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<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" class="windows webkit chrome cursor"> <head> <title>Scatter: unicorn | Quizlet</title> <script type="text/javascript">window.NREUM||(NREUM={}),__nr_require=function(e,n,t){function r(t){if(!n[t]){var o=n[t]={exports:{}};e[t][0].call(o.exports,function(n){var o=e[t][1][n];return r(o||n)},o,o.exports)}return n[t].exports}if("function"==typeof __nr_require)return __nr_require;for(var o=0;o<t.length;o++)r(t[o]);return r}({QJf3ax:[function(e,n){function t(e){function n(n,t,a){e&&e(n,t,a),a||(a={});for(var u=c(n),f=u.length,s=i(a,o,r),p=0;f>p;p++)u[p].apply(s,t);return s}function a(e,n){f[e]=c(e).concat(n)}function c(e){return f[e]||[]}function u(){return t(n)}var f={};return{on:a,emit:n,create:u,listeners:c,_events:f}}function r(){return{}}var o="nr@context",i=e("gos");n.exports=t()},{gos:"7eSDFh"}],ee:[function(e,n){n.exports=e("QJf3ax")},{}],3:[function(e,n){function t(e){return function(){r(e,[(new Date).getTime()].concat(i(arguments)))}}var r=e("handle"),o=e(1),i=e(2);"undefined"==typeof window.newrelic&&(newrelic=window.NREUM);var a=["setPageViewName","addPageAction","setCustomAttribute","finished","addToTrace","inlineHit","noticeError"];o(a,function(e,n){window.NREUM[n]=t("api-"+n)}),n.exports=window.NREUM},{1:12,2:13,handle:"D5DuLP"}],gos:[function(e,n){n.exports=e("7eSDFh")},{}],"7eSDFh":[function(e,n){function t(e,n,t){if(r.call(e,n))return e[n];var o=t();if(Object.defineProperty&&Object.keys)try{return Object.defineProperty(e,n,{value:o,writable:!0,enumerable:!1}),o}catch(i){}return e[n]=o,o}var r=Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty;n.exports=t},{}],D5DuLP:[function(e,n){function t(e,n,t){return r.listeners(e).length?r.emit(e,n,t):void(r.q&&(r.q[e]||(r.q[e]=[]),r.q[e].push(n)))}var r=e("ee").create();n.exports=t,t.ee=r,r.q={}},{ee:"QJf3ax"}],handle:[function(e,n){n.exports=e("D5DuLP")},{}],XL7HBI:[function(e,n){function t(e){var n=typeof e;return!e||"object"!==n&&"function"!==n?-1:e===window?0:i(e,o,function(){return r++})}var r=1,o="nr@id",i=e("gos");n.exports=t},{gos:"7eSDFh"}],id:[function(e,n){n.exports=e("XL7HBI")},{}],G9z0Bl:[function(e,n){function t(){var e=d.info=NREUM.info,n=f.getElementsByTagName("script")[0];if(e&&e.licenseKey&&e.applicationID&&n){c(p,function(n,t){n in e||(e[n]=t)});var t="https"===s.split(":")[0]||e.sslForHttp;d.proto=t?"https://":"http://",a("mark",["onload",i()]);var r=f.createElement("script");r.src=d.proto+e.agent,n.parentNode.insertBefore(r,n)}}function r(){"complete"===f.readyState&&o()}function o(){a("mark",["domContent",i()])}function i(){return(new Date).getTime()}var a=e("handle"),c=e(1),u=window,f=u.document;e(2);var s=(""+location).split("?")[0],p={beacon:"bam.nr-data.net",errorBeacon:"bam.nr-data.net",agent:"js-agent.newrelic.com/nr-768.min.js"},d=n.exports={offset:i(),origin:s,features:{}};f.addEventListener?(f.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded",o,!1),u.addEventListener("load",t,!1)):(f.attachEvent("onreadystatechange",r),u.attachEvent("onload",t)),a("mark",["firstbyte",i()])},{1:12,2:3,handle:"D5DuLP"}],loader:[function(e,n){n.exports=e("G9z0Bl")},{}],12:[function(e,n){function t(e,n){var t=[],o="",i=0;for(o in e)r.call(e,o)&&(t[i]=n(o,e[o]),i+=1);return t}var r=Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty;n.exports=t},{}],13:[function(e,n){function t(e,n,t){n||(n=0),"undefined"==typeof t&&(t=e?e.length:0);for(var r=-1,o=t-n||0,i=Array(0>o?0:o);++r<o;)i[r]=e[n+r];return i}n.exports=t},{}]},{},["G9z0Bl"]);</script> <script type="text/javascript"> var _rollbarConfig = {"accessToken":"166928c224d249338a9a2123b7420b46","captureUncaught":true,"enabled":false,"payload":{"environment":"prod","client":{"javascript":{"source_map_enabled":true,"code_version":"0cc33ba0aa6c86608a1cd6c956430e01d9c597c9","guess_uncaught_frames":true}},"person":{"id":36124706,"username":"dead_unicorns_11"}}}; 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[{"id":3751567548,"photo":"","word":"frefrerrr","definition":"rvq","quiz_id":116239005,"term_lang":"en","def_lang":"en"},{"id":3698377607,"photo":"","word":"0","definition":"0","quiz_id":116239005,"term_lang":"en","def_lang":"en"},{"id":3751566729,"photo":"","word":"rrerqeq","definition":"raeveqqeveqrferqr","quiz_id":116239005,"term_lang":"en","def_lang":"en"},{"id":3697431554,"photo":"","word":"unicorns","definition":"magic","quiz_id":116239005,"term_lang":"en","def_lang":"en"},{"id":3751566730,"photo":"","word":"fhrve,q","definition":"feqrfeqr","quiz_id":116239005,"term_lang":"en","def_lang":"en"},{"id":3751573372,"photo":"","word":"sandwich","definition":"A sandwich is a food item consisting of one or more types of food, such as vegetables, sliced cheese or meat, placed on or between slices of bread, or more generally any dish wherein two or more pieces of bread serve as a container or wrapper for some other food.[1][2][3] The sandwich was originally a portable food item or finger food which began to be popular in the Western World. Today sandwiches in various versions are found worldwide.\n\nSandwiches are a popular type of lunch food, taken to work, school, or picnics to be eaten as part of a packed lunch. The bread can be used plain, or it can be coated with one or more condiments such as mayonnaise or mustard to enhance the flavours and texture. As well as being homemade, sandwiches are also widely sold in restaurants and cafes, and are sometimes served hot as well as cold.[4][5] There are both savoury sandwiches, such as deli meat sandwiches, and sweet sandwiches, such as a peanut butter and jelly sandwich.\n\nThe sandwich is considered to be the namesake of John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, because of the claim that he was the eponymous inventor of this food combination.[6][7] The Wall Street Journal has described it as Britain's \"biggest contribution to gastronomy\".[8]\n\nContents [hide] \n1 History\n1.1 Etymology\n2 Usage\n3 Examples\n4 See also\n5 References\n6 External links\nHistory\n\nSalmon and cream cheese sandwiches on pieces of baguette\n\nEnglish sandwiches, crustless on a plate\n\nSandwich with fried egg, tomato and cucumber\n\nOlive and red tomato sandwich\nThe modern concept of a sandwich using slices of bread (as found within the Western World) can arguably be traced to 18th century Europe. However, the use of some kind of bread or bread-like substance to lie under (or under and over) some other food, or used to scoop up and enclose or wrap some other type of food, long predates the 18th century, and is found in numerous much older cultures worldwide.\n\nThe ancient Jewish sage Hillel the Elder is said to have wrapped meat from the Paschal lamb and bitter herbs between two pieces of old-fashioned soft matzah\u2014flat, unleavened bread\u2014during Passover in the manner of a modern wrap made with flatbread.[9] Flat breads of only slightly varying kinds have long been used to scoop or wrap small amounts of food en route from platter to mouth throughout Western Asia and northern Africa. From Morocco to Ethiopia to India, bread is baked in flat rounds, contrasting with the European loaf tradition.\n\nDuring the Middle Ages in Europe, thick slabs of coarse and usually stale bread, called \"trenchers\", were used as plates.[10] After a meal, the food-soaked trencher was fed to a dog or to beggars at the tables of the wealthy, and eaten by diners in more modest circumstances. The immediate culinary precursor with a direct connection to the English sandwich was to be found in the Netherlands of the 17th century, where the naturalist John Ray observed[11] that in the taverns beef hung from the rafters \"which they cut into thin slices and eat with bread and butter laying the slices upon the butter\"\u2014 explanatory specifications that reveal the Dutch belegde broodje, open-faced sandwich, was as yet unfamiliar in England.\n\nInitially perceived as food that men shared while gaming and drinking at night, the sandwich slowly began appearing in polite society as a late-night meal among the aristocracy. The sandwich's popularity in Spain and England increased dramatically during the 19th century, when the rise of industrial society and the working classes made fast, portable, and inexpensive meals essential.[12]\n\nIt was at the same time that the European-stye sandwich finally began to appear outside of Europe. In the United States, the sandwich was first promoted as an elaborate meal at supper. By the early 20th century, as bread became a staple of the American diet, the sandwich became the same kind of popular, quick meal as was already widespread in the Mediterranean.[12]\n\nEtymology\nThe first written usage of the English word appeared in Edward Gibbon's journal, in longhand, referring to \"bits of cold meat\" as a \"Sandwich\".[13] It was named after John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, an 18th-century English aristocrat. It is said that he ordered his valet to bring him meat tucked between two pieces of bread, and others began to order \"the same as Sandwich!\"[6][7] It is commonly said that Lord Sandwich was fond of this form of food because it allowed him to continue playing cards, particularly cribbage, while eating, without using a fork, and without getting his cards greasy from eating meat with his bare hands.[6]\n\nThe rumour in its familiar form appeared in Pierre-Jean Grosley's Londres (Neichatel, 1770), translated as A Tour to London 1772;[14] Grosley's impressions had been formed during a year in London in 1765. The sober alternative is provided by Sandwich's biographer, N. A. M. Rodger, who suggests Sandwich's commitments to the navy, and to politics and the arts, mean the first sandwich was more likely to have been consumed at his desk.\n\nBefore being known as sandwiches, this food combination seems to simply have been known as \"bread and meat\" or \"bread and cheese\".[6]\n\nUsage\nIn the United States, a court in Boston, Massachusetts ruled that \"sandwich\" includes at least two slices of bread.[1] and \"under this definition, this court finds that the term 'sandwich' is not commonly understood to include burritos, tacos, and quesadillas, which are typically made with a single tortilla and stuffed with a choice filling of meat, rice, and beans.\"[15] The issue stemmed from the question of whether a restaurant that sold burritos could move into a shopping centre where another restaurant had a no-compete clause in its lease prohibiting other \"sandwich\" shops.\n\nIn Spain, where the word sandwich is borrowed from the English language,[16] it refers to a food item made with English sandwich bread.[17] It is otherwise known as a bocadillo.\n\nIn the United Kingdom and Australia, the term \"sandwich\" is more narrowly defined than in the US: it refers only to an item which uses sliced bread from a loaf.[citation needed] An item with similar fillings, but using an entire bread roll cut horizontally in half, is always referred to as a \"roll\". (In South Australia, there is a regional variant of the \"roll\", superficially similar to a club sandwich, where the bread roll is sliced three times (parallel cuts), and filling is put in the first and third openings, but not the second. This makes the resulting \"double cut roll\" easier to handle: the top half and the bottom half are eaten separately.) Any hot item based on a bread roll is referred to as a \"burger\", never as a \"sandwich\". However, hot sliced (not ground) beef between two slices of toasted bread is referred to as a \"steak sandwich\" - it is the sliced loaf bread that distinguishes the steak sandwich from a \"burger\".\n\nThe verb to sandwich has the meaning to position anything between two other things of a different character, or to place different elements alternately,[18] and the noun sandwich has related meanings derived from this more general definition. For example, an ice cream sandwich consists of a layer of ice cream between two layers of cake or biscuit.[19] Similarly, Oreos and Custard Creams are described as sandwich biscuits because they consist of a soft filling between layers of biscuit.[20]\n\nThe word \"butty\" (a reference to the fact that butter is often used in British sandwiches) is common in some northern parts of England as a slang synonym for \"sandwich\", particularly to refer to certain kinds of sandwiches including the chip butty, bacon butty, or sausage butty, though some people[who?] make the distinction that a butty is made using a single buttered slice, folded over rather than cut. \"Sarnie\" is a similar colloquialism, as is the Australian English colloquialism \"sanger\". Likewise, the words \"sanger\" and \"piece\" are used for sandwich in Scottish dialect; regarding the latter, an example of the use of \"piece\" is \"piece and ham\", meaning \"piece of bread and ham\".[citation needed]\n\nExamples\nFurther information: List of sandwiches and List of American sandwiches\n\nA hamburger, one of the most popular types of hot sandwiches\n\nA Reuben sandwich\nThe following represent common varieties of American sandwich.[21]\n\nBLT\nCheese sandwich\nClub sandwich\nDagwood\nFrench dip\nHamburger\nMonte Cristo\nMuffuletta\nPeanut butter and jelly sandwich\nPhiladelphia cheesesteak\nPilgrim\nPo' boy\nReuben\nSloppy joe\nSubmarine sandwich\nSandwiches\n\nClub sandwich\n \n\nCroque-monsieur, a French ham and cheese hot sandwich\n \n\nPeanut butter and jelly sandwich\n \n\nA Philly cheese steak, a type of submarine sandwich\n \n\nSmoked meat sandwich\n \n\nFrench bread sandwich with fries\n \n\nSandwich making\n \n\nShawarma sandwich\n \n\nChicken breast sandwich\n \n\nA meat and cheese sandwich with various toppings and a side dish of coleslaw\n \n\nAn open sandwich with smoked horse meat in the Netherlands\nSee also\nPortal icon Food portal\nFinger food\nList of bread dishes\nList of sandwiches\nList of American sandwiches\nList of foods\nPanino (also called panini)\nSandwich cake (layer cake)\nSandwiches de miga\nTramezzino\nVada pav\nReferences\n^ Jump up to: a b Abelson, Jenn. \"Arguments spread thick\". The Boston Globe, 10 November 2006. Retrieved 27 May 2009.\nJump up ^ \"sandwich\". Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. Retrieved 29 March 2012.\nJump up ^ Foundations of Restaurant Management & Culinary Arts Level Two. Pearson. 2011. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-13-138022-6.\nJump up ^ Foundations of Restaurant Management & Cullinary Arts Level Two. Pearson. 2011. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-13-138022-6.\nJump up ^ Becoming a Foodservice professional Year 1. National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation. 1999. p. 306. ISBN 1-883904-87-0.\n^ Jump up to: a b c d What's Cooking America, Sandwiches, History of Sandwiches. 2 February 2007.\n^ Jump up to: a b \"Sandwich celebrates 250th anniversary of the sandwich\". BBC News Online. 12 May 2012. Retrieved 18 May 2012.\nJump up ^ Marks, Kathy (17 May 1997). \"BLT: British, lousy and tasteless\". The Independent (London).\nJump up ^ Bavli Pesachim 115a; See also Passover Hagadah\nJump up ^ Meads, Chris (2001). Banquets set forth: banqueting in English Renaissance drama. Manchester University Press. p. 47. ISBN 0-7190-5567-9.\nJump up ^ Ray, Observations topographical, moral, & physiological; made in a journey through part of the Low Countries, Germany, Italy, and France... (vol. I, 1673) quoted in Simon Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches (1987:152).\n^ Jump up to: a b Encyclopedia of Food and Culture, Solomon H. Katz, editor (Charles Scribner's Sons: New York) 2003\nJump up ^ The Oxford English Dictionary gives its appearance as 1762.\nJump up ^ Grosley, Londres (Neuchatel, 1770) and A Tour to London, or, New observations on England and its inhabitants, translated from the French by Thomas Nugent (London: Printed for Lockyer Davis) 1772; Hexmasters Faktoider: Sandwich: English quotes from Grosley 1772\nJump up ^ White City Shopping Ctr., LP v. PR Rests., LLC, 21 Mass. L. Rep. 565 (Mass. Super. Ct. 2006)\nJump up ^ Collado, Asunci\u00f3n L\u00f3pez (January 1994). Hosteler\u00eda, curso completo de servicios. Asunci\u00f3n L\u00f3pez Collado (in Spanish). ISBN 978-84-283-2035-1. Retrieved 11 July 2010.\nJump up ^ \"Consultorio gastron\u00f3mico\". La Verdad Digital S.L. (in Spanish). Retrieved 21 July 2010.\nJump up ^ The Oxford English Dictionary\nJump up ^ Taste Taste: Ice Cream Sandwiches, NYmag.com\nJump up ^ Oreo Sandwich Biscuits, Nabiscoworld.com\nJump up ^ Carlos, Brenda. \"Fascinating Facts about the Sandwich\". Chefs.com. Retrieved 5 October 2011.\nExternal links\nFind more about\nSandwich\nat Wikipedia's sister projects\nSearch Wiktionary Definitions from Wiktionary\nSearch Commons Media from Commons\nSearch Wikinews News stories from Wikinews\nSearch Wikiquote Quotations from Wikiquote\nSearch Wikisource Source texts from Wikisource\nSearch Wikibooks Textbooks from Wikibooks\nSearch Wikiversity Learning resources from Wikiversity\nThe British Sandwich Association\n[show] v t e\nBread\n[show] v t e\nHamburgers\nAuthority control \nNDL: 00570097\nCategories: SandwichesBritish cuisineAmerican cuisineStreet foodWorld cuisineBread dishes\nNavigation menu\nNot logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView history\n\nSearch\nGo\nMain page\nContents\nFeatured content\nCurrent events\nRandom article\nDonate to Wikipedia\nWikipedia store\nInteraction\nHelp\nAbout Wikipedia\nCommunity portal\nRecent changes\nContact page\nTools\nWhat links here\nRelated changes\nUpload file\nSpecial pages\nPermanent link\nPage information\nWikidata item\nCite this page\nPrint\/export\nCreate a book\nDownload as PDF\nPrintable version\nLanguages\nAlemannisch\n\u00c6nglisc\n\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\nAragon\u00e9s\nAz\u0259rbaycanca\n\u0411\u044a\u043b\u0433\u0430\u0440\u0441\u043a\u0438\nBosanski\nBrezhoneg\nCatal\u00e0\n\u010ce\u0161tina\nDansk\nDeutsch\nEesti\n\u0395\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\n\u042d\u0440\u0437\u044f\u043d\u044c\nEspa\u00f1ol\nEsperanto\nEuskara\n\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0633\u06cc\nFran\u00e7ais\nGaeilge\nGalego\n\ud55c\uad6d\uc5b4\n\u0540\u0561\u0575\u0565\u0580\u0565\u0576\n\u0939\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0926\u0940\nHrvatski\nBahasa Indonesia\n\u00cdslenska\nItaliano\n\u05e2\u05d1\u05e8\u05d9\u05ea\nBasa Jawa\n\u0c95\u0ca8\u0ccd\u0ca8\u0ca1\n\u10e5\u10d0\u10e0\u10d7\u10e3\u10da\u10d8\n\u049a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u049b\u0448\u0430\nLatvie\u0161u\nLietuvi\u0173\nMagyar\n\u0d2e\u0d32\u0d2f\u0d3e\u0d33\u0d02\nBahasa Melayu\nNederlands\n\u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\nNorsk bokm\u00e5l\nNorsk nynorsk\nNouormand\nPiemont\u00e8is\nPolski\nPortugu\u00eas\nRom\u00e2n\u0103\n\u0420\u0443\u0441\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\nS\u00e1megiella\nSimple English\nSloven\u010dina\nSloven\u0161\u010dina\n\u0421\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u0438 \/ srpski\nSrpskohrvatski \/ \u0441\u0440\u043f\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0445\u0440\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0441\u043a\u0438\nSuomi\nSvenska\nTagalog\n\u0ba4\u0bae\u0bbf\u0bb4\u0bcd\n\u0c24\u0c46\u0c32\u0c41\u0c17\u0c41\n\u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\n\u13e3\u13b3\u13a9\nTsets\u00eahest\u00e2hese\nT\u00fcrk\u00e7e\n\u0423\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430\nTi\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t\n\u05d9\u05d9\u05b4\u05d3\u05d9\u05e9\n\u7cb5\u8a9e\n\u4e2d\u6587\nEdit links\nThis page was last modified on 8 January 2016, at 21:43.\nText is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.","quiz_id":116239005,"term_lang":"en","def_lang":"en"},{"id":3751567547,"photo":"","word":"q","definition":"q","quiz_id":116239005,"term_lang":"en","def_lang":"en"},{"id":3751567546,"photo":"","word":"w","definition":"w","quiz_id":116239005,"term_lang":"en","def_lang":"en"},{"id":3751585327,"photo":"","word":"This article is about the type of website. For other uses, see Wiki (disambiguation).\n\"WikiNode\" redirects here. For the WikiNode of Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:WikiNode.\n\"Wiki format\" redirects here. For the type of markup language, see Wiki markup.\nFile:Ward Cunningham, Inventor of the Wiki.webm\nInterview with Ward Cunningham, inventor of the wiki\nA wiki (Listeni\/\u02c8w\u026aki\/ wik-ee) is a website which allows collaborative modification of its content and structure directly from the web browser. In a typical wiki, text is written using a simplified markup language (known as \"wiki markup\"), and often edited with the help of a rich-text editor.[1]\n\nA wiki is run using wiki software, otherwise known as a wiki engine. There are dozens of different wiki engines in use, both standalone and part of other software, such as bug tracking systems. Some wiki engines are open source, whereas others are proprietary. Some permit control over different functions (levels of access); for example, editing rights may permit changing, adding or removing material. Others may permit access without enforcing access control. Other rules may also be imposed to organize content. A wiki engine is a type of content management system, but it differs from most other such systems, including blog software, in that the content is created without any defined owner or leader, and wikis have little implicit structure, allowing structure to emerge according to the needs of the users.[2]\n\nThe encyclopedia project Wikipedia is by far the most popular wiki-based website, and is in fact one of the most widely viewed sites of any kind of the world, having been ranked in the top ten since 2007. (Wikipedia is not a single wiki but rather a collection of hundreds of wikis, one for each language.) There are at least tens of thousands of other wikis in use, both public and private, including wikis functioning as knowledge management resources, notetaking tools, community websites and intranets.\n\nWard Cunningham, the developer of the first wiki software, WikiWikiWeb, originally described it as \"the simplest online database that could possibly work\".[3] \"Wiki\" (pronounced [\u02c8wiki][note 1]) is a Hawaiian word meaning \"quick\".[4][5][6]\n\nContents [hide] \n1 Characteristics\n1.1 Editing wiki pages\n1.2 Navigation\n1.3 Linking and creating pages\n1.4 Searching\n2 History\n3 Alternate definitions of \"wiki\"\n4 Implementations\n5 Trust and security\n5.1 Controlling changes\n5.2 Trustworthiness\n5.3 Security\n5.3.1 Potential malware vector\n6 Communities\n6.1 Applications\n6.2 City wikis\n6.3 WikiNodes\n6.4 Participants\n6.5 Growth factors\n7 Conferences\n8 Rules\n9 Legal environment\n10 See also\n11 Notes\n12 References\n13 Further reading\n14 External links\nCharacteristics\n\nWard Cunningham, inventor of the wiki\nWard Cunningham and co-author Bo Leuf, in their book The Wiki Way: Quick Collaboration on the Web, described the essence of the Wiki concept as follows:[7]\n\nA wiki invites all users to edit any page or to create new pages within the wiki Web site, using only a plain-vanilla Web browser without any extra add-ons.\nWiki promotes meaningful topic associations between different pages by making page link creation almost intuitively easy and showing whether an intended target page exists or not.\nA wiki is not a carefully crafted site for casual visitors. Instead, it seeks to involve the visitor in an ongoing process of creation and collaboration that constantly changes the Web site landscape.\nA wiki enables communities to write documents collaboratively, using a simple markup language and a web browser. A single page in a wiki website is referred to as a \"wiki page\", while the entire collection of pages, which are usually well-interconnected by hyperlinks, is \"the wiki\". A wiki is essentially a database for creating, browsing, and searching through information. A wiki allows non-linear, evolving, complex and networked text, argument and interaction.[8]\n\nA defining characteristic of wiki technology is the ease with which pages can be created and updated. Generally, there is no review before modifications are accepted. Many wikis are open to alteration by the general public without requiring registration of user accounts. Many edits can be made in real-time and appear almost instantly online. However, this feature facilitates abuse of the system. Private wiki servers require user authentication to edit pages, and sometimes even to read them.\n\nMaged N. Kamel Boulos, Cito Maramba and Steve Wheeler write that the open wikis produce a process of Social Darwinism. \"'Unfit' sentences and sections are ruthlessly culled, edited and replaced if they are not considered 'fit', which hopefully results in the evolution of a higher quality and more relevant page. While such openness may invite 'vandalism' and the posting of untrue information, this same openness also makes it possible to rapidly correct or restore a 'quality' wiki page.\"[9]\n\nEditing wiki pages\nSome wikis have an \"edit\" button or link directly on the page being viewed, if the user has permission to edit the page. This leads to an editing page which allows participants to structure and format wiki pages with a simplified markup language, sometimes known as wikitext (for example, starting a line of text with an asterisk often sets up a bulleted list). The style and syntax of wikitexts can vary greatly among wiki implementations,[example needed] some of which also allow HTML tags. Wikis favour plain-text editing, with fewer and simpler conventions than HTML, for indicating style and structure. Although limiting access to HTML and Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) of wikis limits user ability to alter the structure and formatting of wiki content, there are some benefits. Limited access to CSS promotes consistency in the look and feel, and having JavaScript disabled prevents a user from implementing code that may limit other users' access.\n\nMediaWiki syntax Equivalent HTML Rendered output\n\"Take some more [[tea]],\" the March Hare said to Alice, very earnestly.\n\n\"I've had '''nothing''' yet,\" Alice replied in an offended tone, \"so I can't take more.\"\n\n\"You mean you can't take ''less''?\" said the Hatter. \"It's very easy to take ''more'' than nothing.\" <p>\"Take some more <a href=\"\/wiki\/Tea\" title=\"Tea\">tea<\/a>,\" the March Hare said to Alice, very earnestly.<\/p>\n\n<p>\"I've had <b>nothing<\/b> yet,\" Alice replied in an offended tone, \"so I can't take more.\"<\/p>\n\n<p>\"You mean you can't take <i>less<\/i>?\" said the Hatter. \"It's very easy to take <i>more<\/i> than nothing.\"<\/p>\n\n\"Take some more tea,\" the March Hare said to Alice, very earnestly.\n\"I've had nothing yet,\" Alice replied in an offended tone, \"so I can't take more.\"\n\n\"You mean you can't take less?\" said the Hatter. \"It's very easy to take more than nothing.\"\n\nWikis can make WYSIWYG editing available to users, usually by means of JavaScript control that translates graphically entered formatting instructions into the corresponding HTML tags or wikitext. In those implementations, the markup of a newly edited, marked-up version of the page is generated and submitted to the server transparently, shielding the user from this technical detail. An example of this is the VisualEditor on Wikipedia. However, WYSIWYG controls do not always provide all of the features available in wikitext, and some users prefer not to use a WYSIWYG editor. Hence, many of these sites offer some means to edit the wikitext directly.\n\nSome wikis keep a record of changes made to wiki pages; often, every version of the page is stored. This means that authors can revert to an older version of the page, should it be necessary because a mistake has been made or the page has been vandalized. Many implementations, like MediaWiki, allow users to supply an edit summary when they edit a page; this is a short piece of text summarising the changes. It is not inserted into the article, but is stored along with that revision of the page, allowing users to explain what has been done and why; this is similar to a log message when making changes to a revision-control system.\n\nNavigation\nWithin the text of most pages there are usually a large number of hypertext links to other pages. This form of non-linear navigation is more \"native\" to wiki than structured\/formalized navigation schemes. Users can also create any number of index or table-of-contents pages, with hierarchical categorization or whatever form of organization they like. These may be challenging to maintain by hand, as multiple authors create and delete pages in an ad hoc manner. Wikis can provide one or more ways to categorize or tag pages to support the maintenance of such index pages.\n\nSome wikis including the original have a backlink feature, which displays all pages that link to a given page. It is also typically possible in a wiki to create links to pages that do not yet exist, as a way to invite others to share what they know about a subject new to the wiki.\n\nLinking and creating pages\nLinks are created using a specific syntax, the so-called \"link pattern\". Originally, most wikis[citation needed] used CamelCase to name pages and create links. These are produced by capitalizing words in a phrase and removing the spaces between them (the word \"CamelCase\" is itself an example). While CamelCase makes linking very easy, it also leads to links which are written in a form that deviates from the standard spelling. To link to a page with a single-word title, one must abnormally capitalize one of the letters in the word (e.g. \"WiKi\" instead of \"Wiki\"). CamelCase-based wikis are instantly recognizable because they have many links with names such as \"TableOfContents\" and \"BeginnerQuestions.\" It is possible for a wiki to render the visible anchor of such links \"pretty\" by reinserting spaces, and possibly also reverting to lower case. However, this reprocessing of the link to improve the readability of the anchor is limited by the loss of capitalization information caused by CamelCase reversal. For example, \"RichardWagner\" should be rendered as \"Richard Wagner\", whereas \"PopularMusic\" should be rendered as \"popular music\". There is no easy way to determine which capital letters should remain capitalized. As a result, many wikis now have \"free linking\" using brackets, and some disable CamelCase by default.\n\nSearching\nMost wikis offer at least a title search, and sometimes a full-text search. The scalability of the search depends on whether the wiki engine uses a database. Some wikis, such as PmWiki, use flat files.[10] MediaWiki's first versions used flat files, but it was rewritten by Lee Daniel Crocker in the early 2000s (decade) to be a database application. Indexed database access is necessary for high speed searches on large wikis. Alternatively, external search engines such as Google Search can sometimes be used on wikis with limited searching functions in order to obtain more precise results.\n\nHistory\nMain article: History of wikis\n\nWiki Wiki Shuttle at Honolulu International Airport\nWikiWikiWeb was the first wiki.[11] Ward Cunningham started developing WikiWikiWeb in Portland, Oregon, in 1994, and installed it on the Internet domain c2.com on March 25, 1995. It was named by Cunningham, who remembered a Honolulu International Airport counter employee telling him to take the \"Wiki Wiki Shuttle\" bus that runs between the airport's terminals. According to Cunningham, \"I chose wiki-wiki as an alliterative substitute for 'quick' and thereby avoided naming this stuff quick-web.\"[12][13]\n\nCunningham was in part inspired by Apple's HyperCard, which he had used before but which was single-user.[14] Apple had designed a system allowing users to create virtual \"card stacks\" supporting links among the various cards. Cunningham developed Vannevar Bush's ideas by allowing users to \"comment on and change one another's text.\"[1][15] Cunningham says his goals were to link together the experiences of multiple people to create a new literature to document programming patterns, and to harness people's natural desire to talk and tell stories with a technology that would feel comfortable to those not used to \"authoring\".[14]\n\nWikipedia became the most famous wiki site, entering the top ten most popular websites in 2007. In the early 2000s (decade), wikis were increasingly adopted in enterprise as collaborative software. Common uses included project communication, intranets, and documentation, initially for technical users. Some companies use wikis as their only collaborative software and as a replacement for static intranets, and some schools and universities use wikis to enhance group learning. There may be greater use of wikis behind firewalls than on the public Internet. On March 15, 2007, the word wiki was listed in the online Oxford English Dictionary.[16]\n\nAlternate definitions of \"wiki\"\nIn the late 1990s and early 2000s, the word \"wiki\" was used to refer to both user-editable websites and the software that powers them; the latter definition is still occasionally in use.[2]\n\nWiki inventor Ward Cunningham wrote in 2014[17] that the word \"wiki\" should not be used to refer to a single website, but rather to a mass of user-editable pages and or sites, so that a single website is not \"a wiki\" but \"an instance of wiki\". He wrote that the concept of wiki federation, in which the same content can be hosted and edited in more than one location in a manner similar to distributed version control, meant that the concept of a single discrete \"wiki\" no longer made sense.[18]\n\nImplementations\n\nHomepage of Wikipedia\nWiki software is a type of collaborative software that runs a wiki system, allowing web pages to be created and edited using a common web browser. It may be implemented as a series of scripts behind an existing web server, or as a standalone application server that runs on one or more web servers. The content is stored in a file system, and changes to the content are stored in a relational database management system. A commonly implemented software package is MediaWiki, which runs Wikipedia. See the list of wiki software for further information. Alternatively, personal wikis run as a standalone application on a single computer. WikidPad is an example. One application, TiddlyWiki, simply makes use of an even single local HTML file with JavaScript inside.\n\nWikis can also be created on a \"wiki farm\", where the server-side software is implemented by the wiki farm owner. PBwiki, Socialtext, and Wikia are popular examples of such services. Some wiki farms can also make private, password-protected wikis. Note that free wiki farms generally contain advertising on every page. For more information, see Comparison of wiki farms.\n\nTrust and security\nControlling changes\n\"Recent changes\" redirects here. For the Wikipedia help page, see Help:Recent changes.\n\nHistory comparison reports highlight the changes between two revisions of a page.\nWikis are generally designed with the philosophy of making it easy to correct mistakes, rather than making it difficult to make them. Thus, while wikis are very open, they provide a means to verify the validity of recent additions to the body of pages. The most prominent, on almost every wiki, is the \"Recent Changes\" page\u2014a specific list numbering recent edits, or a list of edits made within a given time frame.[19] Some wikis can filter the list to remove minor edits and edits made by automatic importing scripts (\"bots\").[20]\n\nFrom the change log, other functions are accessible in most wikis: the revision history shows previous page versions and the diff feature highlights the changes between two revisions. Using the revision history, an editor can view and restore a previous version of the article. The diff feature can be used to decide whether or not this is necessary. A regular wiki user can view the diff of an edit listed on the \"Recent Changes\" page and, if it is an unacceptable edit, consult the history, restoring a previous revision; this process is more or less streamlined, depending on the wiki software used.[21]\n\nIn case unacceptable edits are missed on the \"recent changes\" page, some wiki engines provide additional content control. It can be monitored to ensure that a page, or a set of pages, keeps its quality. A person willing to maintain pages will be warned of modifications to the pages, allowing him or her to verify the validity of new editions quickly.[22] A watchlist is a common implementation of this.\n\nSome wikis also implement \"patrolled revisions\", in which editors with the requisite credentials can mark some edits as not vandalism. A \"flagged revisions\" system can prevent edits from going live until they have been reviewed.[23]\n\nTrustworthiness\nCritics of publicly editable wiki systems argue that these systems could be easily tampered with, while proponents argue that the community of users can catch malicious content and correct it.[1] Lars Aronsson, a data systems specialist, summarizes the controversy as follows:\n\nMost people, when they first learn about the wiki concept, assume that a Web site that can be edited by anybody would soon be rendered useless by destructive input. It sounds like offering free spray cans next to a grey concrete wall. The only likely outcome would be ugly graffiti and simple tagging, and many artistic efforts would not be long lived. Still, it seems to work very well.[11]\n\nHigh editorial standards in medicine have led to the idea of expert-moderated wikis.[24] Some wikis allow one to link to specific versions of articles, which has been useful to the scientific community, in that expert peer reviewers could analyse articles, improve them and provide links to the trusted version of that article.[25]\n\nNoveck points out that \"participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation.\" On controversial topics that have been subject to disruptive editing, a wiki may restrict editing to registered users.[26]\n\nSecurity\nThe open philosophy of wiki - allowing anyone to edit content, does not ensure that every editor's intentions are well-mannered. For example, vandalism (changing wiki content to something offensive, adding nonsense or deliberately adding incorrect information) can be a major problem. On larger wiki sites, such as those run by the Wikimedia Foundation, vandalism can go unnoticed for some period of time. Wikis, because of their open access nature, are susceptible to intentional disruption, known as \"trolling\". Wikis tend to take a soft-security[27][unreliable source?] approach to the problem of vandalism, making damage easy to undo rather than attempting to prevent damage. Larger wikis often employ sophisticated methods, such as bots that automatically identify and revert vandalism and JavaScript enhancements that show characters that have been added in each edit. In this way vandalism can be limited to just \"minor vandalism\" or \"sneaky vandalism\", where the characters added\/eliminated are so few that bots do not identify them and users do not pay much attention to them.[28][unreliable source?] An example of a bot which is used on Wikipedia to revert vandalism is ClueBot NG. ClueBot NG has the ability to revert edits, often \"within minutes, if not seconds\". The bot uses machine learning in lieu of heuristics.[29]\n\nThe amount of vandalism a wiki receives depends on how open the wiki is. For instance, some wikis allow unregistered users, identified by their IP addresses, to edit content, while others limit this function to just registered users. Most wikis allow anonymous editing without an account,[30] but give registered users additional editing functions; on most wikis, becoming a registered user is a short and simple process. Some wikis require an additional waiting period before gaining access to certain tools. For example, on the English Wikipedia, registered users can rename pages only if their account is at least four days old and has made at least ten edits. Other wikis such as the Portuguese Wikipedia use an editing requirement instead of a time requirement, granting extra tools after the user has made a certain number of edits to prove their trustworthiness and usefulness as an editor. Vandalism of Wikipedia is common (though policed and usually reverted) because it is extremely open, allowing anyone with a computer and Internet access to edit it, although this makes it grow rapidly. In contrast, Citizendium requires an editor's real name and short autobiography, affecting the growth of the wiki but sometimes helping stop vandalism.\n\nEdit wars can also occur as users repetitively revert a page to the version they favor. Some wiki software allows an administrator to stop such edit wars by locking a page from further editing until a decision has been made on what version of the page would be most appropriate.[8]\n\nSome wikis are in a better position than others to control behavior due to governance structures existing outside the wiki. For instance, a college teacher can create incentives for students to behave themselves on a class wiki they administer by limiting editing to logged-in users and pointing out that all contributions can be traced back to the contributors. Bad behavior can then be dealt with in accordance with university policies.[10]\n\nPotential malware vector\nMalware can also be problem, as users can add links to sites hosting malicious code. For example, a German Wikipedia article about the Blaster Worm was edited to include a hyperlink to a malicious website. Users of vulnerable Microsoft Windows systems who followed the link would be infected.[8] A countermeasure is the use of software that prevents users from saving an edit that contains a link to a site listed on a blacklist of malware sites.[31]\n\nCommunities\nApplications\nThe English Wikipedia has the largest user base among wikis on the World Wide Web[32] and ranks in the top 10 among all Web sites in terms of traffic.[33] Other large wikis include the WikiWikiWeb, Memory Alpha, Wikivoyage and Susning.nu, a Swedish-language knowledge base. Medical and health-related wiki examples include Ganfyd, an online collaborative medical reference that is edited by medical professionals and invited non-medical experts.[9]\n\nMany wiki communities are private, particularly within enterprises. They are often used as internal documentation for in-house systems and applications. Some companies use wikis to allow customers to help produce software documentation.[34] A study of corporate wiki users found that they could be divided into \"synthesizers\" and \"adders\" of content. Synthesizers' frequency of contribution was affected more by their impact on other wiki users, while adders' contribution frequency was affected more by being able to accomplish their immediate work.[35] from a study of 1000s of wiki deployments,Jonathan Grudin concluded careful stakeholder analysis and education are crucial to successful wiki deployment.[36]\n\nIn 2005, the Gartner Group, noting the increasing popularity of wikis, estimated that they would become mainstream collaboration tools in at least 50% of companies by 2009.[37][needs update] Wikis can be used for project management.[38][39][unreliable source?]\n\nWikis have also been used in the academic community for sharing and dissemination of information across institutional and international boundaries.[40] In those settings, they have been found useful for collaboration on grant writing, strategic planning, departmental documentation, and committee work.[41] In the mid-2000s (decade), the increasing trend among industries toward collaboration was placing a heavier impetus upon educators to make students proficient in collaborative work, inspiring even greater interest in wikis being used in the classroom.[8]\n\nWikis have found some use within the legal profession, and within government. Examples include the Central Intelligence Agency's Intellipedia, designed to share and collect intelligence, dKospedia, which was used by the American Civil Liberties Union to assist with review of documents pertaining to internment of detainees in Guant\u00e1namo Bay;[42] and the wiki of the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, used to post court rules and allow practitioners to comment and ask questions. The United States Patent and Trademark Office operates Peer-to-Patent, a wiki to allow the public to collaborate on finding prior art relevant to examination of pending patent applications. Queens, New York has used a wiki to allow citizens to collaborate on the design and planning of a local park. Cornell Law School founded a wiki-based legal dictionary called Wex, whose growth has been hampered by restrictions on who can edit.[26]\n\nCity wikis\nA city wiki (or local wiki) is a wiki used as a knowledge base and social network for a specific geographical locale.[43][44][45] The term 'city wiki' or its foreign language equivalent (e.g. German 'Stadtwiki') is sometimes also used for wikis that cover not just a city, but a small town or an entire region. A city wiki contains information about specific instances of things, ideas, people and places. Much of this information might not be appropriate for encyclopedias such as Wikipedia (e.g., articles on every retail outlet in a town), but might be appropriate for a wiki with more localized content and viewers. A city wiki could also contain information about the following subjects, that may or may not be appropriate for a general knowledge wiki, such as:\n\nDetails of public establishments such as public houses, bars, accommodation or social centers\nOwner name, opening hours and statistics for a specific shop\nStatistical information about a specific road in a city\nFlavors of ice cream served at a local ice cream parlor\nA biography of a local mayor and other persons\nWikiNodes\nWikiNodes are pages on wikis that describe related wikis. They are usually organized as neighbors and delegates. A neighbor wiki is simply a wiki that may discuss similar content or may otherwise be of interest. A delegate wiki is a wiki that agrees to have certain content delegated to that wiki.[46]\n\nOne way of finding a wiki on a specific subject is to follow the wiki-node network from wiki to wiki; another is to take a Wiki \"bus tour\", for example: Wikipedia's Tour Bus Stop.\n\nParticipants\nThe four basic types of users who participate in wikis are reader, author, wiki administrator and system administrator. The system administrator is responsible for installation and maintenance of the wiki engine and the container web server. The wiki administrator maintains wiki content and is provided additional functions pertaining to pages (e.g. page protection and deletion), and can adjust users' access rights by, for instance, blocking them from editing.[47]\n\nGrowth factors\nA study of several hundred wikis showed that a relatively high number of administrators for a given content size is likely to reduce growth;[48] that access controls restricting editing to registered users tends to reduce growth; that a lack of such access controls tends to fuel new user registration; and that higher administration ratios (i.e. admins\/user) have no significant effect on content or population growth.[49]\n\nConferences\nConferences and meetings about wikis in general include:\n\nThe International Symposium on Wikis (WikiSym), a conference dedicated to wiki research and practice in general.\nRecentChangesCamp, an unconference on wiki-related topics\nConferences o
sandwich
A sandwich is a food item consisting of one or more types of food, such as vegetables, sliced cheese or meat, placed on or between slices of bread, or more generally any dish wherein two or more pieces of bread serve as a container or wrapper for some other food.[1][2][3] The sandwich was originally a portable food item or finger food which began to be popular in the Western World. Today sandwiches in various versions are found worldwide. Sandwiches are a popular type of lunch food, taken to work, school, or picnics to be eaten as part of a packed lunch. The bread can be used plain, or it can be coated with one or more condiments such as mayonnaise or mustard to enhance the flavours and texture. As well as being homemade, sandwiches are also widely sold in restaurants and cafes, and are sometimes served hot as well as cold.[4][5] There are both savoury sandwiches, such as deli meat sandwiches, and sweet sandwiches, such as a peanut butter and jelly sandwich. The sandwich is considered to be the namesake of John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, because of the claim that he was the eponymous inventor of this food combination.[6][7] The Wall Street Journal has described it as Britain's "biggest contribution to gastronomy".[8] Contents [hide] 1 History 1.1 Etymology 2 Usage 3 Examples 4 See also 5 References 6 External links History Salmon and cream cheese sandwiches on pieces of baguette English sandwiches, crustless on a plate Sandwich with fried egg, tomato and cucumber Olive and red tomato sandwich The modern concept of a sandwich using slices of bread (as found within the Western World) can arguably be traced to 18th century Europe. However, the use of some kind of bread or bread-like substance to lie under (or under and over) some other food, or used to scoop up and enclose or wrap some other type of food, long predates the 18th century, and is found in numerous much older cultures worldwide. The ancient Jewish sage Hillel the Elder is said to have wrapped meat from the Paschal lamb and bitter herbs between two pieces of old-fashioned soft matzah—flat, unleavened bread—during Passover in the manner of a modern wrap made with flatbread.[9] Flat breads of only slightly varying kinds have long been used to scoop or wrap small amounts of food en route from platter to mouth throughout Western Asia and northern Africa. From Morocco to Ethiopia to India, bread is baked in flat rounds, contrasting with the European loaf tradition. During the Middle Ages in Europe, thick slabs of coarse and usually stale bread, called "trenchers", were used as plates.[10] After a meal, the food-soaked trencher was fed to a dog or to beggars at the tables of the wealthy, and eaten by diners in more modest circumstances. The immediate culinary precursor with a direct connection to the English sandwich was to be found in the Netherlands of the 17th century, where the naturalist John Ray observed[11] that in the taverns beef hung from the rafters "which they cut into thin slices and eat with bread and butter laying the slices upon the butter"— explanatory specifications that reveal the Dutch belegde broodje, open-faced sandwich, was as yet unfamiliar in England. Initially perceived as food that men shared while gaming and drinking at night, the sandwich slowly began appearing in polite society as a late-night meal among the aristocracy. The sandwich's popularity in Spain and England increased dramatically during the 19th century, when the rise of industrial society and the working classes made fast, portable, and inexpensive meals essential.[12] It was at the same time that the European-stye sandwich finally began to appear outside of Europe. In the United States, the sandwich was first promoted as an elaborate meal at supper. By the early 20th century, as bread became a staple of the American diet, the sandwich became the same kind of popular, quick meal as was already widespread in the Mediterranean.[12] Etymology The first written usage of the English word appeared in Edward Gibbon's journal, in longhand, referring to "bits of cold meat" as a "Sandwich".[13] It was named after John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, an 18th-century English aristocrat. It is said that he ordered his valet to bring him meat tucked between two pieces of bread, and others began to order "the same as Sandwich!"[6][7] It is commonly said that Lord Sandwich was fond of this form of food because it allowed him to continue playing cards, particularly cribbage, while eating, without using a fork, and without getting his cards greasy from eating meat with his bare hands.[6] The rumour in its familiar form appeared in Pierre-Jean Grosley's Londres (Neichatel, 1770), translated as A Tour to London 1772;[14] Grosley's impressions had been formed during a year in London in 1765. The sober alternative is provided by Sandwich's biographer, N. A. M. Rodger, who suggests Sandwich's commitments to the navy, and to politics and the arts, mean the first sandwich was more likely to have been consumed at his desk. Before being known as sandwiches, this food combination seems to simply have been known as "bread and meat" or "bread and cheese".[6] Usage In the United States, a court in Boston, Massachusetts ruled that "sandwich" includes at least two slices of bread.[1] and "under this definition, this court finds that the term 'sandwich' is not commonly understood to include burritos, tacos, and quesadillas, which are typically made with a single tortilla and stuffed with a choice filling of meat, rice, and beans."[15] The issue stemmed from the question of whether a restaurant that sold burritos could move into a shopping centre where another restaurant had a no-compete clause in its lease prohibiting other "sandwich" shops. In Spain, where the word sandwich is borrowed from the English language,[16] it refers to a food item made with English sandwich bread.[17] It is otherwise known as a bocadillo. In the United Kingdom and Australia, the term "sandwich" is more narrowly defined than in the US: it refers only to an item which uses sliced bread from a loaf.[citation needed] An item with similar fillings, but using an entire bread roll cut horizontally in half, is always referred to as a "roll". (In South Australia, there is a regional variant of the "roll", superficially similar to a club sandwich, where the bread roll is sliced three times (parallel cuts), and filling is put in the first and third openings, but not the second. This makes the resulting "double cut roll" easier to handle: the top half and the bottom half are eaten separately.) Any hot item based on a bread roll is referred to as a "burger", never as a "sandwich". However, hot sliced (not ground) beef between two slices of toasted bread is referred to as a "steak sandwich" - it is the sliced loaf bread that distinguishes the steak sandwich from a "burger". The verb to sandwich has the meaning to position anything between two other things of a different character, or to place different elements alternately,[18] and the noun sandwich has related meanings derived from this more general definition. For example, an ice cream sandwich consists of a layer of ice cream between two layers of cake or biscuit.[19] Similarly, Oreos and Custard Creams are described as sandwich biscuits because they consist of a soft filling between layers of biscuit.[20] The word "butty" (a reference to the fact that butter is often used in British sandwiches) is common in some northern parts of England as a slang synonym for "sandwich", particularly to refer to certain kinds of sandwiches including the chip butty, bacon butty, or sausage butty, though some people[who?] make the distinction that a butty is made using a single buttered slice, folded over rather than cut. "Sarnie" is a similar colloquialism, as is the Australian English colloquialism "sanger". Likewise, the words "sanger" and "piece" are used for sandwich in Scottish dialect; regarding the latter, an example of the use of "piece" is "piece and ham", meaning "piece of bread and ham".[citation needed] Examples Further information: List of sandwiches and List of American sandwiches A hamburger, one of the most popular types of hot sandwiches A Reuben sandwich The following represent common varieties of American sandwich.[21] BLT Cheese sandwich Club sandwich Dagwood French dip Hamburger Monte Cristo Muffuletta Peanut butter and jelly sandwich Philadelphia cheesesteak Pilgrim Po' boy Reuben Sloppy joe Submarine sandwich Sandwiches Club sandwich Croque-monsieur, a French ham and cheese hot sandwich Peanut butter and jelly sandwich A Philly cheese steak, a type of submarine sandwich Smoked meat sandwich French bread sandwich with fries Sandwich making Shawarma sandwich Chicken breast sandwich A meat and cheese sandwich with various toppings and a side dish of coleslaw An open sandwich with smoked horse meat in the Netherlands See also Portal icon Food portal Finger food List of bread dishes List of sandwiches List of American sandwiches List of foods Panino (also called panini) Sandwich cake (layer cake) Sandwiches de miga Tramezzino Vada pav References ^ Jump up to: a b Abelson, Jenn. "Arguments spread thick". The Boston Globe, 10 November 2006. Retrieved 27 May 2009. Jump up ^ "sandwich". Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. Retrieved 29 March 2012. Jump up ^ Foundations of Restaurant Management & Culinary Arts Level Two. Pearson. 2011. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-13-138022-6. Jump up ^ Foundations of Restaurant Management & Cullinary Arts Level Two. Pearson. 2011. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-13-138022-6. Jump up ^ Becoming a Foodservice professional Year 1. National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation. 1999. p. 306. ISBN 1-883904-87-0. ^ Jump up to: a b c d What's Cooking America, Sandwiches, History of Sandwiches. 2 February 2007. ^ Jump up to: a b "Sandwich celebrates 250th anniversary of the sandwich". BBC News Online. 12 May 2012. Retrieved 18 May 2012. Jump up ^ Marks, Kathy (17 May 1997). "BLT: British, lousy and tasteless". The Independent (London). Jump up ^ Bavli Pesachim 115a; See also Passover Hagadah Jump up ^ Meads, Chris (2001). Banquets set forth: banqueting in English Renaissance drama. Manchester University Press. p. 47. ISBN 0-7190-5567-9. Jump up ^ Ray, Observations topographical, moral, & physiological; made in a journey through part of the Low Countries, Germany, Italy, and France... (vol. I, 1673) quoted in Simon Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches (1987:152). ^ Jump up to: a b Encyclopedia of Food and Culture, Solomon H. Katz, editor (Charles Scribner's Sons: New York) 2003 Jump up ^ The Oxford English Dictionary gives its appearance as 1762. Jump up ^ Grosley, Londres (Neuchatel, 1770) and A Tour to London, or, New observations on England and its inhabitants, translated from the French by Thomas Nugent (London: Printed for Lockyer Davis) 1772; Hexmasters Faktoider: Sandwich: English quotes from Grosley 1772 Jump up ^ White City Shopping Ctr., LP v. PR Rests., LLC, 21 Mass. L. Rep. 565 (Mass. Super. Ct. 2006) Jump up ^ Collado, Asunción López (January 1994). Hostelería, curso completo de servicios. Asunción López Collado (in Spanish). ISBN 978-84-283-2035-1. Retrieved 11 July 2010. Jump up ^ "Consultorio gastronómico". La Verdad Digital S.L. (in Spanish). Retrieved 21 July 2010. Jump up ^ The Oxford English Dictionary Jump up ^ Taste Taste: Ice Cream Sandwiches, NYmag.com Jump up ^ Oreo Sandwich Biscuits, Nabiscoworld.com Jump up ^ Carlos, Brenda. "Fascinating Facts about the Sandwich". Chefs.com. Retrieved 5 October 2011. External links Find more about Sandwich at Wikipedia's sister projects Search Wiktionary Definitions from Wiktionary Search Commons Media from Commons Search Wikinews News stories from Wikinews Search Wikiquote Quotations from Wikiquote Search Wikisource Source texts from Wikisource Search Wikibooks Textbooks from Wikibooks Search Wikiversity Learning resources from Wikiversity The British Sandwich Association [show] v t e Bread [show] v t e Hamburgers Authority control NDL: 00570097 Categories: SandwichesBritish cuisineAmerican cuisineStreet foodWorld cuisineBread dishes Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadView sourceView history Search Go Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Alemannisch Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Azərbaycanca Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Эрзянь Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar മലയാളം Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Nouormand Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Sámegiella Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் తెలుగు ไทย ᏣᎳᎩ Tsetsêhestâhese Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt ייִדיש 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last modified on 8 January 2016, at 21:43. 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This article is about the type of website. For other uses, see Wiki (disambiguation). "WikiNode" redirects here. For the WikiNode of Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:WikiNode. "Wiki format" redirects here. For the type of markup language, see Wiki markup. File:Ward Cunningham, Inventor of the Wiki.webm Interview with Ward Cunningham, inventor of the wiki A wiki (Listeni/ˈwɪki/ wik-ee) is a website which allows collaborative modification of its content and structure directly from the web browser. In a typical wiki, text is written using a simplified markup language (known as "wiki markup"), and often edited with the help of a rich-text editor.[1] A wiki is run using wiki software, otherwise known as a wiki engine. There are dozens of different wiki engines in use, both standalone and part of other software, such as bug tracking systems. Some wiki engines are open source, whereas others are proprietary. Some permit control over different functions (levels of access); for example, editing rights may permit changing, adding or removing material. Others may permit access without enforcing access control. Other rules may also be imposed to organize content. A wiki engine is a type of content management system, but it differs from most other such systems, including blog software, in that the content is created without any defined owner or leader, and wikis have little implicit structure, allowing structure to emerge according to the needs of the users.[2] The encyclopedia project Wikipedia is by far the most popular wiki-based website, and is in fact one of the most widely viewed sites of any kind of the world, having been ranked in the top ten since 2007. (Wikipedia is not a single wiki but rather a collection of hundreds of wikis, one for each language.) There are at least tens of thousands of other wikis in use, both public and private, including wikis functioning as knowledge management resources, notetaking tools, community websites and intranets. Ward Cunningham, the developer of the first wiki software, WikiWikiWeb, originally described it as "the simplest online database that could possibly work".[3] "Wiki" (pronounced [ˈwiki][note 1]) is a Hawaiian word meaning "quick".[4][5][6] Contents [hide] 1 Characteristics 1.1 Editing wiki pages 1.2 Navigation 1.3 Linking and creating pages 1.4 Searching 2 History 3 Alternate definitions of "wiki" 4 Implementations 5 Trust and security 5.1 Controlling changes 5.2 Trustworthiness 5.3 Security 5.3.1 Potential malware vector 6 Communities 6.1 Applications 6.2 City wikis 6.3 WikiNodes 6.4 Participants 6.5 Growth factors 7 Conferences 8 Rules 9 Legal environment 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External links Characteristics Ward Cunningham, inventor of the wiki Ward Cunningham and co-author Bo Leuf, in their book The Wiki Way: Quick Collaboration on the Web, described the essence of the Wiki concept as follows:[7] A wiki invites all users to edit any page or to create new pages within the wiki Web site, using only a plain-vanilla Web browser without any extra add-ons. Wiki promotes meaningful topic associations between different pages by making page link creation almost intuitively easy and showing whether an intended target page exists or not. A wiki is not a carefully crafted site for casual visitors. Instead, it seeks to involve the visitor in an ongoing process of creation and collaboration that constantly changes the Web site landscape. A wiki enables communities to write documents collaboratively, using a simple markup language and a web browser. A single page in a wiki website is referred to as a "wiki page", while the entire collection of pages, which are usually well-interconnected by hyperlinks, is "the wiki". A wiki is essentially a database for creating, browsing, and searching through information. A wiki allows non-linear, evolving, complex and networked text, argument and interaction.[8] A defining characteristic of wiki technology is the ease with which pages can be created and updated. Generally, there is no review before modifications are accepted. Many wikis are open to alteration by the general public without requiring registration of user accounts. Many edits can be made in real-time and appear almost instantly online. However, this feature facilitates abuse of the system. Private wiki servers require user authentication to edit pages, and sometimes even to read them. Maged N. Kamel Boulos, Cito Maramba and Steve Wheeler write that the open wikis produce a process of Social Darwinism. "'Unfit' sentences and sections are ruthlessly culled, edited and replaced if they are not considered 'fit', which hopefully results in the evolution of a higher quality and more relevant page. While such openness may invite 'vandalism' and the posting of untrue information, this same openness also makes it possible to rapidly correct or restore a 'quality' wiki page."[9] Editing wiki pages Some wikis have an "edit" button or link directly on the page being viewed, if the user has permission to edit the page. This leads to an editing page which allows participants to structure and format wiki pages with a simplified markup language, sometimes known as wikitext (for example, starting a line of text with an asterisk often sets up a bulleted list). The style and syntax of wikitexts can vary greatly among wiki implementations,[example needed] some of which also allow HTML tags. Wikis favour plain-text editing, with fewer and simpler conventions than HTML, for indicating style and structure. Although limiting access to HTML and Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) of wikis limits user ability to alter the structure and formatting of wiki content, there are some benefits. Limited access to CSS promotes consistency in the look and feel, and having JavaScript disabled prevents a user from implementing code that may limit other users' access. MediaWiki syntax Equivalent HTML Rendered output "Take some more [[tea]]," the March Hare said to Alice, very earnestly. "I've had '''nothing''' yet," Alice replied in an offended tone, "so I can't take more." "You mean you can't take ''less''?" said the Hatter. "It's very easy to take ''more'' than nothing." <p>"Take some more <a href="/wiki/Tea" title="Tea">tea</a>," the March Hare said to Alice, very earnestly.</p> <p>"I've had <b>nothing</b> yet," Alice replied in an offended tone, "so I can't take more."</p> <p>"You mean you can't take <i>less</i>?" said the Hatter. "It's very easy to take <i>more</i> than nothing."</p> "Take some more tea," the March Hare said to Alice, very earnestly. "I've had nothing yet," Alice replied in an offended tone, "so I can't take more." "You mean you can't take less?" said the Hatter. "It's very easy to take more than nothing." Wikis can make WYSIWYG editing available to users, usually by means of JavaScript control that translates graphically entered formatting instructions into the corresponding HTML tags or wikitext. In those implementations, the markup of a newly edited, marked-up version of the page is generated and submitted to the server transparently, shielding the user from this technical detail. An example of this is the VisualEditor on Wikipedia. However, WYSIWYG controls do not always provide all of the features available in wikitext, and some users prefer not to use a WYSIWYG editor. Hence, many of these sites offer some means to edit the wikitext directly. Some wikis keep a record of changes made to wiki pages; often, every version of the page is stored. This means that authors can revert to an older version of the page, should it be necessary because a mistake has been made or the page has been vandalized. Many implementations, like MediaWiki, allow users to supply an edit summary when they edit a page; this is a short piece of text summarising the changes. It is not inserted into the article, but is stored along with that revision of the page, allowing users to explain what has been done and why; this is similar to a log message when making changes to a revision-control system. Navigation Within the text of most pages there are usually a large number of hypertext links to other pages. This form of non-linear navigation is more "native" to wiki than structured/formalized navigation schemes. Users can also create any number of index or table-of-contents pages, with hierarchical categorization or whatever form of organization they like. These may be challenging to maintain by hand, as multiple authors create and delete pages in an ad hoc manner. Wikis can provide one or more ways to categorize or tag pages to support the maintenance of such index pages. Some wikis including the original have a backlink feature, which displays all pages that link to a given page. It is also typically possible in a wiki to create links to pages that do not yet exist, as a way to invite others to share what they know about a subject new to the wiki. Linking and creating pages Links are created using a specific syntax, the so-called "link pattern". Originally, most wikis[citation needed] used CamelCase to name pages and create links. These are produced by capitalizing words in a phrase and removing the spaces between them (the word "CamelCase" is itself an example). While CamelCase makes linking very easy, it also leads to links which are written in a form that deviates from the standard spelling. To link to a page with a single-word title, one must abnormally capitalize one of the letters in the word (e.g. "WiKi" instead of "Wiki"). CamelCase-based wikis are instantly recognizable because they have many links with names such as "TableOfContents" and "BeginnerQuestions." It is possible for a wiki to render the visible anchor of such links "pretty" by reinserting spaces, and possibly also reverting to lower case. However, this reprocessing of the link to improve the readability of the anchor is limited by the loss of capitalization information caused by CamelCase reversal. For example, "RichardWagner" should be rendered as "Richard Wagner", whereas "PopularMusic" should be rendered as "popular music". There is no easy way to determine which capital letters should remain capitalized. As a result, many wikis now have "free linking" using brackets, and some disable CamelCase by default. Searching Most wikis offer at least a title search, and sometimes a full-text search. The scalability of the search depends on whether the wiki engine uses a database. Some wikis, such as PmWiki, use flat files.[10] MediaWiki's first versions used flat files, but it was rewritten by Lee Daniel Crocker in the early 2000s (decade) to be a database application. Indexed database access is necessary for high speed searches on large wikis. Alternatively, external search engines such as Google Search can sometimes be used on wikis with limited searching functions in order to obtain more precise results. History Main article: History of wikis Wiki Wiki Shuttle at Honolulu International Airport WikiWikiWeb was the first wiki.[11] Ward Cunningham started developing WikiWikiWeb in Portland, Oregon, in 1994, and installed it on the Internet domain c2.com on March 25, 1995. It was named by Cunningham, who remembered a Honolulu International Airport counter employee telling him to take the "Wiki Wiki Shuttle" bus that runs between the airport's terminals. According to Cunningham, "I chose wiki-wiki as an alliterative substitute for 'quick' and thereby avoided naming this stuff quick-web."[12][13] Cunningham was in part inspired by Apple's HyperCard, which he had used before but which was single-user.[14] Apple had designed a system allowing users to create virtual "card stacks" supporting links among the various cards. Cunningham developed Vannevar Bush's ideas by allowing users to "comment on and change one another's text."[1][15] Cunningham says his goals were to link together the experiences of multiple people to create a new literature to document programming patterns, and to harness people's natural desire to talk and tell stories with a technology that would feel comfortable to those not used to "authoring".[14] Wikipedia became the most famous wiki site, entering the top ten most popular websites in 2007. In the early 2000s (decade), wikis were increasingly adopted in enterprise as collaborative software. Common uses included project communication, intranets, and documentation, initially for technical users. Some companies use wikis as their only collaborative software and as a replacement for static intranets, and some schools and universities use wikis to enhance group learning. There may be greater use of wikis behind firewalls than on the public Internet. On March 15, 2007, the word wiki was listed in the online Oxford English Dictionary.[16] Alternate definitions of "wiki" In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the word "wiki" was used to refer to both user-editable websites and the software that powers them; the latter definition is still occasionally in use.[2] Wiki inventor Ward Cunningham wrote in 2014[17] that the word "wiki" should not be used to refer to a single website, but rather to a mass of user-editable pages and or sites, so that a single website is not "a wiki" but "an instance of wiki". He wrote that the concept of wiki federation, in which the same content can be hosted and edited in more than one location in a manner similar to distributed version control, meant that the concept of a single discrete "wiki" no longer made sense.[18] Implementations Homepage of Wikipedia Wiki software is a type of collaborative software that runs a wiki system, allowing web pages to be created and edited using a common web browser. It may be implemented as a series of scripts behind an existing web server, or as a standalone application server that runs on one or more web servers. The content is stored in a file system, and changes to the content are stored in a relational database management system. A commonly implemented software package is MediaWiki, which runs Wikipedia. See the list of wiki software for further information. Alternatively, personal wikis run as a standalone application on a single computer. WikidPad is an example. One application, TiddlyWiki, simply makes use of an even single local HTML file with JavaScript inside. Wikis can also be created on a "wiki farm", where the server-side software is implemented by the wiki farm owner. PBwiki, Socialtext, and Wikia are popular examples of such services. Some wiki farms can also make private, password-protected wikis. Note that free wiki farms generally contain advertising on every page. For more information, see Comparison of wiki farms. Trust and security Controlling changes "Recent changes" redirects here. For the Wikipedia help page, see Help:Recent changes. History comparison reports highlight the changes between two revisions of a page. Wikis are generally designed with the philosophy of making it easy to correct mistakes, rather than making it difficult to make them. Thus, while wikis are very open, they provide a means to verify the validity of recent additions to the body of pages. The most prominent, on almost every wiki, is the "Recent Changes" page—a specific list numbering recent edits, or a list of edits made within a given time frame.[19] Some wikis can filter the list to remove minor edits and edits made by automatic importing scripts ("bots").[20] From the change log, other functions are accessible in most wikis: the revision history shows previous page versions and the diff feature highlights the changes between two revisions. Using the revision history, an editor can view and restore a previous version of the article. The diff feature can be used to decide whether or not this is necessary. A regular wiki user can view the diff of an edit listed on the "Recent Changes" page and, if it is an unacceptable edit, consult the history, restoring a previous revision; this process is more or less streamlined, depending on the wiki software used.[21] In case unacceptable edits are missed on the "recent changes" page, some wiki engines provide additional content control. It can be monitored to ensure that a page, or a set of pages, keeps its quality. A person willing to maintain pages will be warned of modifications to the pages, allowing him or her to verify the validity of new editions quickly.[22] A watchlist is a common implementation of this. Some wikis also implement "patrolled revisions", in which editors with the requisite credentials can mark some edits as not vandalism. A "flagged revisions" system can prevent edits from going live until they have been reviewed.[23] Trustworthiness Critics of publicly editable wiki systems argue that these systems could be easily tampered with, while proponents argue that the community of users can catch malicious content and correct it.[1] Lars Aronsson, a data systems specialist, summarizes the controversy as follows: Most people, when they first learn about the wiki concept, assume that a Web site that can be edited by anybody would soon be rendered useless by destructive input. It sounds like offering free spray cans next to a grey concrete wall. The only likely outcome would be ugly graffiti and simple tagging, and many artistic efforts would not be long lived. Still, it seems to work very well.[11] High editorial standards in medicine have led to the idea of expert-moderated wikis.[24] Some wikis allow one to link to specific versions of articles, which has been useful to the scientific community, in that expert peer reviewers could analyse articles, improve them and provide links to the trusted version of that article.[25] Noveck points out that "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation." On controversial topics that have been subject to disruptive editing, a wiki may restrict editing to registered users.[26] Security The open philosophy of wiki - allowing anyone to edit content, does not ensure that every editor's intentions are well-mannered. For example, vandalism (changing wiki content to something offensive, adding nonsense or deliberately adding incorrect information) can be a major problem. On larger wiki sites, such as those run by the Wikimedia Foundation, vandalism can go unnoticed for some period of time. Wikis, because of their open access nature, are susceptible to intentional disruption, known as "trolling". Wikis tend to take a soft-security[27][unreliable source?] approach to the problem of vandalism, making damage easy to undo rather than attempting to prevent damage. Larger wikis often employ sophisticated methods, such as bots that automatically identify and revert vandalism and JavaScript enhancements that show characters that have been added in each edit. In this way vandalism can be limited to just "minor vandalism" or "sneaky vandalism", where the characters added/eliminated are so few that bots do not identify them and users do not pay much attention to them.[28][unreliable source?] An example of a bot which is used on Wikipedia to revert vandalism is ClueBot NG. ClueBot NG has the ability to revert edits, often "within minutes, if not seconds". The bot uses machine learning in lieu of heuristics.[29] The amount of vandalism a wiki receives depends on how open the wiki is. For instance, some wikis allow unregistered users, identified by their IP addresses, to edit content, while others limit this function to just registered users. Most wikis allow anonymous editing without an account,[30] but give registered users additional editing functions; on most wikis, becoming a registered user is a short and simple process. Some wikis require an additional waiting period before gaining access to certain tools. For example, on the English Wikipedia, registered users can rename pages only if their account is at least four days old and has made at least ten edits. Other wikis such as the Portuguese Wikipedia use an editing requirement instead of a time requirement, granting extra tools after the user has made a certain number of edits to prove their trustworthiness and usefulness as an editor. Vandalism of Wikipedia is common (though policed and usually reverted) because it is extremely open, allowing anyone with a computer and Internet access to edit it, although this makes it grow rapidly. In contrast, Citizendium requires an editor's real name and short autobiography, affecting the growth of the wiki but sometimes helping stop vandalism. Edit wars can also occur as users repetitively revert a page to the version they favor. Some wiki software allows an administrator to stop such edit wars by locking a page from further editing until a decision has been made on what version of the page would be most appropriate.[8] Some wikis are in a better position than others to control behavior due to governance structures existing outside the wiki. For instance, a college teacher can create incentives for students to behave themselves on a class wiki they administer by limiting editing to logged-in users and pointing out that all contributions can be traced back to the contributors. Bad behavior can then be dealt with in accordance with university policies.[10] Potential malware vector Malware can also be problem, as users can add links to sites hosting malicious code. For example, a German Wikipedia article about the Blaster Worm was edited to include a hyperlink to a malicious website. Users of vulnerable Microsoft Windows systems who followed the link would be infected.[8] A countermeasure is the use of software that prevents users from saving an edit that contains a link to a site listed on a blacklist of malware sites.[31] Communities Applications The English Wikipedia has the largest user base among wikis on the World Wide Web[32] and ranks in the top 10 among all Web sites in terms of traffic.[33] Other large wikis include the WikiWikiWeb, Memory Alpha, Wikivoyage and Susning.nu, a Swedish-language knowledge base. Medical and health-related wiki examples include Ganfyd, an online collaborative medical reference that is edited by medical professionals and invited non-medical experts.[9] Many wiki communities are private, particularly within enterprises. They are often used as internal documentation for in-house systems and applications. Some companies use wikis to allow customers to help produce software documentation.[34] A study of corporate wiki users found that they could be divided into "synthesizers" and "adders" of content. Synthesizers' frequency of contribution was affected more by their impact on other wiki users, while adders' contribution frequency was affected more by being able to accomplish their immediate work.[35] from a study of 1000s of wiki deployments,Jonathan Grudin concluded careful stakeholder analysis and education are crucial to successful wiki deployment.[36] In 2005, the Gartner Group, noting the increasing popularity of wikis, estimated that they would become mainstream collaboration tools in at least 50% of companies by 2009.[37][needs update] Wikis can be used for project management.[38][39][unreliable source?] Wikis have also been used in the academic community for sharing and dissemination of information across institutional and international boundaries.[40] In those settings, they have been found useful for collaboration on grant writing, strategic planning, departmental documentation, and committee work.[41] In the mid-2000s (decade), the increasing trend among industries toward collaboration was placing a heavier impetus upon educators to make students proficient in collaborative work, inspiring even greater interest in wikis being used in the classroom.[8] Wikis have found some use within the legal profession, and within government. Examples include the Central Intelligence Agency's Intellipedia, designed to share and collect intelligence, dKospedia, which was used by the American Civil Liberties Union to assist with review of documents pertaining to internment of detainees in Guantánamo Bay;[42] and the wiki of the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, used to post court rules and allow practitioners to comment and ask questions. The United States Patent and Trademark Office operates Peer-to-Patent, a wiki to allow the public to collaborate on finding prior art relevant to examination of pending patent applications. Queens, New York has used a wiki to allow citizens to collaborate on the design and planning of a local park. Cornell Law School founded a wiki-based legal dictionary called Wex, whose growth has been hampered by restrictions on who can edit.[26] City wikis A city wiki (or local wiki) is a wiki used as a knowledge base and social network for a specific geographical locale.[43][44][45] The term 'city wiki' or its foreign language equivalent (e.g. German 'Stadtwiki') is sometimes also used for wikis that cover not just a city, but a small town or an entire region. A city wiki contains information about specific instances of things, ideas, people and places. Much of this information might not be appropriate for encyclopedias such as Wikipedia (e.g., articles on every retail outlet in a town), but might be appropriate for a wiki with more localized content and viewers. A city wiki could also contain information about the following subjects, that may or may not be appropriate for a general knowledge wiki, such as: Details of public establishments such as public houses, bars, accommodation or social centers Owner name, opening hours and statistics for a specific shop Statistical information about a specific road in a city Flavors of ice cream served at a local ice cream parlor A biography of a local mayor and other persons WikiNodes WikiNodes are pages on wikis that describe related wikis. They are usually organized as neighbors and delegates. A neighbor wiki is simply a wiki that may discuss similar content or may otherwise be of interest. A delegate wiki is a wiki that agrees to have certain content delegated to that wiki.[46] One way of finding a wiki on a specific subject is to follow the wiki-node network from wiki to wiki; another is to take a Wiki "bus tour", for example: Wikipedia's Tour Bus Stop. Participants The four basic types of users who participate in wikis are reader, author, wiki administrator and system administrator. The system administrator is responsible for installation and maintenance of the wiki engine and the container web server. The wiki administrator maintains wiki content and is provided additional functions pertaining to pages (e.g. page protection and deletion), and can adjust users' access rights by, for instance, blocking them from editing.[47] Growth factors A study of several hundred wikis showed that a relatively high number of administrators for a given content size is likely to reduce growth;[48] that access controls restricting editing to registered users tends to reduce growth; that a lack of such access controls tends to fuel new user registration; and that higher administration ratios (i.e. admins/user) have no significant effect on content or population growth.[49] Conferences Conferences and meetings about wikis in general include: The International Symposium on Wikis (WikiSym), a conference dedicated to wiki research and practice in general. RecentChangesCamp, an unconference on wiki-related topics Conferences on specific wiki sites and applications include: Atlassian Summit, an annual conference for users of Atlassian software, including Confluence[50] RegioWikiCamp, a semi-annual unconference on "regiowikis", or wikis on cities and other geographic areas.[51] SMWCon, a bi-annual conference for users and developers of Semantic MediaWiki.[52] TikiFest, a frequently held meeting for users and developers of Tiki Wiki CMS Groupware.[53] Wikimania, an annual conference dedicated to the research and practice of Wikimedia Foundation projects like Wikipedia. Rules Wikis typically have a set of rules governing user behavior. Wikipedia, for instance, has a labyrinthine set of policies and guidelines summed up in its five pillars: Wikipedia is an encyclopedia; Wikipedia has a neutral point of view; Wikipedia is free content; Wikipedians should interact in a respectful and civil manner; and Wikipedia does not have firm rules. Many wikis have adopted a set of commandments. For instance, Conservapedia commands, among other things, that its editors use "B.C." rather than "B.C.E." when referring to years prior to A.D. 1 and refrain from "unproductive activity."[54] One teacher instituted a commandment for a class wiki, "Wiki unto others as you would have them wiki unto you."[10] Legal environment Joint authorship of articles, in which different users participate in correcting, editing, and compiling the finished product, can also cause editors to become tenants in common of the copyright, making it impossible to republish without the permission of all co-owners, some of whose identities may be unknown due to pseudonymous or anonymous editing.[8] However, where persons contribute to a collective work such as an encyclopedia, there is no joint ownership if the contributions are separate and distinguishable.[55] Despite most wikis' tracking of individual contributions, the action of contributing to a wiki page is still arguably one of jointly correcting, editing, or compiling which would give rise to joint ownership. Some copyright issues can be alleviated through the use of an open content license. Version 2 of the GNU Free Documentation License includes a specific provision for wiki relicensing; Creative Commons licenses are also popular. When no license is specified, an implied license to read and add content to a wiki may be deemed to exist on the grounds of business necessity and the inherent nature of a wiki, although the legal basis for such an implied license may not exist in all circumstances.[citation needed] Wikis and their users can be held liable for certain activities that occur on the wiki. If a wiki owner displays indifference and forgoes controls (such as banning copyright infringers) that he could have exercised to stop copyright infringement, he may be deemed to have authorized infringement, especially if the wiki is primarily used to infringe copyrights or obtains direct financial benefit, such as advertising revenue, from infringing activities.[8] In the United States, wikis may benefit from Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act, which protects sites that engage in "Good Samaritan" policing of harmful material, with no requirement on the quality or quantity of such self-policing.[56] However, it has also been argued that a wiki's enforcement of certain rules, such as anti-bias, verifiability, reliable sourcing, and no-original-research policies, could pose legal risks.[57] When defamation occurs on a wiki, theoretically all users of the wiki can be held liable, because any of them had the ability to remove or amend the defamatory material from the "publication." It remains to be seen whether wikis will be regarded as more akin to an internet service provider, which is generally not held liable due to its lack of control over publications' contents, than a publisher.[8] It has been recommended that trademark owners monitor what information is presented about their trademarks on wikis, since courts may use such content as evidence pertaining to public perceptions. Joshua Jarvis notes, "Once misinformation is identified, the trade mark owner can simply edit the entry."[58] See also Portal icon Internet portal Comparison of wiki software Content management system CURIE Dispersed knowledge List of wikis Mass collaboration Universal Edit Button Wikis and education Notes Jump up ^ The realization of the Hawaiian /w/ phoneme varies between [w] and [v], and the realization of the /k/ phoneme varies between [k] and [t], among other realizations. Thus, the pronunciation of the Hawaiian word wiki varies between ['wiki], ['witi], ['viki], and ['viti]. See Hawaiian phonology for more details. References ^ Jump up to: a b c "wiki", Encyclopædia Britannica 1, London: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2007, retrieved April 10, 2008 ^ Jump up to: a b Mitchell, Scott (July 2008), Easy Wiki Hosting, Scott Hanselman's blog, and Snagging Screens, MSDN Magazine, retrieved March 9, 2010 Jump up ^ Cunningham, Ward (June 27, 2002), What is a Wiki, WikiWikiWeb, retrieved April 10, 2008 Jump up ^ mauimapp.com. Hawaiian Words; Hawaiian to English [Retrieved September 19, 2008]. Jump up ^ Hasan, Heather (2012), Wikipedia, 3.5 million articles and counting, p. 11, ISBN 9781448855575 Jump up ^ Andrews, Lorrin (1865), A dictionary of the Hawaiian language to which is appended an English-Hawaiian vocabulary and a chronological table of remarkable events, Henry M. Whitney, p. 514 Jump up ^ Leuf & Cunningham 2001. See Ward Cunningham's site http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?WikiDesignPrinciples ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Black, Peter; Delaney, Hayden; Fitzgerald, Brian (2007), Legal Issues for Wikis: The Challenge of User-generated and Peer-produced Knowledge, Content and Culture (PDF) 14, eLaw J. ^ Jump up to: a b Boulos, M. N. K.; Maramba, I.; Wheeler, S. (2006), "Wikis, blogs and podcasts: a new generation of Web-based tools for virtual collaborative clinical practice and education", BMC medical education (BMC Medical Education) 6: 41, doi:10.1186/1472-6920-6-41, PMC 1564136, PMID 16911779 ^ Jump up to: a b c Naomi, Augar; Raitman, Ruth; Zhou, Wanlei (2004). "Teaching and learning online with wikis". Proceedings of Beyond the Comfort Zone: 21st ASCILITE Conference. CiteSeerX: 10.1.1.133.1456. ^ Jump up to: a b Ebersbach 2008, p. 10 Jump up ^ Cunningham, Ward (November 1, 2003). "Correspondence on the Etymology of Wiki". WikiWikiWeb. Retrieved March 9, 2007. Jump up ^ Cunningham, Ward (February 25, 2008). "Wiki History". WikiWikiWeb. Retrieved March 9, 2007. ^ Jump up to: a b Bill Venners (October 20, 2003). "Exploring with Wiki: A Conversation with Ward Cunningham, Part I". artima developer. Retrieved December 12, 2014. Jump up ^ Cunningham, Ward (July 26, 2007). "Wiki Wiki Hyper Card". WikiWikiWeb. Retrieved March 9, 2007. Jump up ^ Diamond, Graeme (March 1, 2007). "March 2007 update". Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved March 16, 2007. Jump up ^ The plural of wiki is wiki., Ward Cunningham, Twitter, November 8, 2014 Jump up ^ "Smallest Federated Wiki". wiki.org. Retrieved September 28, 2015. Jump up ^ Ebersbach 2008, p. 20 Jump up ^ Ebersbach 2008, p. 54 Jump up ^ Ebersbach 2008, p. 178 Jump up ^ Ebersbach 2008, p. 109 Jump up ^ Goldman, Eric, "Wikipedia's Labor Squeeze and its Consequences", Journal on Telecommunications and High Technology Law 8 Jump up ^ Barsky, Eugene; Giustini, Dean (December 2007), "Introducing Web 2.0: wikis for health librarians" (PDF), Journal of the Canadian Health Libraries Association 28 (4), pp. 147-150, retrieved November 7, 2011. ISSN 1708-6892 Jump up ^ Yager, Kevin (March 16, 2006), "Wiki ware could harness the Internet for science", Nature 440 (7082): 278, Bibcode:2006Natur.440..278Y, doi:10.1038/440278a(subscription required) ^ Jump up to: a b Noveck, Beth Simone (March 2007), "Wikipedia and the Future of Legal Education", Journal of Legal Education 57 (1)(subscription required) Jump up ^ Soft Security, UseModWiki, September 20, 2006, retrieved March 9, 2007 Jump up ^ "Security". Assothink. Retrieved 2013-02-16. Jump up ^ Hicks, Jesse (February 18, 2014). "This machine kills trolls". The Verge. Retrieved September 7, 2014. Jump up ^ Ebersbach 2008, p. 108 Jump up ^ Meta.wikimedia.org Jump up ^ "List of largest (Media)wikis". S23-Wiki. April 3, 2008. Archived from the original on August 25, 2014. Retrieved December 12, 2014. Jump up ^ "Alexa Top 500 Global Sites". Alexa Internet. Retrieved April 26, 2015. Jump up ^ Müller, C.; Birn, L. (September 6-8, 2006). "Wikis for Collaborative Software Documentation" (PDF). Proceedings of I-KNOW '06. Jump up ^ Majchrzak, A.; Wagner, C.; Yates, D. (2006), "Corporate wiki users: results of a survey", Proceedings of the 2006 international symposium on Wikis, Symposium on Wikis, pp. 99-104, doi:10.1145/1149453.1149472, ISBN 1-59593-413-8, retrieved April 25, 2011 Jump up ^ Grudin, Jonathan (2015). "Wikis at work: Success factors and challenges for sustainability of enterprise wikis - Microsoft Research". research.microsoft.com. Retrieved June 16, 2015. Jump up ^ Conlin, Michelle (November 28, 2005), "E-Mail Is So Five Minutes Ago", Bloomberg BusinessWeek Jump up ^ HomePage [Retrieved May 8, 2012]. Jump up ^ Ways to Wiki: Project Management; 2010-01-04. Jump up ^ Wanderley, M. M.; Birnbaum, D.; Malloch, J. (2006). "SensorWiki.org: a collaborative resource for researchers and interface designers". NIME '06 Proceedings of the 2006 conference on New interfaces for musical expression (IRCAM - Centre Pompidou): 180-183. ISBN 2-84426-314-3. Jump up ^ Lombardo, Nancy T. (June 2008). "Putting Wikis to Work in Libraries". Medical Reference Services Quarterly 27 (2): 129-145.[dead link] Jump up ^ "SusanHu's FOIA Project UPDATE". Retrieved 2013-06-25. Jump up ^ Andersen, Michael (November 6, 2009) "Welcome to Davis, Calif.: Six lessons from the world's best local wiki." Niemen Journalism Lab. Niemen Foundation/Harvard University Jump up ^ McGann, Laura (June 18, 2010) "Knight News Challenge: Is a wiki site coming to your city? Local Wiki will build software to make it simple." Niemen Journalism Lab. Niemen Foundation/Harvard University Jump up ^ Wired: Makice, Kevin (July 15, 2009). Hey, Kid: Support Your Local Wiki Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions". WikiNodes. Archived from the original on August 10, 2007. Jump up ^ Cubric, Marija (2007). "Analysis of the use of Wiki-based collaborations in enhancing student learning". University of Hertfordshire. Retrieved April 25, 2011. Jump up ^ Roth, C.; Taraborelli, D.; Gilbert, N. (2008). "Measuring wiki viability. An empirical assessment of the social dynamics of a large sample of wikis". The Centre for Research in Social Simulation: 3. Figure 4 shows that having a relatively high number of administrators for a given content size is likely to reduce growth.[dead link] Jump up ^ Roth, C.; Taraborelli, D.; Gilbert, N. (2008). "Measuring wiki viability. An empirical assessment of the social dynamics of a large sample of wikis". The Centre for Research in Social Simulation.[dead link] Jump up ^ Summit.atlassian.com. Atlassian Summit homepage [Retrieved June 20, 2011]. Jump up ^ Wiki.regiowiki.eu. European RegioWikiSociety homepage; June 10, 2011 [Retrieved June 20, 2011]. Jump up ^ Semantic-mediawiki.org. SMWCon homepage [Retrieved June 20, 2011]. Jump up ^ Tiki.org. TikiFest homepage [Retrieved June 20, 2011]. Jump up ^ Conservapedia Commandments; May 15, 2010 [Retrieved July 24, 2010]. Jump up ^ Redwood Music Ltd v. B Feldman & Co Ltd (RPC 385), 1979 Missing or empty |title= (help) Jump up ^ Walsh, Kathleen M.; Oh, Sarah (February 23, 2010). "Self-Regulation: How Wikipedia Leverages User-Generated Quality Control Under Section 230". Jump up ^ Myers, Ken S. (2008), "Wikimmunity: Fitting the Communications Decency Act to Wikipedia", Harvard Journal of Law and Technology (The Berkman Center for Internet and Society) 20: 163 Jump up ^ Jarvis, Joshua (May 2008), "Police your marks in a wiki world", Managing Intellectual Property (179), pp. 101-103 Further reading Ebersbach, Anja (2008), Wiki: Web Collaboration, Springer Science+Business Media, ISBN 3-540-35150-7 Leuf, Bo; Cunningham, Ward (April 13, 2001), The Wiki Way: Quick Collaboration on the Web, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-71499-X Mader, Stewart (December 10, 2007), Wikipatterns, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-470-22362-6 Tapscott, Don (April 17, 2008), Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything, Portfolio Hardcover, ISBN 1-59184-193-3 External links Listen to this article (info/dl) MENU0:00 This audio file was created from a revision of the "Wiki" article dated 2007-03-14, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help) More spoken articles Find more about Wiki at Wikipedia's sister projects Search Wiktionary Definitions from Wiktionary Search Commons Media from Commons Search Wikinews News stories from Wikinews Search Wikiversity Learning resources from Wikiversity Search Wikidata Data from Wikidata Search MediaWiki Documentation from MediaWiki Wiki at DMOZ Exploring with Wiki, an interview with Ward Cunningham by Bill Verners WikiIndex and WikiApiary, directories of wikis WikiMatrix, a website for comparing wiki software and hosts WikiPapers, a wiki about publications about wikis WikiTeam, a volunteer group to preserve wikis Murphy, Paula (April 2006). Topsy-turvy World of Wiki. University of California. 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