hetch Hetchy

This was the name of a scenic valley in Yosemite Park. Its damming in the 1920's caused major controversy among environmentalists. It was largely a standoff between John Muir and the Sierra Club against Gifford Pinchot and the US Forest Service. Ballot referendum led to the damming of the valley.

Jay's Treaty

Treaty signed in 1794 between the UK and US; said that Britain was to pay for Americans ships that were seized in 1793 while the Americans had to pay British merchants debts owed from before the Revolution; Britain also agreed to remove their troops from the Ohio River Valley outposts

Get Tough Policy

Truman's way of ____ting _______ with the Soviet Union. He met with Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov and sharply chastised him for violations of the Yalta accords. Truman insisted that the US should be able to get 85% of what is wanted, but he was forced to settle for much less.

Yellow Journalism

Type of sensational, biased, exploited, distorted, exaggerated, and at times false reporting for the sake of attracting readers. It tends to create sensational stories. Pioneered by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer.

Martin Luther King Jr.

U.S. Baptist minister and civil rights leader. A noted orator, he opposed discrimination against blacks by organizing nonviolent resistance and peaceful mass demonstrations. He was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee. He won the Nobel Peace Prize (1964).

USS Maine

U.S. battleship that exploded in Havana harbor in 1898; Evidence suggests an internal explosion; however the Spanish military was framed by Yellow Journalism; The incident was a catalyst for the Spanish-American War. "Remember the _______" became an American rallying cry for the Spanish-American War.

Operation Urgent Fury

U.S. troops invaded Grenada to prevent the nation from becoming a communist nation in 1983, under the guise of rescuing students who were present on the island.

Bakke v. Board of Regents of California

US Supreme Court case in which Bakke was denied attendance to the University of California Medical School twice, losing his spot to people less qualified based on race. The Burger Court determined that affirmative action is legal as long as filling quotas is not used.

Quasi War

Undeclared war fought entirely at sea between the United States and France from 1798 to 1800; the French began to seize American ships trading with their British enemies, refused to receive a new United States minister (Charles Pinckney, brother of Thomas Pinckney) when he arrived in Paris in December 1796, and also initiated the XYZ Affair; the US created Department of the Navy and waged war successfully until Bonaparte came to power, whom with America signed a treaty ending the dispute

Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

Under John F. Kennedy in 1963 in the wake of the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Soviets & US agreed, with this treaty, to prohibit all above-ground nuclear tests. France, China, and North Korea to this day are the only countries that possess nuclear weapons who did not sign the treaty.

interchangeable parts

Uniform pieces that can be made in large quantities to replace other identical pieces; first championed by Ei Whitney and Simeon North for the gun industry

William Tecumseh Sherman

Union General who destroyed South during his "March to the Sea" from Atlanta to Savannah, where he burned farms, plantations, towns, etc. in an effort to intimidate and lower the morale of the people and severely damage southern infrastructure; exponent of total war.

Anaconda Plan

Union war plan by Winfield Scott that called for a blockade of the southern coast, and the capture of the Mississippi River; eventually entailed capture of Richmond and taking an army through the heart of the South to destroy it

Anaconda Plan

Union war plan by Winfield Scott, called for blockade of southern coast, that entailed the capture of the Mississippi River and the blockading of southern ports; was eventually revised to include the capture of Richmond and the capture of the heartland of the South

Nicola Sacco

United States anarchist (born in Italy) who with Bartolomeo Vanzetti was [probably falsely] charged with the murder of a paymaster in Braintree, Massachusetts. The issue was, despite the existence of questionable evidence, his status as an anarchist led him to being convicted by a heavily biased judge, and in spite of world-wide protest, he was executed by electric chair (1891-1927).

Bartolomeo Vanzetti

United States anarchist (born in Italy) who with Nicola Sacco was [probably falsely] charged with the murder of a paymaster in Braintree, Massachusetts. The issue was, despite the existence of questionable evidence, his status as an anarchist led him to being convicted by a heavily biased judge, and in spite of world-wide protest, he was executed by electric chair (1891-1927).

Rosa Parks

United States civil rights leader and secretary of the NAACP who refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white man in Montgomery (Alabama) and so triggered the national civil rights movement with the Montgomery Bus Boycott. She was born in 1913.

Vannevar Bush

United States electrical engineer who designed an early analogue computer and who led the scientific program of the United States during World War II (1890-1974)

Winfield Scott

United States general who fought in the War of 1812 and who was the commander who defeated Santa Anna by ultimately taking Mexico City in the Mexican-American War (1786-1866). Nicknamed "Old Fuss and Feathers, his dedication to the Union (despite being Virginian) was a source of admiration; he devised the Anaconda Plan for the American Civil War (port blockades and taking the Mississippi River valley); was also the Whigs' last presidential candidate in 1852.

Lincoln Steffens

United States journalist who exposes in 1906 started an era of muckraking journalism (1866-1936). Writing for McClure's Magazine, he criticized the trend of urbanization and political machines with a series of articles under the title Shame of the Cities.

Samuel Gompers

United States labor leader (born in England) who was president of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) from 1886 to 1924 (1850-1924). He provided a stable and unified union for skilled workers. He was also against females being in the workforce. He opposed forming a party, believing that using the government was a problem because the rights the government instituted the government could also take away. He was for collective bargaining and nonviolent strikes.

Rachel Carson

United States marine biologist remembered for her opposition to the use of pesticides (especially DDT) that were hazardous to wildlife, which became wildly publicized in her book Silent Spring (1907-1964).

Pearl Harbor

United States naval base near Honolulu on the island of Oahu in Hawaii, and headquarters of the United States Navy Pacific Fleet Command (USPACFLT), then under Admiral Chester Nimitz. It was attacked by the aircraft of the Imperial Japanese Navy on December 7th, 1941; this unprovoked incident led to the United States joining World War II. Every battleship was sunk in the harbor, but all except the USS Arizona, USS Oklahoma, and USS Utah were refloated. Many other ships were sunk as well, but luckily all aircraft carriers of the Pacific Fleet were out at sea or at other bases at the time. Nearby bases include Ford Island Naval Air Station (now no longer in use) and Hickham Air Force Base, which were also attacked on December 7th.

Joseph Pulitzer

United States newspaper publisher and notable philanthropist born in Hungary in 1847 who would go on to establish his namesake prizes for journalism, reporting, and literature; he initially sold newspapers at cheap prices so people could afford it, but raised the cost to compete with Hearst. He used yellow journalism in competition with Hearst to sell more newspapers, and also began using colored comics in his newspaper. He also achieved the goal of becoming a leading national figure of the Democratic Party.

Sam Houston

United States politician and military leader who fought to gain independence for Texas from Mexico and to make it a part of the United States, he commanded the Texas Army at the Battle of San Jacinto, which resulted in a Texan victory in their war for independence. He was later elected president of the republic.

Mark Twain

United States writer, humorist, and southern realist best known for his novels The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn; originally working on steamboats on the Mississippi River, he was for a short time a Confederate soldier, then spent time in Nevada working as a newspaper reporter during the mining boom (Roughing It); eventually he returned east and became a writer; also known for A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court and The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County

Crime of '73

Unpopular critical name by Free Silver Supporters for the Fourth Coinage Act, which was enacted by the United States Congress and embraced the gold standard and de-monetized silver (as at the time the government silver to gold exchange rate (16 to 1) was less than what gold could be sold for on the market to jewelers, so the government decided to discontinue it - however the market value declined to lower than the now-discontinued government rate, which caused people to change their minds about silver). U.S. set the specie standard in gold and not silver, upsetting miners who referred to it as a crime, and farmers who valued the inflation that the less-valuable silver provided.

Gang system

Used with large plantations for people who had more slaves, in this system enslaved people were organized into work groups that labored from sunup to sundown.

Cyrus H. McCormick

Virginian who invented the automatic reaper, which enabled a crew of six or seven men to harvest in a day as much wheat (or any other small grain) as fifteen men could harvest using older methods; patented his machine in 1834 and established a factory at Chicago in 1847

Aaron Burr

Was one of the leading Democratic-Republicans of New York, and served as a U.S. Senator from 1791-1797; was the principal opponent of Alexander Hamilton's Federalist policies; tied with Jefferson in the Electoral College in 1800 and was chosen by House as Vice President (his refusal to step down right away and become VP as originally planned earned him Jefferson's enmity, which later caused him to defect to the Federalists); after four years, was chosen by Federalists to be the New York gubernatorial candidate (however Hamilton still hated him); blamed his defeat on Hamilton and killed him in a subsequent duel; fled, and became involved in many conspiracies such as secession of southwestern territories

John Hay

Was the Secretary of State in 1899; dispatched the Open Door Notes to keep the countries that had spheres of influence in China that ultimately prevented the taking over of parts of China by any European country (including Russia and Japan) and permanently opened the doors on trade between China and the U.S. HIs goal in preserving Chinese independence was to maintain favorable trade ties that might be lost if another country takes control of the territory. He also oversaw the building of the Panama Canal.

Panic of 1837

When Jackson was president, many state banks received government money that had been withdrawn from the Bank of the U.S.; these banks issued paper money and financed wild speculation, especially in federal lands; Jackson issued the Specie Circular to force the payment for federal lands with gold or silver, or money backed by it, because he thought plain paper money was too risky; many state banks collapsed as a result; a panic ensued - cotton prices fell, businesses went bankrupt, and there was widespread unemployment and distress.

Saturday Night Massacre

When Special Prosecutor to handle the Watergate cases and Harvard law professor Archibald Cox was fired by Richard Nixon after Cox took Nixon to court in an effort to get Nixon to relinquish the tapes, Attorney General Elliot Richardson and Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus resigned. It severely damaged Nixon's credibility, and the next Prosecutor, Leon Jaworski, proved just a determined to subpoena the tapes.

1902 Coal Strike

When the demands of the union, known as the United Mine Workers, (wanted twenty percent wage increase, a reduction in daily working hours from ten to nine, and formal management recognition in their union) were not met, they initiated this event; the mines shut down in an effort to starve out the miners; Roosevelt's conference ended in an impasse, he threatened to take over the mines and run them with the army; ended in October with an agreement to submit the issues to an arbitration commission named by the president; enhanced the prestige of Roosevelt and the nation's leaders, but only partial victories for the miners; won 9 hour work day and only 10% increase wages. It was unusual in that the federal government intervened impartially. Roosevelt later boasted that he had provided a square deal for everyone.

Monica Lewinsky

White House intern in the 1990s who had an affair with Clinton, who denied it under oath, but there was physical evidence suggesting otherwise; he was impeached for perjury and his resulting political battles and the fallout from the Whitewater Scandal kept him from being productive in his final term paving way for the seemingly moral Bush in 2000.

Women's Christian Temperance Union (Late 1800s)

Women's organization led by reformers Frances Willard and Carrie A. Nation and others to oppose alcohol consumption. Their efforts ultimately helped lead to the 18th Amendment.

William H. Whyte Jr.

Writer of The Organization Man. It it, he assailed the similarity many business organizations cultivated in order to keep any individual from dominating.It described the special mentality of the worker in a large, bureaucratic setting. He claimed that self reliance was losing it place to getting along and working as a team.

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

Written anonymously by Jefferson and Madison in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts, they declared that states could nullify federal laws that the states considered unconstitutional; although it failed to arouse state opposition to the acts, it succeeded in making the Federalists vs. Democratic-Republicans a national issue/crisis

The Feminine Mystique

Written by Betty Friedan, journalist and mother of three children, this book described the problems of middle-class American women and the fact that women were being denied equality with men. It said that women were kept from reaching their full human capacities. Most of the people interviewed in the book were fellow graduates from Smith college, yet they were living trapped in suburban homes, comfortable, but not living up to their full potential.

James Fenimore Cooper

Wrote numerous sea-stories as well as the historical romances (often frontier or western stories) known as the Leatherstocking Tales, featuring frontiersman Natty Bumppo. Among his most famous works is the romantic novel The Last of the Mohicans, which many people consider his masterpiece.

Fletcher v. Peck

Yazoo Land Company bribed the Georgia legislature and then sold land to other people; Georgia found out and wanted the land back; Marshall's court ruled in favor of the Yazoo Land Company, declaring that contracts, even if corruption was involved, are valid

H. L. Mencken

Young Baltimore journalist, writer, and author who published the magazine Smart Set and later on the monthly magazine American Mercury; he assailed marriage, patriotism, prohibition, democracy, prohibition, and the middle-class Americans and their culture in general as narrow and hypocritical; he also dismissed the South and attacked the Puritans and religious fundamentalists. He also reported on the Scopes Monkey Trial.

Gabriel Prosser

in 1800, he gathered 1000 rebellious slaves outside of Richmond, but 2 Africans gave the plot away, and the Virginia militia stymied the uprising before it could begin; along with 35 others, he was executed.

First Civil Rights Act

in 1866 it declared blacks to be citizens of the US and gave the federal government the power to intervene in state affairs to protect the rights of citizens; it was vetoed by Johnson but overridden by Congress; issued in response to the black codes

American Medical Association

in 1901, when many doctors who considered themselves trained professionals they began forming local associations and societies such as this one, which was organized into a national professional society. Including nearly 2/3 of all doctors, they called for strict scientific standards in practicing medicine.

Christian Coalition

in the 1990s, Pentecostal minister Pat Robertson began a political movement and launched this organization. These and other organizations of the Christian right opposed federal interference in local affairs; denounced abortion, divorce, feminism, and homosexuality; defended unrestricted free enterprise, and supported a strong American posture in the world.

Crop-Lien system

in this system, store and shopkeepers granted credit for farmers until the harvest. To protect the creditor, the storekeeper took a _____ on the tenant's share of the crop (essentially the crops were collateral). The system was abused and uneducated blacks were taken advantage of. The result for blacks was not unlike slavery, as a few bad seasons could produce a cycle of debt (losing one's harvest to the shopkeeper, thereby limiting one's income).

teetotalers

individuals who drink no alcoholic beverages whatsoever; a term in common usage in decades past

Pool Arrangements (Cartels)

informal agreements among various companies to stabilize rates and divide markets (arrangements that in later years would be known as cartels). However, this was not very effective, as if so much as one company left and lowered their rates, the system would not work. This is now illegal.

Frances Perkins

(1882-1965) She was the U.S. Secretary of Labor from 1933 to 1945, and the first woman ever appointed to the cabinet. As a loyal supporter of her friend Franklin D. Roosevelt, she helped pull the labor movement into the New Deal coalition.

Benito Mussolini

(1883-1945) Fascist dictator of Italy (1922-1943) and founder of the Italian Fascist Party. He led Italy to conquer Ethiopia (1935), joined Germany in the Axis pact (1936), and allied Italy with Germany in World War II. He was overthrown in 1943 when the Allies invaded Italy; the Italian Resistance managed to capture and hang him.

Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act (Pre-World War 2)

(1934) The Act was designed to raise American exports and was aimed at both relief and recovery. Led by Cordell Hull, it helped reverse the high-tariff policy by coordinating joint reductions (as much as 50%) in tariffs between the US and 21 other countries by 1939. However, the US unwillingness to lower tariffs on products that competed with American industries led to only a limited growth in US imports, leaving other countries unable to obtain the American currency they needed to pay off their debts to the US/to pay for US exports.

Guadalcanal/Guadalcanal Campaign/Operation Watchtower

(August, 1942 - Feburary 1943) Island in the southern part of the British protectorate that would later become the Solomon Islands. It fell to Japanese forces in March, 1942. This campaign was the campaign, primarily by the US and Australia, to develop a foothold in the Solomon Islands that could be used as a staging ground to attack the major Japanese base at Rabaul (on an island in what is now Papua New Guinea). US Marines were landed here but were subsequently cut off from Naval support during the Battle of Savo Island (numerous ships lost to friendly fire). They managed to hold out until supplies and reinforcements arrived. Subsequently, they overwhelmed the Japanese defenders and captured/developed Henderson Field, which was the primary staging point for air raids against Rabaul.

Inter-American Conference

1933 meeting in Montevideo, in which the Franklin Delano Roosevelt administration, through Secretary of State Cordell Hull, formally repudiated the (Theodore) Roosevelt Corollary (after the Hoover administration had abandoned it unofficially by not intervening in Latin American countries that had defaulted on their debts to the United States).

Nye Committee

1934 Senate committee led by South Dakota Senator Gerald _____ to investigate why America became involved in World War I. It was a theory that big business had conspired to have America enter World War I so that they could make money selling war materials. This commission referred to bankers and arms producers "merchants of death."

Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)

1938 Association of laborers from industries including steel and auto. It was organized in reaction to the AFL, which represented primarily craft unions.It was headed by John L. Lewis of the United Mine Workers. It was originally a committee within the AFL (1935) before becoming independent in 1938 following its expulsion by the AFL. It reunited with the AFL in 1955. It was more based around industrial unionism (organizing on the basis of industry - the auto industry, steel industry, textile industry, etc.) rather than based on particular skills in a craft-union-based system (like the AFL). This organization was more open to unskilled laborers, along with women and minorities.

Lend-lease

1941 Legislation proposed by Franklin Delano Roosevelt and adopted by Congress, stating that the U.S could either sell or lease arms and other equipment to any country whose security was vital to America's interests. It led to large amounts of military equipment being shipped to help Britain's war effort. The Soviet Union, France, and China also received substantial support from this program.

Korematsu v. US

1944 Supreme Court case where the Supreme Court upheld the order providing for the relocation of Japanese Americans. Fred ____________ was the man who questioned the legality of Japanese internment. However, it was ruled that such a decision was legal if meant to protect national security by preventing espionage. Information from Navy intelligence that said there was no evidence that Japanese-Americans were spying on the US was withheld from the case. It was not until 1988 that Congress formally apologized and agreed to pay $20,000 to each survivor.

Sir Humphrey Gilbert

English navigator who in 1583 established in Newfoundland the first English (unsuccessful) colony in North America, but decided to move to a better area and was killed in a storm on his way home. Known for brutal treatment of Irish before.

Dawes Plan

A 1924 installment plan to revive the German economy: the United States loans Germany money which then can pay reparations to England and France, who can then pay back their loans from the U.S. This circular flow (US loaned to Germany, Germany paid Allies reparations, Allies paid US their debt) of money was a success

Harry Hopkins

A New York social worker who headed the Federal Emergency Relief Administration and Civil Works Administration. He helped grant over 3 billion dollars to the states' wages for work projects and granted thousands of jobs for jobless Americans. He then went on to head the Works Progress Administration, which built and renovated 110,000 buildings, constructed 600 airports, laid 500,000 miles of roads, and 100,00 bridges. He employed nearly 2.1 million workers on average,

Francis E. Townsend

A doctor and critic of FDR's who proposed that everyone sixty years of age or older should get $200 a month as long as they spent it entirely within thirty days (to ensure cash flow back into the economy) and as long as they gave up their jobs (so as to give jobs to younger unemployed people). He attracted five million mostly senior citizen followers who opposed the New Deal.

Marian Anderson

A famous African American concert singer who had her first performance in 1935, dazzling the audience and launching herself into fame. The next year she performed at the White House by presidential invitation, and performed on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial when the Daughters of the American Revolution refused to let her rent Constitution Hall (Eleanor Roosevelt and several others resigned after this decision).

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)

A federal corporation established in 1933 that was intended as a relief, recovery, and reform effort that gave 2.5 million poor citizens jobs and land. It brought cheap electric power, low-cost housing, cheap nitrates, and the restoration of eroded soil. They constructed many dams and power plants to generate electricity and prevent floods. It differed from the NRA and AAA (government-planned but privately-run) in that it was government-run. Arose from a private utility scandal and an outcry from the locals for more reasonable rates.

Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA)

A law signed by Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1933 and adjusted in 1938 that helped farmers meet mortgages. It was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1936 because the government could not pay farmers merely to limit production. This was circumvented by the 1936 Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act, which permitted the government to pay farmers to reduce production so as to "conserve soil" and the 1938 Second Agricultural Adjustment Act. It was created by Congress in 1933 as part of the New Deal this agency attempted to restrict agricultural production by paying farmers subsidies to take land out of production. This in turn raised the value of the crops that were sold. The 1938 adjustment came about to make the law constitutional again.

Holocaust

A methodical plan orchestrated by Hitler to ensure German supremacy. It called for the elimination of Jews, non-conformists, homosexuals, non-Aryans, and mentally and physically disabled. 11 million died, 5 million of which were Jews. They were rounded up into concentration camps like the three Auschwitz camps, Buchenwald, Treblinka, Dachau, etc., and if not killed, were put to work under brutal conditions.

Appeasement

A policy of making concessions to an aggressor in the hopes of avoiding war. In foreign policy, it is most commonly associated with Neville Chamberlain's policy of making concessions to Adolf Hitler.

Rosie the Riveter

A propaganda character designed to increase production of female workers in the factories. It became a rallying symbol for women to do their part.

Puritans

A religious group who wanted to purify the Church of England, and believed in predestination and radical beliefs that opposed the Church of England. They came to America for religious freedom and settled Massachusetts Bay.

Protestant Reformation

A religious movement of the 16th century that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the creation of Protestant churches; started with Martin Luther's 95 theses that criticized certain practices of the Catholic Church while arguing that through faith alone one can achieve salvation

Kellogg-Briand Pact

Agreement signed in 1928 in which nations agreed not to pose the threat of war against one another, to encourage the peaceful settlement of disputes, and to threaten collective use of force against any aggressor. Many of its provisions made their way into the charter of the United Nations. It is named for the United States Secretary of State and the French Foreign Minister, and other signatories include Australia, Belgium, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Germany, the British Raj (India), Ireland, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Poland, South Africa, and the United Kingdom. It obviously failed in 1939.

Twenty-First Amendment

Change to the Constitution passed February, 1933 to repeal the 18th Amendment (Prohibition). Congress legalized light beer. It took effect December, 1933. It was based on a recommendation of the Wickersham Commission that Prohibition had led to a vast increase in crime.

A. Philip Randolph

America's leading black labor leader who called for a march on Washington D.C. to protest factories' refusals to hire African Americans, which eventually led to President Roosevelt issuing an order to end all discrimination in the defense industries and other companies that receive federal grants. He founded the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, one of the first major black unions.

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)

An agency, established as part of the New Deal, that put young unemployed men to work on natural conservation projects; they built roads, developed parks, planted trees, and helped with erosion-control and flood-control projects.

Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)

An interracial civil rights organization founded in 1942 by James Farmer and other pacifists to work against segregation in Northern cities and to promote racial equality through peaceful means. It is best known for its "freedom rides," bus journeys challenging racial segregation in the South in 1961.

Tenochtitlán

Capital of the Aztec Empire, located on an island in Lake Texcoco. Its population was about 150,000 on the eve of Spanish conquest. Mexico City was constructed on its ruins.

Vichy

City in central France where a puppet state led by Philippe Pétain and set up by Nazi Germany following the 1940 occupation of France governed unoccupied France and the French colonies. Its creation saw the end of the French 3rd Republic, and its dissolution saw the creation of the Provisional Government, which led to the French 4th Republic. This regime was primarily opposed by the Free French under Charles de Gaulle.

Sir Walter Raleigh

Colonizer; in 1587 selected Roanoke Island as a site for the first English settlement and later returned to England to secure additional supplies, but he found the colony deserted upon his return; it is not known what became of the Roanoke settlers.

Tokyo firebombing

Conducted by the United States Army Air Forces during the Pacific campaigns of World War II. The U.S. mounted a small-scale raid on Tokyo in April 1942, with large morale effects. Strategic bombing and urban area bombing began in 1944 after the long-range B-29 Superfortress bombers entered service, first employed from China and thereafter the Mariana Islands. B-29 raids from those islands commenced on November 17, 1944 and lasted until August 15, 1945, the day Japan capitulated. The "Operation Meetinghouse" air raid of March 9-10, 1945 was later estimated to be the single most destructive bombing raid in history, killing over 80,000 Japanese & destroying 1/4 of the city. Another example of the capability of Allied bombings to target civilians indiscriminately. These raids killed far more people than were killed by the atomic bombs.

Cordell Hull

Congressman from Tennessee, he became the Secretary of State under FDR and served in that position longer than anyone in American history. He is often called the "Father of the United Nations." He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1945. He promoted reciprocal trade agreements, especially with Latin America, believing that trade was a two-way street: a nation can sell abroad only as it buys abroad. He also was against tariffs barriers and trade wars.

Panay Incident

December 12, 1937 event where Japanese aircraft bombed an American gunboat in the Yangtze River that was was delivering supplies to Americans. Many isolationists seized on Japan's claims that it was an accident and their apology (despite many signs to the contrary). This greatly strained U.S-Japanese relations and pushed the U.S further away from isolationism eventually.

Trinity bomb

July 16, 1945 in a desert near Alamogordo, New Mexico, this weapon exploded in the first ever nuclear detonation on Earth.

Fair Employment Practices Commission

FDR issued this committee in 1941 to enforce the policy of prohibiting employment-related discrimination practices by federal agencies, unions, and companies involved in war-related work It guaranteed the employment of 2 million black workers in the war factories. It was created in response to A. Philip Randolph's threat of having 100,000 people march on Washington, D.C. if FDR did not order the integration of defense contractors.

Iwo Jima/Battle of Iwo Jima/Operation Detachment

February 19th-March 26th, 1945: Seven thousand US Marines were killed and 18,000 were injured (costliest battle in the history of the USMC), and more than 20,000 Japanese soldiers were killed, this battle is also notable for the famous photograph of US marines lifting the American flag on Mount Suribachi. It is depicted in the US Marine Corps Memorial in Washington, D.C. This island was taken because its airfields put US strategic and heavy bombers in range of Japan.

Dresden firebombing

February, 1945: the US Air Force and the British Air Force bombed this place to the ground, using primarily incendiary armaments; it was the only place not bombed yet and contained a lot of industrial factories that generated supplies for the German Army. It is often cited as an example of the horrors that the Allies were capable of inflicting on civilian populaces, and became a setting for Kurt Vonnegut's famous book Slaughterhouse Five. It was characteristic of the Allies' indiscriminate strategic bombing raids of German cities like Berlin and Leipzig. 135,000, mostly civilians, died.

Neutrality Acts

Four laws passed in 1935, 1936, 1937, and 1939 that were designed to keep the US out of international incidents and conflicts. They were designed to avoid American involvement in World War II by preventing loans to those countries taking part in the conflict. The 1935 law established a mandatory arms embargo against both victim and aggressor in any conflict and warned citizens to travel on warring countries' vessels at their own risk. The 1936 law renewed the 1935 law. The 1937 law established the Cash and Carry policy (belligerents could only by non-military products with cash, and must ship it back on their own ships). The 1939 law modified the laws to allow aid to Great Britain and other Allied nations.

Good Neighbor Policy

Franklin Delano Roosevelt's foreign policy of promoting better relations with Latin America by using economic influence rater than military force in the region. He pledged that the United States would no longer intervene in the internal affairs of Latin American countries, a reversal of Theodore Roosevelt's "Big-Stick" policy

Eleanor Roosevelt

Franklin Delano's wife and New Deal supporter. She was a great supporter of civil rights and opposed the Jim Crow laws. She also worked for birth control and better conditions for working women. She was also quite politically talented and great at speaking.

Samuel de Champlain

French explorer in Nova Scotia and Saint Lawrence Seaway area who established a settlement on the site of modern Quebec (1567-1635)

National Recovery Administration (NRA)

Government agency initially headed by Hugh S. Johnson that was part of the New Deal and dealt with the industrial sector of the economy. It allowed industries to create fair competition which were intended to reduce destructive competition. It set a "blanket code": minimum wage between 30 and 40 cents an hour, maximum week of 35 to 40 hours, and the abolition of child labor. It also set floors below which no company in a certain industry could lower prices or wages in its search for a competitive advantage. However, floors were artificially raised too high often, hurting small businesses within the trade associations (made legal by loosened antitrust laws). Also Section 7(a) - the part on collective bargaining - was ignored. The Public Works Administration only gradually allowed the funds to trickle out. Also, industrial production actually declined during its existence. Finally, it was ruled unconstitutional, as it was being applied to businesses that did not engage in interstate commerce and was also an overextension of President FDR's powers.

John L. Lewis

He was a miner known for creating the United Mine Workers union. He helped found the Congress of Industrial Organizations after being expelled from the AFL and was responsible for the Fair Labor Standards Act. He supported organizing on the basis of industry (industrial unionism) rather than skill (craft unionism). He was called in to represent the union during the Sit-Down Strike.

John Collier (First half of 20th century)

Head of the Bureau of Indian Affairs who introduced the Indian New Deal and pushed congress to pass Indian Reorganization Act, which restored to the tribes the right to own land collectively. In the years after the bill, tribal land increased by nearly four million acres and agricultural income grew by twenty-five times.

Enrico Fermi

Italian nuclear physicist (in the United States after 1939) who worked on artificial radioactivity caused by neutron bombardment and who headed the group that in 1942 produced the first controlled nuclear reaction (1901-1954). He contributed to the Manhattan Project to develop the first atomic bomb.

Relocation Centers

Japanese Americans were brought to these locations on the West Coast and in the Rocky Mountain region in 1942 to be "Americanized" - these internment camps were like prisons. The War Relocation Authority (WRA) oversaw the project.

Battle of Philippine Sea

June 19th-20th, 1944: A decisive naval victory for the United States fleet over the Japanese who were trying to block supplies from reaching American troops on Leyte. It ensured the capture of the Marianas which, after the entire chain (Guam, Saipan, Tinian) was conquered, General Tojo resigned along with his cabinet on July 18, 1944, as he felt as if the war was lost. The US lost no ships, 123 aircraft (most due to low fuel), and suffered 109 dead to the Japanese loss of 5 ships, 550-645 aircraft, and 3,000 dead. All but two of Japan's fleet carriers were destroyed. The "Great Marianas Turkey Shoot" was the nickname used for the part of the battle in which hundreds of Japanese aircraft were shot down by American aircraft and anti-aircraft gunners (equipped with new proximity fuses).

Midway/Battle of Midway

June 4th-7th, 1942: The first major victory on the part of the United States. When the US received intelligence that Japan was planning to attack Midway to use as a base of operations against Hawaii (in particular Pearl Harbor, which was up and running again), the US quickly repaired the USS Yorktown (damaged in the Battle of Coral Sea) and sent it, the USS Hornet, and USS Enterprise to help defend the airfield at this island. A Japanese fleet, spearheaded by the Japanese carriers Akagi, Kaga, Soryu, and Hiryu, initiated the attack. In the ensuing waves of attacks by aircraft from the seven carriers and from the airfield, Yorktown was critically damaged and abandoned by most of the crew. However, later on the night of the 4th, American dive bombers (the torpedo bombers who attacked previously had missed almost every torpedo run, and most of them were shot down) sunk the Kaga and Soryu, followed by the Akagi and Hiryu the following morning. Although the battle technically ended on the 5th, a Japanese submarine attacked the Yorktown and the destroyer USS Hammann, which was providing power to the crippled aircraft carrier, on the 7th. Both ships subsequently sank.

D-Day/Normandy Invasion/Normandy Campaign/Normandy landings/Operation Overlord

June 6, 1944: 160,000 Allied troops landed along a 50-mile stretch of heavily-fortified French coastline to fight Nazi Germany on the beaches of this to-be-French province in France. General Dwight D. Eisenhower called the operation a crusade in which "we will accept nothing less than full victory." More than 5,000 Ships and 13,000 aircraft supported this invasion, and by day's end on June 6, the Allies gained a foot-hold in Normandy. The night before, British and American paratroopers landed to secure certain locations, and the day of, American (Omaha Beach and Utah Beach), British (Gold Beach and Sword Beach), Candian (Juno Beach), and Australian troops along with French, Polish, Norwegian, and Czechoslovakian freedom fighters attached to their various units. It opened up a third front in the European theater, in addition to Italy and eastern Europe.

Seigneuries

Large French estates, typically found on the banks of the St. Lawrence River; they helped to create the boundary line of French settlement before the Seven Years' War.

Social Security Act

Law signed by Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1935 that guaranteed retirement payments for enrolled workers beginning at age 65 and set up a federal-state system of unemployment insurance and care for dependent mothers and children, the handicapped, and public health. It raised money by creating a new tax on workers and employers, which provided money for the pensions.

Coral Sea/Battle of Coral Sea

May 4th-8th, 1942: First major battle after Pearl Harbor, it entailed an encounter between a primarily US naval force accompanied by a few Australian ships and the Imperial Japanese Navy. It was the first naval battle in history where the ships never directly fired on each other; it was fought entirely by carrier-based aircraft. The USS Lexington was sunk and the USS Yorktown was damaged, while the Japanese carrier Shoho was sunk and the Shokaku and Zuikaku were damaged, along with other types of ships on both sides.

Washington Conference of 1921/Washington Naval Conference

Meeting of nine global powers (United States, Japan, China, France, Britain, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Portugal) where they agreed to jointly reduce naval armaments to lower levels. It is often cited as the first example in history of an arms control agreement. It was successful throughout the 1920s but then fell apart during the Great Depression. It started out as a US effort to end the expensive naval arms race between the UK, US, and Japan. It led to the Five-Power Pact (ratio of tonnage of warships of 5 (UK and US) to 3 (Japan) to 1.75 (Italy and France)), Nine-Power Pact (continuation of Open Door Policy in China), and Four-Power Pact (US, UK, France, and Japan agree to recognize/respect Pacific territories). It was actually a deal (not loss) for Japan, which only had to worry about the Pacific, while the US and UK had global interests.

swing

Melodic, mainstream big band jazz of the 1930s and 1940s, eg Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, Count Basie. This version of jazz was known for its big bands and its use as dance music.

Sit-Down Strike

Method of boycotting work by shutting down all machines and sitting down at work and refusing to leave the establishment, while wives, mothers, sisters, and friends supplied the strikers with food, water, etc. and demonstrated outside of the plant. It was successful in getting General Motors and other car companies in recognizing the United Auto Workers union, but its illegality caused labor leaders to eventually abandon the tactic.

Works Progress Administration (WPA)

New Deal agency that helped create jobs for those that needed them. It created around 9 million jobs working on bridges, roads, and buildings. It was preceded by the Federal Emergency Relief Administration. It was headed primarily by Harry Hopkins and kept an average of 2.1 million people employed.

Meso-Americans

Organized native societies that occupied much of what is now Mexico and Central America. These civilizations included the Olmec people, the Aztecs and the Mayans. The culture of these societies had established religions, calendars, languages and numeric systems

Dwight D. Eisenhower

Supreme Commander of Allied forces in Europe during World War II, he was originally leader of troops in north Africa and later commanded Operation Overlord (D-Day Normandy invasion) -he was elected the 34th president and presided over the end of the Korean War and the integration of Little Rock Central High School.

Broker State

Term for the federal government after the New Deal that describes how the federal government mediates between various interest groups competing for advantages in the national economy. Although many idealists had hoped society would evolve into a single harmonious unit, they celebrated that, although they failed, they had elevated many interest groups' (laborers, farmers, consumers, etc.) power to be on par with that of the once unrivaled corporate interest group. However, many (often race- or gender-based) groups who most needed help were unable to elevate themselves, which caused them to be somewhat left behind by the New Deal.

Luftwaffe

The air force branch of the Wehrmacht, the unified armed forces of Germany, from shortly after Hitler's rise to power until the end of World War II. Among their aircraft were Bayerische Flugzeugwerke BF-109s and the feared Focke-Wulf FW-190s for fighters, the Junkers Ju-87 Stuka dive bomber with its infamous sirens, the Junkers Ju-88 Schnellbomber (high-speed bomber and attack aircraft), and the Messerschmitt-262 fighter (the first combat-ready jet-powered aircraft, which was produced too late to affect the war).

Magic

The codename for the American program that deciphered Japanese diplomatic and military codes (PURPLE) prior to and during World War II; these intercepts gave the United States and other Allied powers a decided advantage over the Japanese in military intelligence. PURPLE was created by combining previous codes (RED and BLUE) with scrambling help from machines given by Germany that were similar to Enigma.

Jamestown

The first permanent English settlement in North America, found in East Virginia in 1607

Colossus II

The first real programmable, digital computer built by British scientists (with contributions from Alan Turing) - deciphered large amounts of intercepted German messages coded via the Lorenz code (enigma machine). It became operational less than a week before the beginning of the Normandy invasion.

USS Reuben James

U.S. destroyer sunk by German submarines off the coast of Iceland in October 1941, with the loss of over a hundred men. This was before the US entered the war. The German submarine targeted the American destroyer, which was helping protect convoys to Britain while said convoys were in the western Atlantic Ocean. This enraged the US, which authorized US warships to go all the way to British port, and also authorized merchant ships to arm themselves.

Quarantine Speech

The speech was an act of condemnation of Japan's invasion of China (from Manchuria) in 1937 and called for Japan to be quarantined. FDR backed off the aggressive stance after criticism, but it showed that he was moving the country slowly out of isolationism.

Hideki Tojo

This general was Prime Minister/Minister of War for Japan during World War II. He ruled with a nearly dictatorial approach, despite skepticism for his belligerence on the part of Emperor Hirohito. He gave his approval for the attack on Pearl Harbor and played a major role in Japan's military decisions until he resigned in 1944

Bank Holiday

This is the event in which President FDR issued an order on March 6th, 1933, that all banks were to be closed for four days until Congress could consider banking-reform legislation. The Emergency Banking Act, designed to protect the big banks from small bank failures, provided for Treasury Department inspection of all banks before they would be allowed to reopen, along with assistance and reorganization for banks facing greater difficulty. Within a short time afterward, 3/4 of the banks in the Federal Reserve system reopened and $1 billion flowed back into the banks by people who were convinced by FDR that the reopened banks were indeed safe.

Twentieth Amendment

Written by George Norris and also called the "Lame Duck _____________," it changed the inauguration date from March 4 to January 20 for president and vice president, and to January 3 for senators and representatives. It also said Congress must assemble at least once a year.