Unit 3

Last Supper

Leonardo da Vinci. c. 1494-1498 C.E. Oil and tempera. Form: Oil and tempura was an experimental combo Used lead white as a base instead of traditional wet plaster to achieve more brilliant colors but the paint never adhered to the wall and began immediately deteriorating Added a double layer of dried plaster to achieve greater detail Things that have contributed to its terrible condition: Location (side of a cafeteria building), materials, techniques used, humidity, dust, poor restoration efforts, bomb hit monastery in '43, destroying large section of the refectory, air pollution in postwar Milan, tourists and overcrowded viewing 42.5% of the surface is Leonardo's work, 17.5% is lost, and 40% is the additions restorers Perfect perspective is achieved at Christ's level using linear perspective This view is 15 feet in the air Strong sense of depth conveyed Vanishing point right behind Christ's head draws the viewer's eye to this central figure Christ's body forms an equilateral triangle Very unified composition (it is intentional, mathematical, and precise) Faces are individualized and figures are realistic with accurate proportions and light and shadow (chiaroscuro) Use sfumato technique (use of glazes in slightly different tones of color creating an almost imperceptible transition from light to dark) Great emotion, gesture, action (clamour and reaction of the figures), and interaction between figures Function: Monks would eat silently while looking at this painting. Used to teach and inspire contemplation about this pivotal moment in the religion Shows unity between the earthly, mortal world and the eternal and divine but also shows the chaos and flaws of humanity and greatness of the divine Content: The 12 apostles sit at a long table placed parallel to the picture plane in a simple, spacious room and react to Christ saying, "one of you will betray me" during seder at Passover (christ's mouth is still open) The apostles have highly emotional reactions In the center, JC appears isolated and composed while his apostles freak out around him, showing his divinity and ethereal nature. He is reaching for the bread and wine, the sacrament of communion Calm center with a window framing Christ's head draws attention to Christ with a realistic halo of the window and curved pediment (the only curve in the entire painting) Chaos surrounds him and all lines converge behind him- he is a divine center 4 groupings of figures create a clustered, chaotic sense to the scene Judas to the right of Christ has head down in shame and holds the bag of silver. He is reaching for the same bowl as Christ Peter is rushing to Jesus, pushing Judas back in need of knowing the betrayer, and he is holding a knife ready to defend Jesus foreshadowing that Peter will sever the ear of a soldier as he attempts to protect Christ from arrest. Peter was known as his protector John closes his eyes Simon, Thadeus, and Matthew to JC's far left demonstrate the force and extent of the impact of the news Thomas, to JC left points upward, questioning God Philip points to himself with a face of grief James spreads himself out to calm people down Through windows is a lush green landscape symbolizing heaven, which frames JC showing his divinity over all the others 3 windows, 4 groups of 3 apostles, Christ body forms a triangle = holy trinity and divinity Painted on the side of the refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan. Context: Da Vinci, born in Florence, was a painter, sculptor, engineer, architect, and scientist Trained with the prestigious Andrea del Verrocchio High renaissance (rebirth of classical ideal of beauty, use of shading, naturalism, and humanism) Centralized in Rome, art was commissioned by popes Missing halo distinguishers like early renaissance, but it is obviously the last supper because of da Vinci's complete mastery of skill Fascination with the body to show beauty of nature and convey the soul Narrative style of painting common where the body and emotion reflects the mind Da vinci had desire to depict humanity and convey individual emotions and reactions to represent their character and humanity Idealized geometry of Jesus is in line with the Renaissance's rediscovery of Neo-Platonism (humanist revival combining Greek philosophy with Christian theology) Plato believed that the mortal realm was imperfect, and the divine can be seen in heavenly, geometric perfection Da vinci practiced with live models, and therefore had a deep understanding of the observable world which is reflected in the highly individualized and proportionally correct apostles Cross Cultural Connections The Calling of Saint Matthew Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus Justinian Panel Wall Plaque from Oba's Palace

Allegory of Law and Grace

Lucas Cranach the Elder. c. 1530 C.E. Woodcut and letterpress. Context: Destruction of thousands of works of religious art Iconoclasts stormed through churches "How did heaven get to be so controversial?" Form Material/technique → woodcut and letterpress Lucas Cranach the Elder = artist Located in Germany Media = oil on wood Northern Renaissance 72 cm by 88.5 cm Content/Function Lucas Cranach the Elder Influential artists in 16th century German art Printmaker and painter Representative of the Northern Renaissance His father, Hans Maler, was a painter and gave Cranach his first lessons As court painter of the Elector of Saxony, the patron of Luther, remembered as the chief artist of the Reformation Met Martin Luther = portrayed in his works He also sold medicine, papers, ran a wine pub, printed books He was elected as mayor three times A talent for politics 1524-met Albrecht Durer Lutheran Reformation The Law and the Grace Single most influential image of the Lutheran Reformation The Reformation--initiated by Martin Luther in 1517 (attempt to reform the Catholic Church, which had been the only church in western Europe up until Luther) The Law and the Grace explains luther's ideas in visual form, Heaven is reached through faith and god's grace Luther rejected the Catholic idea that good deeds play any role in salvation Catholics Vs. Luther: how to get to heaven? Catholics Believer could take action to vouchsafe their salvation by good deed (financial donations and paying for art) Luther Insisted that salvation was in God's hands and all the believer had to do was to open up and have faith Anger led to rebellion and destruction of artwork that the Catholic Church was become rich on Scene: Two nude figures appear on either side of a tree that bisects the composition Law (left) = dying tree Gospel (right) = living tree Tree is dead on the side of the Law but vibrant on the side of the Gospel Law and judgement symbolized by a man being forced into hell by Death (skeleton) and Satan (demon) Moses delivers the Ten Commandments Moses beholds these events; his white tablets standing out against the saturated orange rope and green tree Law, death, and damnation Held by a figure that appears to be Luther himself (Cranach consistently depicted Luther in his portraits alongside biblical figures) Christ sits in judgement Adam and Eve partake in eating the forbidden fruit Motifs (left) are meant to exemplify the idea that law alone, without gospel, can never get you to heaven Right (Gospel) Side Scene: Grace and Gospel with Christ's cross crushing Death and Satan Blood of christ covers those near the cross John the baptist directs a naked man to both Christ on the cross in front of the tomb AND to the risen Christ who appears on top of the tomb Risen Christ = stands triumphant above the empty tomb, acting out the miracle of the Resurrection Nude figure is not hoping to follow the law on judgement day Stands passively, stripped down to his soul, submitting to God's mercy Lutheran saw the law as the side in which financial donations enriched the church and should not be a way to salvation; in the gospel side he believed through your own belief in god should be enough to bring his grace Law paves the way to salvation by preparing the way for grace God judges and God shows mercy The Law and the Grace is concerned with two roles that God plays: Judge (condemns human sin) Show mercy (forgiveness) Granting unearned salvation to sinful believers Luther's idea of law is multifaceted and complex relationship to his idea of gospel Law alone will never make salvation possible, law paves the way to salvation Includes events from both the New and Old Testament Concerns two aspects of the relationship between humanity and god Describes events throughout the bible which reveal the dual aspect of god's relationship to people Cranach's pictorial translation of Luther's unique understanding of salvation Interprets the roles of law, good works, faith, and grace in the human relationship to God

Adam and Eve

Albrecht Durer, 1504 C.E, engraving Form Made by German renaissance artist Albrecht Dürer Two figures standing in controposta Engraving Function Served to please the eye Made to show people the story of Adam and Eve with a new modern invention Content Adam and Eve are clearly in a german forest (evidence- the woods are shown as dark and menacing like they are in german tales and there are "devils" around the couple which are seen throughout german folklore) Adam and Eve are the first humans ever created according to the bible There are multiple animals around them including a parrot who is on a branch which identifies the artist as a citizen of Nuremberg Showcases Vitruvian (Roman architect) ideals about the human body The four animals represent the four humors in the human body (Melancholic: elk, black bile, Phlegmatic: ox, phlegm, Sanguine: rabbit, blood, and Choleric: cat, yellow bile) Context Parrots were often bought by wealthy germans at the time to show off their wealth At the time people thought that if all of your humors were healthy a person would look ideal German artists were interested in classical italian/Roman art Printmaking was super new to people at the time of its creation Dürer was credited as an agent of change from gothic to renaissance

Angel with Arquebus

Asiel Timor Dei. Master of Calamarca. c. 17th century C.E. Oil on canvas As the Angels was one of the topics most characteristic of the painting from the Viceregal in America, this kind of art and characters are found in different villages of Peru, Argentina and even in other departments of Bolivia. Calamarca is one of the most complete collections, including Angels holding arquebuses, swords, holding keys or spikes of wheat or a bundle of fire in his hand. Form: Oil on canvas/gilded painting Mannerist influence revealed in extended/elongated proportions of body Enigmatic expression, general asexual depiction of the angel lends to the vagueness White, red/black, and white garments painted with minute details and sequins Experts say garments are that of Spanish nobility, but feathered hat lends itself to Andean tribe elites (Incan) Lots of negative space around the angel, the added depth/its faded black makes gold on garments pop Upper left hand corner reads "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" Angel handles gun leisurely, finger not on trigger, gun not on shoulder Elements of Baroque movement as well, theatrical lighting, emphasis on power over indgienous people Function: Made Spain's viceroyalty of Peru in South America, artistic arm of Spaniards' efforts to convert those native to conquered territory to Catholicism Firearms seen as impossible technological feat/borderline divine to the indigneous people of Peru, a Catholic angel wielding one meant to intimidate Inclusion of the inscriptiption in top left "Asiel Timor Dei fears God" adds to the message of Catholicsm's dominance, this gun wielding angel respects and obeys God so intended message is that the newly conquered Andean tribes should as well Depictions of armed angels also previously embodied the army of the Christian Church; in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Counter Catholic Reformation began producing more art with similar armed angels to show that the "true" faithful were protected by divine oversight The addition of new arquebuses gave the notion of protection a tone of realism Experts also believe that Catholic artwork in a viceroyalty like Peru often tried to establish connections between the native religions and Catholicism The Angel's name Asiel Timor Dei is thought to have been related to an angel of the indigneous people's faith Incan god of lightning/thunder/storms Illapa closest comparison to the angel, due to its wings lending it resemblance to nature/elemental deities The identification of one's indigenous religion and associated deities in the conqueror's art would serve as motive to trust the Spainaird's rule Content: Feathered hat worn by Incan nobility, evidence of cultural synthesis and adds to the notion that the native people of the Peruvian viceroyalty should obey Spaniards Harquebus was a proud new European militaristic innovation-first gun to rest on shoulder, best in precision, seen as divine by the Andean tribes The armed angel adds to the popular Catholic concept that the Church came with an army and was ready to resist other religions, especially the rising Protestant movement Wings five Asiel Timor Dei divine look, add to its resemblance to elemental gods of faiths belonging to Aymara and Quechua people Context: One major source of the popular idea of the Catholic Church holding an army came from Spanish priest Francisco de Aliva studying indigenous faiths and customs in Peru, eventually insisting that Jesus would return with army of angels dressed exactly like Asiel Timor Dei 16th century was largely characterized by Martin Luther's Protestant Reformation contesting many beliefs grounded in Catholicism This lead to aggressive suppression of Protestant ideas and the eventual Counter Catholic Reformation, which aiming to solidify the ideals that Martin Luther's followers were trying to discredit Art like Angel with Arquebus was produced as a result of this aggression and tension between faiths, as the armed angel meant to signify that the Church was ready to protect its values and beliefs from those who threatened the faithful José López de los Ríos, or the Master of Calamarca, painter/ head of workshop that created Angel with Arquebus, produced many paintings like this to embody that notion that the Church would remain dominate and was ready to defend its beliefs While the Council of Trent forbade visual arts depicting any angel besides Michael, Gabriel, or Raphael, South American viceroyalties to Spain often ignored the ruling Spanish Inquisition even eventually went after the Cult of Angels

Pazzi Chapel

Basilicia di Santa Croce. Florence, Italy. Filippo Brunelleschi (architect) c. 1429-1461 C.E. Masonry Form: It is an architectural structure, making use of Pietra Serena stone (sandstone). Its masonry is the load-bearing element of this building (meaning the walls support the arches and domes, not the pillars). This is a chapel, a small building for Christian worship, usually attached to an institution or private house. In terms of size, an exact measurement is not easily accessible, but it is a relatively small area. Important to note the variety of shapes involved in this structure, squares, rectangles, triangles, circles, semicircles, etc. It's obviously a three dimensional piece. It includes fluted plasters, long walls, and a dome on pendatives, among other elements. It seems to be inspired by centrally planned architecture like that of ancient Rome. Function: The building itself has the function of a religious structure, used as the chapter house by Santa Croce friars (as seen in the benches that line the wall). In other words a meeting room for monks of Santa Croce. Now it is a true representation of early Renaissance work. Includes influence from other artists besides the architect, including Giuliano da Maiano, Luca della Robbia, Desiderio da Settignano and his brother Geri, and Alesso Baldovinetti. It was also used as a classroom for teaching monks (as well as other religious purposes) There was a place where the commissioning family could bury its dead. It could also be a social expression, as well, being that it was commissioned by a wealthy and influential family at the time the Pazzis. This would've essentially been a marking of territory in Florence. Overall, it is also the embodiment of the Pazzi family's power, wealth, and perhaps generosity. This structure carries a particular importance, as seen in how it was funded even through war with neighboring cities. Content: Includes elements that are typical of Brunelleschi like the use of pietra serena / the grayish green stone. This greyish green stone articulates the decorative elements on the walls and even the white colored walls themselves (emphasizing the perfect geometry displayed throughout). It is preceded by an atrium, an entrance hall, supported by six Corinthian columns placed next to the central arch. It is a rectangular layout containing a square room, covered by a dome, and two sides of the remaining space with a barrel vault with round windows. The wall opens on a scarsella (a small square apse or large semicircular recess in a church, arched or with a domed roof) covered by a dome decorated with a fresco painting reproducing the sky over Florence. Still discussed who contributed this, but many attribute the chapel to Michelozzo, Rossellino or Giuliano da Maiano. Has the feeling of an ancient Roman temple, as in it is close to a centrally planned space like the Pantheon. There is an attention to perfect geometry and centrality, as if the artist is trying to create a classism as well as replicate the ideals and standards of ancient Rome. There are fluted plasters (decorative pillars) on the interior and long walls. There is a hemispherical dome with an oculus in the center, with windows piercing its sides. This allows a pleasant light into the building. It looks like a dome on pendentives (a structure that allows a circular dome over a square space). In the triangular spaces of this pendentive are roundels (disks, or decorative medallions) of terracotta. Luca delorobia was the artist who contributed to this. The central dome is decorated with round sculptures and the coat of arms of Pazzi Family (two paired dolphins) made of glazed terracotta, works by Luca della Robbia. The architect wanted to create a space that wasn't exactly a basilica, for it is meant to be a chapter house not a church. But there is still a desire to work with centrally planned space. Overall it emits a feeling of order, design, perfect construction, and rationality. There is a subservience to the overall design conception. All of these elements mentioned contribute in some way to the overwhelming feeling of classism in the structure. Keep in mind, it is not exactly centrally planned - for it is more broad than long. There are also small barrel vaults on either side of this dominent central dome. Pretty much Brunelleschi wanted to turn this rectangular space into a square with a dome on top, and he does so pretty well, making it appear less rectangular and more geometrically even. Context: Brunelleschi built the Pazzi chapel as a perfect space with harmonious proportions, doing this by including in his project plan the knowledge he gained during a stay in Rome, where he focused on measuring ancient buildings like the Pantheon. It was commissioned by Andrea de' Pazzi in 1429 to the architect, but the construction continued on after the architect's death in 1446. It was never truly finished after the family suffered consequences of a conspiracy organized by some of the Pazzis with the archbishop of Pisa Francesco Salvati, against another family. Luca delorobia was the artist who contributed to the roundels, as he perfected the ability to fire at high enough temperature to vitrify modern glazes. The desire to work with centrally planned space becomes even more prevalent in the High Renaissance. Giuliano da Maiano made the frame and the door, Luca della Robbia made the relief representing Saint Andrews on the throne above the portal and the glazed terracotta rounds. The external frieze to Desiderio da Settignano and his brother Geri. Alesso Baldovinetti drew the pattern of the stained glass window with the figure of Saint Andrew.

Calling of Saint Matthew

Caravaggio. c. 1597-1601 C.E. Oil on canvas. Form: 127 inches by 130 inches Very dark with the light drawing eyes to center towards Matthew (chiaroscuro and tenebrism technique which both use shadows and dark areas to highlight sections of the painting) The style is realism and reflects the Baroque period Function: To portray the moment that Matthew became Christ's disciple Portrayed this moment in a realistic, relatable, human way (in the dark room, the look of disbelief when Christ calls Matthew) A commission for this chapel by Cardinal Matthieu Cointerel left a stipulation in his will that he wanted the chapel to be decorated with paintings of Matthew (who he shared a name with) This painting was one of three of Saint Matthew he did for the chapel The fact that Matthew began as a sinful, greedy tax collector is also meant to inspire hope in the viewer that they too can reach salvation through faith Content: This painting depicts the conversion of Levi into Matthew, a gospel of the Lord (Matthew 9:9) Jesus (figure on the right with his arm extended) is shown entering the room and pointing at Matthew (the bearded man with the black hat pointing to himself) He says "Follow me."- saving Matthew from his life of greed and calling upon him to become one of his disciples The light follows his gaze and point, suggests his divinity along with his halo His hand is painted in an imitation of Adam's in Michelangelo's The Creation of Adam Jesus is sometimes referred to as the second Adam because he too is a creation of God, his second son This hand bridges the gap between Christ and Peter (the divine) with the tax collectors (the human and mundane) Matthew was a tax collector and is depicted around a table counting money with other men The scene is rather shady- some illegal business seems to be going on in a rather grimy, dark backroom with gruff looking, overdressed men (contemporary clothing- the time of Caravaggio, not biblical times), one even has a sword A strong contrast between the tax collectors' clothing and the humble garb of Jesus and Peter who are both barefoot He is pointing to himself, almost in disbelief as if he is saying "Me?" like he can not believe that Christ is looking for him A stark juxtaposition between the disbelief and uncertainty of Levi (Matthew) with the divine call and strength from Christ Peter (a disciple of Jesus) is shown in front of Jesus also pointing towards Matthew and the group of men Various theories as to why this is, one of which is that in order to reach Christ, we must first go through the church, represented by St. Peter Aside from Jesus and Peter, there are five men, two of whom seem rather young and out of place, another who is hunched over still counting the money, almost unfazed that Christ just walked into the room The window pane is also in the shape of a cross, acting as yet another religious symbol Context: Was one of three paintings of Saint Matthew that Caravaggio was commissioned to make in this chapel by Cardinal Matthieu Cointerel His patron Cardinal del Monte helped secure this commission for him which was his first big public work Made during the Counter Reformation, which was a response to the Protestant Reformation, where the church emphasized martyrdom and commissioned various paintings in an attempt to regain church followers This painting was rather controversial when it was first made due to its unique style and setting- not a divine background or Heaven that Christ is usually portrayed in

Chartes Cathedral

Chartes, France. Gothic Europe. Original construction c. 1145-1155 C.E; reconstructed c. 1194-1220 C.E. Limestone, stained glass. Context Druidic temple? Debatable Christian space: used for Christian worship since around 200 CE Chartres has always been associated w virgin mary The tunic of Mary made the church a popular pilgrimage site Tunic survives a fire so the people of the town rebuild the church so that it would be as grand Form Latin cross with three aisles, a short transept, and an ambulatory High nave is supported by double flying buttresses Increased space for stained glass windows Typically Gothic elements, intends to move the eye upward Radiating chapels were integrated into the larger area of the church Cruciform basilica plan, good for the flow of people Content "heaven on Earth" Gothic cathedral Focus on airy, open spaces; thinner walls, and geometry Perfect proportions of geometry to bring balance, harmony, and beauty of the world that God had created Relief figures that are carved into either side of the portals, Old Testament figures represent gatekeepers: Gothic emphasis on stained glass large windows One has the Virgin Mary with her son, Jesus, above her four thrones with angels and the Kings of Judea, (Mary's ancestors) and finally several minor prophets surrounding the rest of the program. Function Pilgrimage site Religious Facilitates easy flow of large numbers of people Pilgrimages to ensure their place in heaven.

Screen with the Siege of Belgrade and hunting scene.

Circle of the Gonzalez Family. c. 1697-1701 C.E. Tempera and resin on wood, shell inlay. biombo enconchado is only work to combine two mex genres of biombos (folding screen) and enconchados (shell inlay)commissioned by viceroy of new spaindivided ceremonial room w sitting roomoriginally had 6 additional panels but now are in mexicoCIRCLE OF GONZALEZ FAMILY (MEX), Folding Screen with the siege of Belgrade (front) and Hunting scene (reverse) 1697. oil on wood, inlaid w mother of pearl Function- -show alliance with spain -show class and worldliness because Japanese inspired -divides room -comisioned by Viceroy Jose Sarmiento de Valla da res

Church of Sainte-Foy

Conques, France. Romanesque Europe. Church: c. 1050-1130 C.E.; Reliquary of Saint Foy: ninth century C.E., with later additions. Stone (architecture); stone and paint (tympanum); gold, silver, gemstones, and enamel over wood (reliquary). Form: Romanesque pilgrimage church, and the reliquary: a container holding the remains of a saint or holy person The main feature of these churches was its cruciform plan. Looks like a cross, symbolically commemorating Christ's sacrifice. Also helped control the crowds of pilgrims, enter in the west, circle around to the east. The apse usually contained smaller chapels, known as radiating chapels, where pilgrims could visit saint's shrines, especially the sanctuary of Saint Foy. Pilgrims traveled around radiating chapels, paying homage to saints' shrines. Semi circular relief carvings on the outside. The reliquary was a gold and gem encrusted statue, containing and representing Saint Foy. Function: Has a religious function, a place of worship and pilgrimage, hosts pilgrims on their journey to Santiago de Compostela in Spain. It is also an abbey, a part of a monastary where monks worked, prayed, and lived. Visitors would be blessed, demonstrate their piety, and to be saved on Judgment day. Places like these would inspire Christians into behaving in a holy manner that would ultimately lead them to Heaven. There was a lot of misuse of church offices at the time amoung clergymen, elements like the carvings that you'll see speak to the misuse of church offices. Indeed, this portal was not only a warning for pilgrims, but for the clergy as well. Generally to respect Christ and honor his sacrifice on the cross for mankind's salvation. Content: Barrel-vaulted nave, with arches on the interior, the central part of the church building, meant to accommodate most of the congregation. Apse, the typically large semicircular or polygonal recess in a church, with a domed roof, usually containing the altar. Side aisles on either side. 5 radiating chapels surround the apse (in a semi-circle). A cruciform outlined church. Elaborately carved relief carving on the South end of the Last Judgment. Before people would go inside to receive blessings, an important message of the Last Judgment is shown. This scene is depicted on the tympanum, the central semi-circular relief carving above the central portal. In the center sits Christ. He is depicted as in power, the one true Judge. He sits enthroned with his right hand pointing upwards to the saved while his left hand gestures down to the damned. Reminds people of the joys of heaven and torments of hell. Mary, Peter and possibly the founder of the monastery as well as an entourage of other saints are on the right of him. Below the saints on Christ's Right is an arcade (a covered passageway with arches along one or both sides) covered by a pediment, symbolizing the House of Paradise. Houses those who are saved; people who will live with Christ forever. Abraham is seated at the center. Above Abraham, the Hand of God reaches out to a kneeling Sainte Foy (Saint Faith) On the pediment's opposite side, angels open and release souls from their graves to be judged by God. A large doorway is shown leading to paradise, and a gaping mouth is shown leading to hell. Clear divide in faith is depicted on Judgment day Pediment of the Lower register of Hell has the Devil sitting in the center,smiling and surrounded by tortured souls. Feelings of pain, chaos, and cruelty all surround him. They all represent capital sin, adultery, gluttony, arrogance, misuse of church offices. Devil sits enthroned like Christ: as he has the power to judge/punish the damned. On the left of the devil is a hanged man, representing Judas. He hanged himself after he betrayed Christ. As mentioned before, the reliquary is a container holding the remains of Saint Foy, a martyr. It is golden and gem encrusted, very expensive. Those on pilgrimage would bring gems of their own to contribute. Context: Other small churches stood on sight from the 7th century. A church had stood on the spot since the 600s; the Church of Sainte-Foy was built from 1050-1130. It's an important pilgrimage church on the route to Santiago de Compostela in Northern Spain. Many churches on the pilgrimage route had a similar or identical layout. Pilgrims went to receive a blessing; their visitation = demonstration of piety The reliquary: Originally displayed in a monastery in Agen. First mentioned in written history in 1010 by Bernard of Angers, worried it would inspire idolatry because of its expensiveness. The monks at Conques stole it to draw visitors, it contained the bones of a beloved martyr. Sainte Foy, a 12-year-old French, Christian convert lived in Southern France under the Roman Empire. She was killed for refusing to worship pagan gods, making her seen as a martyr. Pilgrims would bring gems to be added to the reliquary as symbols of their piety. Includes agates, amethysts, crystals, carnelians, emeralds, and many others... The Reliquary brought/brings a great number of pilgrims or tourists. Perhaps the purpose of wanting to attract more people was to build up Conques' commerce and economy...

Hagia Sophia

Constantinople (Istanbul). Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus. 532-537 C.E. Brick and ceramic elements with stone and mosaic veneer. Form: - Two floors centered on a giant nave with domed ceiling, as well as smaller domes - Centrally planned Basilica Function: -Cathedral -Religious function -Mosque - 1453 -Museum - est. 1934 Content: - Longitudinal and Centrally planned Basilica - The dome is on top of a square this is called pendentive - Two half domes come from that square -- Four Minarets, pencil minarets, the place from which Muslims would be called to prayer when Hagia Sophia was a mosque - The Sultan's Lodge. The private and elevated balcony from which the Sultan would worship. It was secluded because only certain people were allowed to talk to and interact with the Sultan. - Mihrab. It's off center because it faces and orients itself towards Mecca, but the original church was oriented in a different direction. - Arabic Calligraphy. The highest form of Islamic art takes years of training Context: - Hagia Sophia, Istanbul formerly Constantinople, Rome - Commissioned by Constantine. Showcased power of Roman emperor. He had power within the church as well - Hagia Sophia as it is today is the third version of the building because the first two were burned down during riots. Put people to work. - Aren't any images or large mosaics of biblical scenes because of the period of Iconoclasm or opposition to images of God and Jesus. Destruction. - Arabic calligraphy, the other reason that there are no biblical images in Hagia Sophia is because it was turned into a mosque after the sack of Constantinople. In mosques, the only form of art is Arabic calligraphy from the Qu'ran and geometric patterns, and so any imagery in Hagia Sophia was destroyed when it was converted into a mosque.'

Great Mosque

Cordoba, Spain. Umayyad. c. 785-786 C.E Stone masonry. Form Mosque - place of Islamic worship 620x460 feet Function Religious Demonstrates the presence of the Umayyads in Cordoba. Built this mosque on the site of a christian church. States that Islam in the region is existing and prevalent. The power of the new rulers emphaiszed. Represents a fusion of cultures & religions All islamic design elements. Content Large hypostyle prayer hall hypostyle = filled w/ columns, endless rows of identical columns and arches made voussoirs = stone wedges that make up the arch Interior space magnified by repeated geometry MONUMENTAL, AWE INSPIRING Mecca = birthplace of islam (in modern-day saudi arabia) Golden tesserae form bands of calligraphy, a focal point Particularly in this mosque Framed by an exquisitely decorated arch >> the famous horseshoe arch Visigoths = the people that ruled this area after the roman empire collapsed & before the umayyads arrived Ribbed dome, above the mihrab / central bay Intricate composition of criss-crossing arches demonstrates the mathematical & architectural accomplishments. minaret = tower used to call the faithful to prayer Repeating elements establish a steady rhythm, repetition suggests the same kind of repetition in prayer Context Demonstration of multi-cultural influence on their art Ancient roman columns in hypostyle prayer hall were recycled from the original christian church on site Horseshoe arches of the roman & visigoth architectural style The building was expanded over 200 years (even after becoming a mosque) Began as roman temple, converted to a church by visigoths -then a mosqueC Rulers built mosques & palaces through the islamic empire to demonstrate dynasty authority & the increasing power of the islamic faith

Ecstasy of Saint Teresa

Cornaro Chapel, Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria. Rome, Italy. Gian Lorenzo Bernini. c. 1647-1652 C.E. Marble (sculpture); stucco and gilt bronze (chapel). Form Sculpted marble High relief life sized statue There is a fresco on the ceiling Bronze behind the statues The statue looks like it's floating Function To inspire faith into the viewer To tell the story of Teresa Content Saint Terasa was a recently canonized saint who in this piece is seeing a vision of an angel The story is that the angel appeared to her and stabbed her several times taking a piece of her when he pulled back the spear She was then filled with both incredible pain and the love of god The angel is angelic and flowing Teresa is more grounded and of the earth Around the statue the Cornaro family is seen looking down at the scene from nose bleed like seats The fresco shows a dove surrounded by light which represents the holy spirit Context Bernini used both his deep religious faith and love of theater to make this In the Cornaro Chapel Teresa was canonized in 1622 Bernini was commissioned by cardinal Frederico Cornaro

Las Meninas

Diego Velazquez. c. 1656 C.E. Oil on canvas. Form: An immense painting, with a large number of details, figures, and objects depicted. Use of space is present in the painting, with a foreground and background. The foreground is bright and well lit, with the most color of the piece appearing in the Infanta who is positioned at the bottom center of the painting, and who is clearly the center of the piece's attention. Aside from the girls, the background is mostly dull and unlit, with the exception of a door in the background with light coming in and a man looking into the room in which the artist, the Infanta and her attendants are. Lighting sourced from different areas of the painting, both from the door, and from some imagined place in front of the girls and the painter. The work is very lively, each figure seems to be in the middle of a clear action. The work is also very clearly a portrait of the various figures. The Infanta is the most important figure, above the others. Function: The work is for the personal pleasure of the King and his guests. Philip was a collector and patron of European art, and tasked Velázquez in both creating artworks for him, and with helping the King in other tasks related to the management of art. The work was originally meant to be put up in the King's personal palace, not unlike the paintings shown in the background of the work. Content: The work depicts a significant number of people. First and most importantly, the Infanta Margarita Teresa, the King's daughter. Beside the Infanta are her two girl assistants. To the right of the three girls are two dwarves, and below the dwarves there is a Mastiff. To the left of the girls is the painter, Velázquez himself who looks ahead towards the viewer. To the upper right of the girls are a couple of people, who are also attendants to the Infanta. In the far background, a mirror shows the King and his wife. Also, from behind the door in the background is the chamberlain Jose Nieto. Many aspects of the painting, such as what is ahead of the foreground, are debated. Velázquez is shown painting on another canvas, and the King & Queen are shown in the mirror, so the perspective may be from the royal couple. The Infanta and her attendants are clearly moving about doing something, and the dwarves are clearly agitating the Mastiff. Velázquez is also clearly painting something out of view as well, as he holds his tools on hand. Iconography can be more difficult to determine, and is more unclear. While the Infanta is given the clearest attention, there is not clear symbolism of her presence in the painting. She is portrayed as very important and noble. Context: The work was created by Velázquez for the King of Spain at the time, Philip IV. Philip can be seen in the painting as a reflection in the mirror in the background. Velázquez had been working as the court painter for Spain for quite some time at the time he had painted the work. The work was probably seen by the more important figures in Spain at the time. The nobility, the rich, friends of the King. It is unlikely that any common person would have the joy of seeing the painting around the time it was finished, as it was held privately in the palace. The work was probably produced where the painting was set, in a chamber of the King's palace, meant for the holding and making of artworks. The work is considered to be a masterpiece, and one of the most complex and loved works of art in European & Hispanic history.

David

Donatello. c. 1440-1460 C.E. Bronze. Form Donatello's "David" is a 5 ft. bronze sculpture The bronze surface is highly polished and the blue/black shine over David's body stands out The finished texture emphasizes smooth skin and provides contrast with his curly hair, and rough boots The figure has a realistic form because of its nakedness and the obvious muscle. The choice of bronze, the nudity, and the pose all put this work in the context of this classicalantique. antiquity Function Patronage is a factor, this sculpture was made to represent David as a symbol for the Republic of Florence, Italy (which like the Old Testament youth stood up to its rivals) and also a great role model for independence. Specifically, Florence had been set upon Milan and other rivals and withstood, similar to David overcoming Goliath the larger adversary. This figure is important because it's Donatello's most famous work, it was the first major work of Renaissance sculpture, and it is the first freestanding nude sculpture (since the ancient times) for about a thousand years. The people during this time started to celebrate body and humanism. Their mindsets were,"God made it so we should show it off." Content This sculpture represents the story of David and Goliath. David was a shepherd boy who herdedhurdled the sheep and was favored by God. He was challenged to fight Goliath, and David ended up being victorious, because he is seen casually resting his foot on Goliath's head with a sword in his right hand. David's pose can easily be represented as effortless, and feminine. Since David is not entirely naked, the main focus is drawn to his hat and boots. The hat adds to David's beauty by the adolescent body, and the flower detail on the hat represents a "homosexual subculture" during fifteenth-century Florence. And the boots are represented as the "manly" features for David, because he's standing on Goliath's head. A useful interpretation has been to place the statue in the context of fifteenth century notions of male identity. There is a separation between David's graceful pose and the beauty of his facial expression and the gruesomeness of the decapitated head of Goliath below his feet. For the viewer, it's hard to imagine this young man, who had been engaged in mortal combat and cut off the head of Goliath. Context The time period of this artwork is sometime during the 1430s - 1460s Italy, in the fifteenth century, (Florence) above all is the seat of an artistic, humanistic, technological, and scientific time period known as the Renaissance.

Rebecca and Eliezer at the Well and Jacob Wrestling the Angel, from the Vienna Genesis.

Early Byzantine Europe. 6th Century C.E. Illuminated manuscript. Form: - Byzantine - Continuous narrative - Pages are animal skin pages - Made by hand- with silver text and died a deep royal purple. - Manuscript of the first book of the bible - Preserves some of the earliest illustrations of bible stories Function: - Depict the first book of the bible - Not sure who would have been reading this book o Probably a royal individual's - Illuminated manuscripts not only aimed to depict stories of the bible but be a symbol of the owner's piety Content: - Realistic but also abstract - written in greek Jacob Wrestling the Angles - Story Jacob has to fight with an angel. Jacobs name becomes Israel. The importance of this story is the renaming of Jacob. - There is an attempt to display a transition within a single image - Calls back to the Romanesque (frieze elements, roman colonnade, etc. - Typical of Byzantine art is the skewed perspective, etc. Rebecca and Eliezer at the Well - Abraham wants wife to have son, sends Eliezer to find one for him. On the journey, Eliezer is in need of help which Rebecca does. -Rebecca is shown twice, getting water and helping Eliezer at the well. Recall artwork from ancient Greece and Rome. Rebecca walks by a row of columns that recall the details of classical architecture. - Some of Eliezer's camels are shaded to emphasize that some are in the front and others in the back. Details show a spatial relationship. - Divine intervention Context: Byzantine (330-726 BCE) - The capital is moved to Constantinople - Christianity the official religion! - Church backs the authority of the emperor - Iconoclast controversy (726-843) - Destroyed all art with icon, as it was sinful.

Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George

Early Byzantine Europe. Sixth or early seventh century C.E. Encaustic on wood. Form: 2' 3" x 1' 7 3/8" Encaustic icon painting encaustic = a painting technique that uses wax as a medium to carry the color (definition from Khan Academy) Uses gold leaf Function: Functions as a private, devotional object Inspires the pious and help them express their veneration for God. To enhance the spirituality of others. Content: Features "the Virgin", "the Christ child", Saint Theodore, Saint George, two angels, God St. Theodore is on the left & St. George is on the right. The Virgin on positioned at the front of the frame. They stare motionless and feet lifted slightly off the ground (their only mark of divinity) The Virgin:in the center, seated on a throne (elevated) Does not make eye contact with the viewer Highlighted by light (Heaven, connection to God) The Christ child: in the Virgin's lap, not making eye-contact with viewer. The Angels: above and between, looking directly upwards to the hand of God. Dressed in all white & have slightly transparent halos God: represented by hand emerging from the center of the top of the. Power/guidance is seen through the light emanating from the hand. "Hierarchy of Bodies", moving eyes upwards and inwards, the positioning of these figures represents the path of holiness between the humans and God. The architecture at the top of the painting helps close off and protect the holy scene, makes use of spatial ambiguity to make the piece feel otherworldly and divine Context: a transitional piece The height of Byzantine Christianity, classical antiquity Greek/Roman aesthetic and the emerging Byzantine aesthetic. Greek/Roman Traits, modeling, espeically in the faces. The shadows and naturalistic features. Movement, the Virgin is turned slightly at her hips and a a trace of dynamism pose representative of resting state. The angel have their necks arched upwards Constantinople was restoring and creating dozens of churches, artistic flourishment Art a part of daily life, private devotional items became more popular

Lindisfarne Gospels: St. Matthew, cross-carpet page; St. Luke portrait page; St Luke incipit page

Early medieval (Hiberno Saxon) Europe. c. 700 C.E illuminated manuscript (ink, pigments, and gold on vellum). Form Parchment Ink made from vegetables, animals, and mineral pigments both local and imported St. Matthew page has endless colorful spirals. All use positive space of the page. St Luke is also brightly colored, there is text in a complex design. St. Luke portrait, has purple robes and a halo Function Tells the gospel of Mark, Luke, John, and Matthew Religious function. Content St. Matthews, the spirals are actually snakes -A cross is outlined in red, prioritizes Christ. St. Luke, letters with animals (snakes). Blue spirals. St. Luke portrait, the robe is reminiscent of late Roman philosophers. Halo- divinity as he transcribes his gospel. The cow flying above him is from a popular tale in the gospel* Luke represented as the ox, sacrifice Matthew the man, human aspect of Jesus Mark the lion, triumph of christ John as the eagle, the second coming Context The book was rewritten from an italian book around 500-900 ce The isles that it was made on during this time suffered from invasions This books was found in a small chritsan community in the isles of the UK

Merovingian looped fibulae

Early medieval Europe. Mid-sixth century C.E. Silver gilt worked in filigree, with inlays of garnets and other stones. Form: Function: -a brooch or a pin for fastening clothing (safety pin) -expensive objects to the commission: the owners wanted these objects to resonate with their identity -buried with the dead: showed their status and who they were as people Content: General of Fibulae: -consist of a body, a pin, and a catch -Usually with elaborate designs Specific (Merovingian): -Material: silver gilt-worked in filigree with inlaid garnet and other stones -decorated with garnets, amethyst, and colored glass -a great example of barbarian metalwork and cloisonné -cloisonné: technique is inlaid semi-precious stones (popular in barbarian art) -Ends of fibulae: the shape of Eagle heads -Garnets: used to decorate the eyes of the eagles -the main body of the brooch: little fish -Gems and semi-precious stones: used to decorate the rest of the fibulae -Pendants could have been hung from the small loops on the bottom on each fibulae Context: General of Fibulae: -Fibulae: are brooches (safety pins) that were made popular by Roman military campaigns -Cultural exchanges occurred after antiquity and both groups (barbarians and Romans) copied and shared similar works -Barbarian: non-Roman, nomadic, and illiterate groups traveling throughout Europe during the middle ages -Became very popular in the early Middle Ages and commonly found in barbarian grave sites -Gives the cultural information about barbarians (little-written documents) -Found through many different ethnics groups and with trade/ expose had influences of the styles of one another -All serve the same function purpose: because of different cultures/ time periods decorated differently -Similar cultures tend to have similar artist designs while diverse cultures didn't -Shows that distinct cultures living within larger empires and kingdoms (very common during the Middle Ages) Specific (Merovingian): - a popular motif in barbarian art of the middle ages: EAGLES (found on the work) -Eagles (originally pagan symbol of the sun) used by Imperial Rome and an emblem to Saint John -the way these were made: solder wires onto a metal base and fill the areas those wires created with stone MORE INFORMATION AND CONTEXT: Byzantine Fibula (430) Most popular style: crossbow fibula because of its resemblance to the weapon Pierced openwork: The detailed incising on the body Christian cross amongst a circular leaf motif Simple design (Byzantine/ Roman) Lombardic Fibula (mid-6th century) -stylized variation of the crossbow fibula (remember diverse ethics groups all had their own spin to their fibulas!) -Material: gilded and inlaid with niello = a black metal alloy -Lombardic fibulae: incisions are hatched lines (popular decoration technique) -Historical Context: Although they conquered Byzantine land, they were overthrown by Charlemagne (king of the Franks) Therefore with this context over the centuries, they assimilated into Roman Culture and adopted Catholicism -Shows the adoption of crossbow fibula style (Roman) with their own twist (so even though they left off a lot their own culture behind/ legal producers still have some part of their roots)

Mosque of Selim II.

Edirne, Turkey. Sinan (architect). 1568-1575 C.E. Brick and stone. Content: The mosque, with two madrasas on its southeast and southwest, is located within a courtyard (190 m x 130 m) Mosque:measures 190 x 130 meters two symmetrical square madrasas (served as a college for studying traditions of Muhammad)Square prayer hall: approached through porticoed courtyardApproach to north facade of mosque is overwhelming— aligned gates of outer precinct wall, focus eye towards dome which can be seen from a distance The ethereal dome: weightless and floating in prayer hall, architectural features are inferior to the grand domeThe grand dome rests on eight muqarnas-corbelled squinches supported by eight large piersMuquarnas are faceted decorative forms, protrude and recess- they bridge a point of transitionThey allow the round base of the dome to join the octagon formed by the piers.Buttresses support the east and west piers— hold up the weight of the massive domeButtresses are artfully hidden among exterior porticos and galleries (those that fill the spaces in between walls and piers)The Qibla: wall that faces Mecca, projects outward emphasizing openness of interior spaceMuzzin's platform (leader of prayers to chant congregation): placement under the center of the dome is not traditional— reflects Sinan's interest in surpassing Christian architecture— position of platform also creates a vertical alignment of octagon, square, circleInterior decoration: repainted, polychrome, Iznik tiles, Ottoman decoration, motifs iconography saz leaves and Chinese cloudsMuquarnas: ornamented vaulting, geometric subdivision of a squinch.Squinches: Construction filling in upper angles of a square room, to form a base to receive an octagonal or spherical dome.Pier: upright support for a structure or superstructure such as an arch, sections of structural walls between openings can function as piers. Additions: Shops (arasta) and recitation school to the west of courtyard— added by David Aga Summarized Information: Thin soaring minarets Abundant window space for well lit interior Decorative display of mosaic and tile work Centrally planned building Open airy interior contrasts with conventional mosques Includes a hospital, school, library Sinan was chief court architect for Suleyman the Magnificent Transitions from square ground plan to round dome achieved by inserting smaller domes in corners Huge piers support the dome Context: Completed in Edirne, rather than capital Istanbul Edirne was where Selim was stationed as a prince when his father campaigned in Persia in 1548 Edirne located in the Balkans, had historical and geographical significant for its history as a capital of the Ottoman Empire before Istanbul and was the second city of the Empire Edirne was first major city that traveling Europeans would pass in the Ottoman Empire. Selim built this mosque there to exemplify Ottoman Empire's greatness. Mosque also was able to dominate the domestic landscape of Edirne, making it the defining place of the city. Son of Suleyman the Magnificent Form: Stone, brick, marble Function: An example of Ottoman Empire's wealth and greatness, along with its power and vastness (along a popular tourist passing through place, showed tourists of its dominance) Mosque— displays differences between Islam and Christianity The mosque represents Islam's triumph. It also was an attempt to surpass the Hagia Sophia and the Byzantine Basilica in Istanbul.

Palazzo Rucellai

Florence, Italy. Leon Battista Alberti (architect). c. 1450 C.E. Stone, masonry. Form: The facade Leon created has 3 tiers overall The building has small engravings in between the different layers of the facade The building actually has a hidden 4th floor which is where the servants lived(Designed to not be seen) Each floor had a dedicated purpose 1st floor was for the families business 2nd floor was for guests 3rd floor was for the families actual living quarters Function: It was designed as a home for the Rucellai family Represents the family's wealth, power, status etc. It also gave them a place for business, to house their servants and to house guests Content: Family seal which depicts a sail Rectangular windows and as you go up the windows get rounder Lightness as you move from the bottom to the top of the building Surrounded by benches Large blocks of stone are seen near the bottom of the building Entirely straight lines Pilaster (Flattened Columns) are seen at the bottom of the building Context: The building was built after the Medici's built their house and some of that can be seen in the two buildings Giovanni Di Paolo Rucellai commissioned the building, he had also commissioned several other works and was a very big patron of the arts Rucellai and Leon did use more Ancient Greek and Roman styles when they built his house however Alberti took influence from the Colosseum when he visited Rome in the 1430s. He used a lot of similar elements mainly for design and not actual support. The columns don't do anything for the facade they are there for style The Rucellai family was a family of merchants who had commissioned several pieces. This building was to be their house They family had intended the building to be bigger than it was but they couldn't purchase the nearby building so the plans were never completed He wanted to build a house for his family that displayed how powerful and wealthy he was The building was created in 1450

Madonna and Child with Two Angels

Fra Filippo Lippi. c. 1465 C.E. Tempera on wood. Form One of Fra Fillippo Lippi's most famous works is, Madonna and Child with Two Angels, which is a tempera on wood painting. Madonna is the main focus, due to her size difference in contrast to the two angels. The two angels look like they are farther back and not as much in the light of the painting compared to Madonna. This style used in this painting has a very humanistic look to it, by the use of soft and earthy tones to emphasize the humanism of the characters. This painting stands out because compared to other Madonna and Child paintings, this one is the most realistic, depicting Mary as a real looking woman. Lippi chose to make his characters in this painting look very realistic and he meant to make godly people seem relatable, this is why the angels look like children, and Mary's halo was painted very faintly in a thin white line, and is only visible after examining the painting much more closely. The landscape in the background adds onto the natural aesthetic of the painting itself, which helps to reflect the renaissance humanism that people at this time craved, (they wanted to celebrate body and humanism). Function Patronage is a factor, Lippi produced this artwork for the Medici family. They wanted a piece to show a religious background, along with constantly being reminded of Jesus Christ every time they would look at this painting. So in order to accommodate these requests, Mary has her hands together to represent prayer, and the two angels have wings. Lippi wanted a humanist representation of Mary to show the audience a more authentic look on such angelic people. This artworks function is to remind the viewer of the story behind the virgin Mary, and Christ. Content Fra Fillippo Lippi's wife was used as a model for Mary in this painting, and she is represented as a very beautiful woman with delicate features. The angels look very playful, one of the angels is posed smiling at the viewer. The other is in the background with one side of his face showing, the other is blocked by Jesus. Both angels are seen supporting baby Jesus with their hands. Every figure in this artwork has blonde hair symbolizing youth and innocence. The frame of the picture behind Mary aligns to the painting itself, and helps to add onto the realistic aspect of what Lippi was trying to portray. Context The time period of this artwork is sometime during 1460 - 1465 Lippi was a painter, in Florence, during the second generation of Renaissance artists, when he painted this artwork.

Dedication Page with Blanche of Castle and King Louis IX of France, Scenes from the Apocalypse from Bibles moralisees.

Gothic Europe. c. 1225-1245 C.E. Illuminated manuscript (ink, tempera, and gold leaf on vellum). Form: Gold leaf, ink, and vellum, animal skin. Figures portrayed Queen Blanche of Castile, and her young son next in line for the throne, King Louis IX. Function: The piece was made as an illustration for carefully chosen scriptures to put into the Moralized Bible. Religious function Content: The queen in royal attire, a white widow's veil to symbolize the loss of her husband. The king similar, holds a coin. Queen and son share a gaze. Below the royalty are two scribes. The queen had lost her husband and was left to tend to the next king in line herself. As the current leader and mother of the next king, it was her job to provide scholars and tutors to teach her son about different biblical texts and lessons just as every other king was required to learn, hence why she's depicted in a pose that shows how she's teaching him. Context: As mentioned before, with only the queen around to make sure the king has the best possible influence in order to rule, he was to be taught biblical texts, and one of the best possible ways to get the most important scriptures necessary for his lessons was to write a completely separate bible, of course leading to the Moralized Bible.

Alhambra

Granada, Spain. Nasrid Dynasty. 1354-1391 C.E. Whitewashed adobe stucco, wood, tile, paint, and gilding. Form: Every single space covered with decorationExtensive use of rhombus geometric forms and calligraphyMost of the interior arches are false arches, with no structure; they are there only to decorate.Built on a hill overlooking the city of GranadaWalls are covered with beautiful and extremely rich ceramics and plasterwork.Walls include intricately carved wooden frames"muqarnas" hold up ceiling in Hall of Kingsmocarabe vault can be seen in Hall of the two sisters Function: 3 Purposes Citadel, Barracks (alcazaba Residencepalace of the Nasrid sultans Medina (the city) Connected by pathways and gardens, all of which could be blocked off Content: Contains palaces, gardens, water pools, fountains, and courtyards Three Palaces Comares Palace arched grill allows in light walls covered with inlaid tile in geometric patterns Salón de Comares hall of the ambassadors the Palace of the Lions separate building that was connected later arched covered patio encircles the marble fountain at the center contained residential halls with star motifs the Partal Palace known as the portico because of its portico in the center of an arcade and at the edge of a pool Generalife from the Arabic, Jannat al-arifa means paradise, garden vegetable and ornamental elements contribute to the paradise of the garden Context: Alhambra is an abbreviation of Qal'at al-Hamra meaning red fort. Built by the Nasrid Dynasty (1232-1492) the last Muslims to rule in Spain. Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Nasr (aka Muhammad I) founded the Nasrid Dynasty in 1237 Palace of the Lions built by Muhammed V Exterior-Interior relationship Important transition seamlessly from shaded patios and covered walkways from well-lit interior spaces to courtyards and gardens Ornamental elements reflection of water intricately carved stucco decoration. Beautiful, detailed, and careful attention to detail

Entombment of Christ

Jacopo da Pontormo. 1525-1528 C.E. Oil on wood. Form: Altar painting in a personal chapel room inside of a church Painted oil on wood Lacks linear or atmospheric perspective Anatomically incorrect, Christ torso huge The people do not seem to be weighed down normally, gives elegance to the painting Utilizes mannerist style as it moves away from Renaissance tendencies Elaborate distortion of bodies instead of then being anatomically correct Renaissance paintings accentuates nature/naturalism, while this painting seems self focused Theatrical lighting 123 inches tall, 76 inches wide The subject is disputed among art historians, as to whether this is Christ coming down from the Cross or going into the tomb Christ is held limply by two men, one on left thought to be Saint John the Evangelist All other mourners are women draped in swirling blue and pink cloth, including Mary Magdalen Function: Patron was Girolamo Vittrice, wanted it by Pontormo for his family Chapel within church in Florence Acts as main altarpiece Summons grief over Christ's sacrifice, but also encourages the magnitude of the moment Piece challenges naturalism of Renaissance works Some historians believe the work was connected to the Chapel itself; meant to show Christ being laid to rest in Capponi Chapel Contrasts religious iconography with human suffering at the supposed moment of Christ's death Content: Mary displays "Swooning Virgin" expression Circular composition, no where for one's eyes to really stop and test on Could be implying endless grief Center of piece is a woman's handkerchief and Christ's hand being held up by others Hands could be symbolizing the sacrifice Christ's death was thought to be, gifting humanity the ability to ask God for forgiveness with his death Constant movement of the individuals also plays to the restlessness of the piece, eye cannot rest Exclusion of context clues, like tomb/slab or cross/ladder leaves the actual moment up to interpretation Debated topic of what stage of Christ's sacrifice this was Context: Protestant Reformation in Northern Europe began, Martin Luther popularizing the questioning of transubstantiation, good works, indulgences (1517) The Florentine Republic shaken but reinstated, eventually ends as Medici family takes control and becomes Dukes of Florence Associated with rise of Mannerism and artistic fading of Renaissance naturalism Artificially emphasized, art becomes its on source of meaning and extravagance instead of nature More ambiguous depictions of already created scenes Emotion takes over rationality, exaggerated to the point of contrivance

The Arnolfini Portrait

Jan van Eyck. c. 1434 C.E. Oil on wood Form: More tall than wide, focused on a couple in the center which takes up most of the space of the painting. The point of view and dimensions of the room are confusing. Lighting, coming from the window in the painting and illuminating the room. All aspects of the painting are given remarkable attention. Mixture of light and dark shading, dull and bright, the color of the room itself is dull in comparison to the couple and their expensive furniture. Function: Function still uncertain. Van Eyck hired to create the work. The event represented in the work could be many things, among them a marriage, or an already married couple posing for a portrait, The work displays the wealthiness of the couple, both in their clothing and in the objects that make up the room. Content: Giovanni di Nicolao di Arnolfini, and the woman is his wife or wife-to-be? Decorated room. Dog in the room, beneath the couple. Context: Jan van Eyck painted the work, he is considered one of the greatest dutch painters. In his time he was successful, as evidenced by the vast number of works commissioned from him. This work was created during the Northern Renaissance period, which saw a development of detail in paintings. Much of van Eyck's work contains christian religious symbolism. It is one of the most important european paintings ever made, notable for its complexities and perspective.

Woman Holding a Balance

Johannes Vermeer. c. 1664 C.E. Oil on canvas. Form: The painting depicts a young woman with a very peaceful expression delicately holding a balance in her hand that appears to be evenly balanced. Behind her is a painting of The Last Judgement, and to her left on the wall is a small square mirror. She's hovering over a table with pearls and other jewelry spilling from a box and onto the surface. There's a crumpled mound of fabric on the table as well, the same color as her jacket. The colors are mostly dark aside from the trickle of light coming in from the window to illuminate the room, Function: It's believed that the painting is intended to bring peace to the viewer. The painting in the background shows the struggles of Christ, showing that the woman has some religious weight on her shoulder. The addition of the jewelry on the table seems to represent either wealth and/or just material possessions. She seems to be at peace in a way where she must've found some balance between the two, hence the pleased look on her face as she's looking at her balance. Content: The woman in the picture is staring at a balance in her hand; this, as well the other objects in the room, could hint at her state of mind. Context: Johannes Vermeer was a painter who never quite got much recognition for his artwork and for a while after his death, his work almost went forgotten. He only dated three of his paintings, and every other one had an estimated date as a result, including Woman Holding a Balance. Around the time this painting was made, artists were straying away from strictly painting with religious themes and more for providing paintings to the merchant class, so this painting was likely made with that same intent.

Spaniard and Indian Produce a Mestizo

Juan Rodríguez Juárez. c. 1715 C.E. Oil on canvas. Content: -simple composition (arrangement of visual elements in a picture) -Spanish father and Indigenous mother with their son -mother and father surrounding two children: a young boy is carrying the couples baby *NOTE THE YOUNG BOY (NOT BABY) IS NOT THEIR CHILD -Modeled off the Holy Family: Virgin Mary, Saint Joseph, and Christ as a child (interpretation) -The indigenous mother: dressed in huipil (traditional woman's garment worn by indigenous women from central Mexico and Central America), lace sleeves, and expensive jewelry -turns and looks at husbands as she gesture towards child -husband (Spaniard father): -wears French-style European clothing, powdered wig -gazes down at the children, hand resting on the child's back or wife's arm -the young servant looks upwards to the father (not his father): allude to his greatness -The family appears calm, harmonious, loving Context: -mestizo: (a person of a European and indigenous parent) a Spanish man and an elite Indigenous woman -This painting (the first of the series as many like this were= indigenous mother + Spaniard father)belongs to a larger series of works that document the intermix racing of the Spaniards, indigenous, Africans, and mixed population (e.i. mestizo) -Casta paintings: focus on bad living conditions for families that become more and more racially mixed, 2nd half of 18th century -As the series progresses in casta paintings (different races mixing, as families become more racially mixed) = displayed in tattered, torn, and unglamorous surroundings/ bad family dynamic after the Spaniard and indigenous family: race mixing is bad, seen as lower if you do not have European descent -also appear darker as they become more mixed, less attractive and dirty: race mixing in bad Form produced in sets of 16 -The Mestizo: made in New Spain (Spanish colonial Mexico) during the second half of the eighteenth century -caste paintings (pinturas de castas): a misleading idea of what families were like due to depictions (made families with European blood seem happy, harmonious than those without, looked dirty and unhappy) -casta paintings: a mother, father, and a child (sometimes two) "Enlightenment": people can be categorized + hierarchy by racial makeup and appearance -Racially labeling people and where they are on on the "racial hierarchy": costumes, accouterments, activities, setting, and flora and fauna influenced this in composition -Indigenous peoples who lived outside of "civilized" social norms + Christian= mecos (barbarians) -Spaniards distinguished from others in the casta paintings= depicted as best dressed and most "civilized" -the more European you are, the closer to the top of the social and racial hierarchy you belong -The first painting in the series/ those on top where European (Spanish man and an elite Indigenous woman, accompanied by their offspring: a mestizo) showing that they were higher -As the casta series progresses + the mixing increases: names in casta paintings to label people are more derogatory/negative and racial mixing is seen as disproved/bad Function: -Discourage race mixing -influences that if mixed with European blood one is superior, the family will live in harmony, and "perfection" as seen in the work -casta paintings: reflect increasing social anxieties about inter-ethnic mixing -it is possible that elites (pure blood) found the dilution of pure-bloodedness alarming (they were the ones that commissioned the paintings) -My interpretation: as many European (Spaniard men) voyaged to South America, they did not bring European wives and had to mix with the women there. They still didn't agree with racial mixing and discouraged it (contradictory) therefore disliked when people keep mixing more because it "dirtied" European blood -

Rottgen Pieta

Late medieval Europe. c. 1300-1325 C.E. Painted wood. Form: - 34 1/2 inches high -Painted wooden sculpture, but it is damaged, paint is less vibrant, worm holes in Mary's head -most of the Pieta statues of the time were from Germany, and the other surviving works are marble, or other stone, making this wooden sculpture all the more unique Function: -The lamentation section of the stations of the Christ, but the scene around it is taken away forcing the viewer to examine emotion -Artistic viewing is like a vision, would have been the object of focus during prayer - Would have been on an altar with other religious art, perhaps depicting the passions of the Christ -This type of sculpture was common in German abbeys Content: -Spirituality, mysticism, pure emotion of Mary holding her dead son -Sharp crown of thorns, 3D blood and wounds, making it violent and gruesome -Mary is not looking optimistic like she knows he will rise again; she looks like she had been wronged, she is draped in the typical garb with heavy fabric and she still looks young, but she is suffering -Extremely skinny, ribs visible, body is contorted -this new depiction and way of Christian thought was called "the patient Christ" Context: -c. 1300-25, late gothic period of middle ages, which was very dramatic -Saints like St. Francis of Assisi, Bridget of Sweden, St. Bernardino of Siena And Hildegard of Bingen -Originally depictions of Christ on the cross would demonstrate the Christus triumphans, like in the Lindisfarne Gospels -Greco Crucifixion came after this in the artistic evolution and it showed suffering but Christs legs are together so as no to be immodest or too humanized Principle, where his suffering is not apparent, but in this period divinity showed in a different, and more human way, belief that connection to god could be achieved through emotion -clearly reflects mysticism of the time, not caring about previous issues with iconoclasm during middles ages, as it is a holly object that would have been prayed to

Golden Haggadah (The Plagues of Egypt, Scenes of Liberation, and Preparation for Passover)

Late medieval Spain. c. 1320 C.E Illuminated manuscript (pigments and gold leaf on vellum). Content: Preparation for passover Several women celebrating the coming of Passover with music Islamic motifs represent the language and beauty of life through its geometric presentation. Women wearing long, pale colored gowns/dresses Children dressed in same colors of the women's dresses Group of people preparing the house for Passover; women clean while men inspect the progress of matzah bread Sheep being butchered for the festival Second page: The plagues of europe Egyptians and their animals becoming overrun with boils God believed to have instructed Moses to toss soot in the air, which resulted in this epidemic where Egyptians became victim to boils and ulcers Egyptians' domesticated animals succumb to disease while wild ones begin to take their place Frogs swarming Egypt, specifically a high official's room, most likely the Pharaoh Wild animals frightening the Pharaoh Third page: Scenes of Liberation Scenes of the most devastating phase of the 10 Plagues, the killing the of the first born: a mother weeping over her newborn's death, an angel hitting an ill man in front of a somber women, and a funeral procession for one of the firstborn killed. Pharaoh forcing Israelites out of Egypt, the latter doing so with dough in hand and their hands raised Egyptian knights taking after the Israelites following their exile from Egypt Aftermath of the belief God responded to Moses's call for assistance while evading the Egyptians in pursuit by parting the Red Sea for the Israelites but letting it crash down on their pursuers, with depiction of the soldiers drowning behind the Israelites Form: As an illuminated manuscript, these pages of the Golden Haggadah are 2 dimensional, with a lack of background depth in the illustrations creating very flat images Pages made from vellum Pages reflect influence of Gothic art, with gold leaf backgrounds and dark red decorative frames illuminating the panels The people have long flowing bodies with pale white skin Not much emphasis for architecture in background of panels, not too proper/realistic scale as homes just behind main figures have second story windows and towers just above their heads Creates little negative space, subjects all appear very close Function: Illustrates the story of Passover from the Book of Exodus, which focuses on the Israelites escape from slavery and oppresion in Eygpt It is read, celebrated, and studied during Seder, a meal marking the beginning of Passover by families This Haggadah would have been used at a private home The Golden Haggadah's decorative nature and fine condition implies its belonging to a wealthy family Judaism condemns "graven images", an idea originating from the second commandment Moses believed to have received from God, but the Golden Haggadah is considered a tool of education Thus its illustrations are allowed, meant to be didactic and help Jewish people better understand the developments of the Book of Exodus Context: The Golden Haggadah was created during the Gothic period Gothic art developed out of Romanesque art, further pushing both sculpture and painting from stiff depictions of people to those more lively and flowing Also characterized by prevalence of curved lines in painting, refined decoration in its features, and more detail given to the faces of individuals such as those in illuminated manuscripts 1300s Spain was multicultural, with Christianity, Islam, and Judasim all having points of influences in aspects of life such as art Islamic geometric pattern seen in Golden Haggadah Sephardic Jews were located on the Iberian Peninsula during this time period, although experiences phases of oppression in Spain Jewish families could rise to wealth through various merchant practices and thus the Golden Haggadah is believed to have belonged to rich Jewish family

Isenheim altarpiece

Matthias Grunewald 1512-1516 CE Oil on wood Form: Left picture Left side: red robed figure stands next to Corinthian column Middle: Christ is centered and crucified Very macabre and dramatic Hanging down from the cross On his left side are three people: two women looking up in anguish and one person holding the woman in white On his right side is a red clothed man and a dog Right side: red and blue clothed old, bearded man with a staff Pradella: Jesus's dead body is being held by several people next to some sort of opening, possible a grave Right Picture: Left side: woman looking up at a Gothic architecture place to a robed figure Middle: Left: Woman in pink dress playing guitar-like instrument surrounded by smaller figures and instrument Right: Mary and Christ-child in a landscape, blue sky and bright orange light (sun?) Right side: figure rising divinely with a mandorla over bodies Pradella: Same as the left picture → Christ's body being held Big! 9' 9 1/2" x 10' 9" (just center panel) But she's movable Function: Created to serve as the central object of devotion in an Isenheim hospital built by the Brothers of St. Anthony Popular in Germany at the time Facilitate public prayer Fully opened on special occasions → helps to inspire hope Content: Left picture: panels is closed Virgin is swooning into the arms of St. John the Evangelist John the Baptist gestures towards Christ Lamb of God is below him (metaphor for Christ himself) not usually at crucifixion Inclusion is symbolic, since he is considered as the last of the prophets to announce the coming of the Messiah Mary Magdalene is just crying Outside panels: St. Sebastian and then the St. Anthony Abbott Right picture: panels are open From left to right: Annunciation, Virgin and Child, Resurrection Angels playing music celebrate the birth of the Christ child resurrection (fireball— hovering over the sepulchre and the bodies of the sleeping soldiers, a combination of Transfiguration, Resurrection and Ascension.) Both predellas show a Lamentation scene Context: Isenheim Hospital was run by Brothers of St. Anthony St. Anthony was a patron saint of those suffering from skin diseases Took care of sick and dying peasants at hospital Christ was painted in such a macabre way to show them that he too suffered like they are now Predella: the bottom part in the altarpieces Cross-Cultural Connections: Standard of Ur and Last Judgement of Hu-Nefer Stories depicted in a sequential format Hu-Nefer is of religious imagery and concerns itself with death

The Virgin of Guadalupe (Virgen de Guadalupe).

Miguel Gonzalez. c. 1698 C.E. Based on original Virgin of Guadalupe. Basilica of Guadalupe, Mexico City. 16th century C.E. Oil on canvas on wood, inlaid with mother-of-pearl.

Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel, including Lamentation

Padua, Italy. Unknown architect; Giotto di Bondone (artist). Chapel: c. 1303 C.E.; Fresco: c. 1305. Brick (architecture) and fresco. Form: Brick chapel decorated with frescoes on the wall Trompe l'oeil- fake marble pattern in between frescoes, gives the appearance of stone, but actually all paintings Also used lapis lazuli pigments for the bright blues (this was done with seco fresco, or dry fresco, so it did not stay as well) well done. Function: This was a private chapel of devotion for the Scrovegni family Religious/social function Commissioned by Enrico Scrovegni, wanted to atone for he and his father's sin of usury. Content: The top begins with the life of Christ's grandparents (Yoakim and Anna) and the life of Mary, then the middle row is about the life of Christ, and the bottom depicts the Passion- the final part of Jesus's life. Some of the images are not directly in the Bible but rather filled in with the information from a book called The Golden Legend that is a narrative form Jesus is usually depicted moving left to right (narrative) and in profile which was considered the most honorable way to depict someone (from Roman coinage) Sense of depth. The Lamentation- a picture of Jesus after he was cut down from the cross and he is surrounded by a variety of individuals including his mother Mary, Mary Magdalene , St. John, and the disciples. Angels flying in the air. Mourning and despair. Tree in the background is barren but will also grow leaves again- symbol of Jesus coming back to life On the ceiling is a starry blue sky with images of Christ and Mary's faces 7 virtues and vices subtley shown The Last Judgement, In the center is the largest figure Christ who is the judge, around him are the Elect and there is also a scene of Hell, above him is Heaven Image of Scrovegni giving the chapel to the Virgin Mary, atoning for his sins Kiss of Judas, Judas came to Jesus and turned him in to the Roman authorities, the faces of Jesus and Judas are very close together, shows intimacy Context: Next to Arena Chapel, Scrovegni from the family who commissioned it Was built in order to atone for his sins of usury Frescoes represent a transition from medieval period where the figures were divine to the Renaissance period (emotion in the grief, etc.)

Henri IV Recieves the portrait of Marie de' Medici, from the Marie de' Medici Cycle

Peter Paul Rubens. 1621-1625 C.E. Oil on canvas Form 394 x 295 cm. Marie and cherub are the only 2 looking out at the viewer: establishes the central authority and future importance of Marie and her progeny for France. Strong vertical axis running through the work from Juno/Hera (top) through Marie de'Medici shows the maternal, fertile connection between ideal wives and mothers, as Rubens depicted it. Context: style His greatest inspiration was Titian, from the Venetian Renaissance. Enjoyed painting the body in dramatic or contorted positions (as seen in Henry IV's posture) How Rubens depicted historical figures: In the classical style of ancient Greece and Rome With intense realism and occasional eroticism He was interested in painting wild animals and exotic prints Known for painting a uniquely wide range of subjects, including portraits, landscapes, religious and historical works, and hunting scenes. Popular for the rich Baroque style he created in his portraits; which favorably depicted his patron. Rubens' landscapes later had a large influence on the Romantic style; after he married, he gained a closer relationship to nature. He wanted viewers to ponder his works' emotional aspects His inclusion of iconography in his portraits of female patrons was meant to give them equal status with the males he depicted. All of his male portraits depicted males engaging in intense, even aggressive, physical action. His typical full-figured female portraits showed women as sensual, soft, beautiful, and desirable; Marie de'Medici's cycle was an anomale but Rubens was no stranger to depicting figures (usually male) as powerful and accomplished. Well-known for his nudes of biblical and mythological women. Uses layered allegory and symbolism in his portraits Content Winged Gods of Marriage (Hymen, left) and of Love (Amor/Cupid, right) present a portrait of Marie de'Medici to the enamored King Henry IV of Navarre. Hymen holds a flaming torch in his left hand: symbolizes the passion of love Cupid gestures at Marie de'Medici and praises her beauty/worth Smitten Henry IV looks on in sheer adoration and delight Jupiter and Juno (or Zeus and Hera) look down from above in approval They are a blissful, satisfied couple: their hands touch lovingly and they lean towards one another Flanked by their animal symbols: Eagle with a Thunderbolt (Jupiter) & Peacock (Juno) Even the King of all Gods succumbs to love; Henry IV should do so as well Personification of France stands behind Henry, encouraging him to marry for political reasons She looks on approvingly at his adoration of Marie Lady France wears a plumed helmet, blue robe with an embroidered fleur-de-lys Lady France whispers in King Henry's ear Tells him to ignore his battles and marry Marie as a smart political move Domestic matters are equally as important as military ones to preserving the monarchy Henry obliges; his helmet and sword are being toyed with by 2 cherubs in the foreground (putti) The remains of Henry's battle -- a burning town -- are in the right background Context: King and Queen's faces, all hands, and several details in the cycle were painted by Rubens; the rest he designed, but had members of his workshop paint for him in his style. 6th painting in a series of 24 works on the life of Marie de'Medici, the orphaned daughter of the Duke of Tuscany. King Henry (her husband) was assassinated in 1610, so Marie served as Regent to her son, Louis XIII, for 7 years. Divisions in the French court and her disrepute among nobles led Marie to be exiled in 1617. The 24-painting biographical series in 1622 marked a restored relationship with her son Louis XIII and marked her return to Paris. Marie commissioned the series in 1622 to decorate 1 of the 2 galleries in the Tuileries Palace. Series is unique and unprecedented Focuses on the life and accomplishments of a Queen Includes recent, embarrassing moments from Marie's life Very intimate Marie carefully manipulated and controlled the images Rubens produced Art used as propaganda; over-idealizes her actual life and accomplishments For example, her marriage to Henry IV was riddled with infidelities, and the King didn't even show up to the wedding ceremony... Makes her life seem peaceful and prosperous Presentation of the Portrait is an idealized depiction of the agreement in April 1600 of marriage negotiations between Florence and Henry IV. A union overseen by the Gods, driven by Marie's beauty and virtue. Henry IV recognized the political and financial advantage of marrying a Medici. Henry was "pleased exceedingly" when shown the portrait of Marie Religious reasons Henry IV was under attack by French Catholics for being Protestant; marrying the Catholic Marie de'Medici absolved this tension. Financial Reasons Henry IV had a large debt to the Medicis (they funded his military campaigns) Marie's dowry lessened his debt Henry IV was also nearing 50 years, and needed to produce an heir. Marie had their 1st son one year after their wedding, then 5 more kids (4 survived to adulthood) Marie arranged successful marriages for her children Louis XIII married daughter of the Spanish king Daughter Elisabeth married the future King Philip IV, heir to the throne of Spain Daughter Henrietta married King Charles of England The cycle was installed in Luxembourg Palace in 1625, in time for Henrietta's wedding festivities Marie could show off her life accomplishments to the many dignified guests Marie died in exile in 1631; her truce with her son Louis XIII was short-lived. Function: To serve as propaganda, glorifying and justifying the life and accomplishments of Marie de'Medici, Queen and Regent of France To depict Marie de'Medici's life in 24 defining paintings To compare Marie de'Medici's right to rule, wisdom, and beauty to the ancient mythological gods (ideals at the time of the Baroque era) To establish Marie's power and her lasting legacy in France. The Presentation of the Portrait To depict Marie and Henry IV's marriage as divinely sanctioned, politically and financially intelligent, and an act of love and adoration. It's questionable whether or not all of the grandeur was realistic or appropriate, but Marie certainly articulated an idealized, harmonious image of herself and her life's events-- despite the fact they weren't as glamorous as Rubens was asked to make them seem.

Hunters in the Snow

Pieter Bruegel the Elder. 1565 C.E. Oil on wood. Form 117 cm by 162 cm Contrapposto, dynamic movement Figures with their back towards the viewer -- draws eye into the scene, away from the foreground Lots of contrasting colors -- draws eye around the composition Sharp forms, less gentle blending Very, very subtle use of atmospheric perspective in the back-most mountains and hills Function Represents both the hardships and the enjoyments of winter Sheds light on the activities of everyday life Reaction to the renaissance themes of nobility and religion Making art to depict the world as it is seen Content Part of a six-part series of images called seasons of the year Figures, and houses painted in warm, earthy tones -- contrasting from the cold blues and grays used to represent the elements Homogenized figures, none of which show their face--represent the poor, "nameless" Hunters return from what might have been an unsuccessful hunt Both figures and dogs bend down and sulk, looking exhausted Small figures in the background dot a pair of frozen lakes, seemingly enjoying the winter Figures dance about the ice, interacting with each other and small objects Mood in the foreground -- solemn, sense of despair Figures in bottom left third sag, trudging through the snow Left-most figures huddle by the fire, desperate for warmth Almost every visible figure has a downward gaze Architecture -- where nature and civilization meet Rows of houses fall away into vast fields of snow Content (cont.): The viewers eyes are drawn across the painting diagonally by the positioning of the subjects and statically placed linesNo linear perspective!Aerial Perspective! We start at the bottom right as these figures are largest and appear closest to the viewerThese figures appear to be coming back from an unsuccessful huntThey don't have much in the way of food and appear to be trudging through the snow with despairThey are hunched over and appear to be defeatedWe do not see their faces, so we have to assume their emotions based on their stancesThey are positioned, facing towards a small village and frozen pond Our eyes instantly shift onto the frozen pond were the peasants appear to be enjoying the winterThe immediate shift between the hunters and the other peasants indicate that Bruegel wanted to contrast these two groups of peopleThis was probably to contrast the two sides to winterThese figures appear to be playing a version of hockey and iceskating and do not have the give of the same negative feelings that the hunters do As our eyes continue along, we see a village in the background on the left It is pretty empty and probably is meant to keep the viewers eyes on pond, moving up into the mountainsLike I said before, these mountains are probably indicating that this is in the Alps, around modern day Switzerland The birds are also pointed at the pond and help focus our eyes on the subjects Context: Painted by Pieter Bruegel the ElderPainted in 1565Bruegel is best known for his landscapes and his focusing on the life and mannerisms of peasantsthis is fitting considering the content of this workThis is probably the reason this work's patron picked Bruegel It was commissioned by Nicaels JonghelinckThis is a secular paintingThis is one of six works in series entitled Months of the Yearstrangely there are only six works instead of twelve and only 5 still exist Northern RenaissanceThe patron was from Antwerp in modern day HollandThis probably depicts a scene somewhere in the alpsThis is because Holland is an extremely flat country, yet there are mountains in the background

Fruit and Insects

Rachel Ruysch. 1711 C.E. Oil on wood. Form: "Still-Life" style of painting Ruysch specialized in this style, especially of flowers Dark borders and bright central colors draws the eye immediately towards the center Incredible detail in the flower petals and vegetables 44 cm x 60 cm Function: 1648 Netherlands gained independence from Spain, and a flourishing new economy followed. Increased trade allowed a wealthy merchant class to rapidly grow, so Ruysch's paintings were made to sell directly to wealthy buyers (not commissioned by the Church or a monarchy) Also speculated that flowers used to send message of the mortality of humans and beauty Content: Depicts a large bunch of flowers, vegetables, and small insects Squash, plums, peaches, chestnuts, grapes, wheat (autumnal) In a Christian context, the grapes (wine) may represent the blood of Christ and the wheat (grain, bread) the body, or Eucharist A small butterfly, lizard, flies, and small ant A bird's nest with eggs Represents the microscopic natural world in great detail Context: During this art period, the paintings in highest demand included still-lifes, landscapes, or realistic life scenes, a movement away from earlier periods of grand religious depictions Around this time, the horticulture industry was rapidly expanding in the Netherlands, and flowers (especially tulips) were a symbol of wealth (aforementioned economic rise following Netherlands' independence) Her father was a scientist and specialized in botany, and he possessed various different plant specimens Rusych's paintings reflect these small aspects of the natural world and the ability to study it very closely, learned from her father Made around the time the microscope was invented, and new emphasis was placed on this new world and microscopic things This painting represents a microcosm of the new environment that was being discovered in science with the microscope Ruysch was a very prolific an well-known artist, specialized in still-lifes of flowers Her art pieces were widely coveted and very expensive At 15 she started an apprenticeship with well-known artist Willem van Aelst who also specialized in flowers

School of Athens

Raphael. 1509-1511 C.E. Fresco. Content: This mural is not an actual school, but instead a place where great philosophers and scientists of the ancient world congregated Raphael wanted to display the people sharing ideas, especially since it was during the time of the Renaissance Plato and Aristotle are the central figures in this piece. They are very important to Western thinking and in different ways, their philosophies impacted Christianity Plato, who is a lot older and was actually Aristotle's teacher, is seen pointing up because in his philosophy. He believed the constantly hanging world that we live in is just a shadow of a higher, truer reality that is unchanging and eternal. For Plato, this other reality seats all truths, beauty, justice, and wisdom. There is a realm based on mathematics and pure ideas that is more true than the everyday world we see. The book Plato holds is his own called the Timaeus The colors each of these philosophers wear also contrast: Plato is wearing red and purple- the purple refers to the ether (air), red to fire- neither of which have weight; Aristotle wears blue and brown that are the colors of water and earth, which have gravity, which has weight Aristotle on the other hand, holds his palm down because his philosophy supports that the only reality in this world is the one that we can physically see and experience by sight and touch. The book he is holding called Aristotle's Ethics emphasizes the justice, friendship, relationships, and government of the human world and the thought that people need to study this The division continues in this artwork- on the side of Plato there are philosophers who are concerned with the issues of the ideal. For example, Pythagoras, a great ancient mathematician, who is seen on the lower left, who discovered laws of harmony in music, in mathematics. He taught others that each of the planets produce a music note as it moved based on the distance it was from the Earth. As these planets moved they created a perfect harmony called "the harmony of the spheres" On the other hand, Euclid, who is seen on the lower right, is drawing a geometric diagram for students. He is interested in measuring and the idea of the practical. There are representations of classical sculptures in the niches on the left and the right. On the platonic side- there is Apollo, the God of the Sun, Music, Poetry- ideas that support his philosophies. On the other side, Athena, the God of War and Wisdom, who is presumably involved in the more real, practical affair of a person Form: Euclid is actually reincarnated as a friend of Raphel's and that's Bramante- the architect asked by Pope Julius II to provide a new model for a new Saint Peter's. Bramante's design for St. Peters was based on a perfect geometry of circles and squares. This carries over to the School of Athens. It is very Bramatian, but also very ancient Rome Coffered barrel vaults, Pilasters- praises the figures it contains Raphael has parted both groups to the left and right, so that the middle foreground is fairly empty- there is linear perspective at the bottom of the painting to balance the strong details at the top of the painting Illusion of space- the decoration of the Greek meander looks as if it goes back in space Rapheal overall uses Greek models for calculating the proportions, although being surrounded by Roman architecture like the Baths of Caracalla and the Basilica of Manutius and Costantine. Context: In Stanza della Segnatura in the Vatican in Rome The same time Raphael was painting this fresco, Michelangelo, a big influence on some of Raphel's pieces of art, is painting the Sistine Chapel's ceiling a few doors away This room was originally a library part of the papal apartments, the apartments where the Pope lived There are four other walls that Raphael painted representing the four branches of human knowledge. School of Athens represented philosophy; on the opposite wall was theology having to do with issues relating to God; on the two other walls is poetry and justice Theology is overall represented by showing the prophets, sybils, and allegorical figures, which is huge for the High Renaissance due to Pope Julius II Function: This fresco overall represents the change of only getting knowledge from authority and that one had to accept it- New image of sharing knowledge and the history of the accumulation of knowledge. It demonstrated the Renaissance influence Also a tribute to the wisdom of the great philosophers of this time The four frescos Rapahel painted were arranged for the holy Pope. Raphael has hope that his frescos will give Pope Julies II and the other artists and citizens of Italy some knowledge of the other ancient philosophers

San Vitale

Ravenna, Italy. Early Byzantine Europe. c. 526-547 C.E. Brick, marble, and stone veneer; mosaic. Form: Basilica that is centrally planned Shaped like an octagon A byzantine church, contains the mosaic. Function: Used to worship the Christian god, religious function Also political use, glorifying the Byzantine Emperor J Serves as a reminder for the power of the Byzantine Emperor Image of political authority Content: - Major theme is the authority of the emperor. As a Roman Emperor, Justinian wants to restore territory. As a Christian Emperor, he wants to be a defender of faith. - In the mosaic Justinian is in the center. He is haloed and wears a crown and a purple imperial robe. Clergy is on his left with the Bishop labelled with an inscription. To his right are the imperial administration and at the very far left side of the mosaic appears a group of soldiers. - This mosaic thus establishes the central position of the Emperor, Justinian has religious, administrative, and military authority. - Christ offers the crown of martyrdom to St. Vitale, and the same gesture is seen in offering the crown to Justinian in the mosaic below. - Overlapping in positioning Justinian and Bishop suggests that Justinian is the closest figure to the viewer, but Bishop's feet are lower suggesting he is closer to the viewer. Indicates the tension between the authority of the Emperor and the church. Context: Built after the split of the Roman empire Powerful emperor Religious/political tensions

Self- Potrait with Saskia

Rembrandt van Rijn. 1636 C.E. Etching form: Rembrandt used a copper plate, eroded by acid, to create this work The Etching plate is deeper for Rembrandt than Saskia Shows him as more important, but also closer to the viewer He first etched in Saskia to help create the illusion that she is behind Rembrandt This was likely etched in a mirror it depicts Rembrandt as left handed, yet he used his right Function: Private artwork comments on the nature of their relationship We are getting a view into a private moment as if we have literally interrupted it Context: Depicts a thirty year old Rembrandt and his wife Saskia, two years after they were married Rembrandt is one of the most prolific etchers of his time with nearly 300 to his name many of his early etchings have the immediacy and spontaneity of a rapid sketch Highly experimental artist Used a soft ground to allow him to draw freely on the plate He is also well known for his portraits His style changed greatly over his lifetime With his early works we see a much more extensive use of Chiaroscuro His later works show his evolved confidence as an artist With the Self-Portrait with two circles we see him defiantly claiming his genius We also see his comparing of himself to the likes of Giotto with the two circles in the background Content: Obviously, this is a marriage portrait depicts a young Rembrandt with his wife Saskia This is the only etched portrait of the two together Rembrandt rarely depicted himself as the contemporary Gentleman Against the style of time We are present in scene We appear to have interrupted an intimate moment This etching also marks the first time Rembrandt depicted himself as an artist in the work Like I said before, this was probably etched in the mirror causing a reversed image While this is the only portrait of the two together, it was not unusual for Rembrandt to use his wife as a model

Bayeux Tapestry

Romanesque Europe (English or Norman). c. 1066-1080 C.E. Embroidery on linen. Form: The inscriptions and imagery are embroidered using wool yarn sewed into linen cloth Suggests that they were Anglo- Saxon embroiders who made it were skilled because of the high quality of the needlework, identity of the artists are unknown Anglo-Saxon needlework was prized throughout Europe 1 dimensional, flat The top and bottom can function as borders Function: A way to remember and commemorate the win of the Normans Description of war, information about civil and military architecture Content: 75 scenes filled + latin inscriptions Continuous narrative to the events leading up to the Battle of Hastings and the battle itself Dining practices and battle preparation William and his nobles sit down to enjoy a feast as Bishop says grace War: calvary seen with William, easily retreat or advance There are wounded men and horses along the tapestry's mid and bottom The Normans attack from both of the sides. Context: Canterbury around 1070 Battles of Hastings in 1066, the events leading up to that King of England instructs Harold Godwinson to travel to Normandy to offer his cousin, William, the succession to the English throne After many difficulties, he sends a message to William Duke of Normandy that the King of England has designated him as his heir to the throne. When the old king dies though, Harold has himself crowned instead..... William decides to cross the channel to reclaim his throne In the end, Harold dies in battle. The English troops retreat.

San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane

Rome, Italy. Francesco Borromini (architect). 1638-1646 C.E. Stone and stucco. Form Facade with 3 bays Plan Two triangles (diamond) inscribed in an oval Circles inscribed in triangles Intersecting circles No right angles—curves Sophisticated inter connection of geometrical shapes Musical and mathematical stacking together three distinct units undulating lower zone Middle zone standard Greek cross plan oval dome The dome appears to be floating above the interior of the church because its springing point and light sources are concealed by the zone below. combination of precedent and novelty complex interweaving rhythms. Bold illusionistic effects, achieved by calculated lighting, intensify the space. Function Dedicated to St. Charles Borromeo and the Holy Trinity (for the Trinitarians) Make a great church within a very small and cramped space Content Facade Undulating waves Upper part= concave bays Sectioned entablature Center = oval held by asymmetrically placed angels upper facade completed only after Borromini's death Most sources believe that the top heavy look of the top half is a result of Borromini's nephew's taking over the project in about 1675-77 Lower stories = 2 outer concave bays and a convex center United by continuous entablature central niche above the portal statue of St. Charles Borromeo by Antonio Raggi sides are statues of the founders of the Trinitarian order, St. John of Matha and St. Felix of Valois Dome Windows at the base add to ethereal effect (@hagia sophia) coffering= circles with octagonal molding, unequal hexagons, and Greek crosses Has window of real sunlight where an oculus might be series of oppositions lower and upper levels the center and the edges tall columns and the smaller niches Convex and concave Paradox of imagination/ fantasy/ emotion vs. intellect Adds to the mystical effect of the church, and describes the mysteriousness of religion Impact of emotion when you're there— you don't even realize how incredibly complicated it is Decorations Symmetrical Many carvings (Borromini =stonecutter by trade) Cherubs Head and wings but no body Fills the complex spaces beautifully Light unifies the space Perk of white interior Context Characteristic of the Baroque: Undulating movements and sculptural effects Eliminated the corner in architecture (almost all corners on this are soft) Borromini built it basically for free Very thankful to the trinitarians - his first clients Also allowed himself full creative freedom San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane Because small sometimes called San Carlino alle Quattro Fontane In english, "Saint Charles at the Four Fountains" Gets name from the intersection it's on with four fountains, one of each corner Fountain on the corner of the church is preexisting depiction of Neptune, also defined as a personification of the Arno River Borromini's first independent commission Rome, It was commissioned in 1634 and was built during 1638-46 except for the tall facade, which was added about 1677 Francesco Borromini Italian architect who was a chief formulator of Baroque architectural style. based his designs on geometric figures Contemporary and rival of Bernini Gloomy man lonely, withdrawn he prided himself on his highly specialized training resented his modest degree of recognition based his art on geometry: handling of form, volume and light. Mathematics before everything Geometry, light, shapes— inseparable declared antiquity and nature to be his points of departure Also had medieval, Florentine, and mannerist influences Always alert to the context of his commissions deep sensitivity to the relationship of his buildings to the surrounding area and buildings Suffered severe melancholia made worse by hypochondriac hallucinations Fell upon a sword during a fit recovered his mind after mortally wounding himself, repented, received the last sacraments of the church, and wrote his will before he died At his own request, he was buried anonymously in the grave of his teacher and friend, Maderno It has been suggested that Borromini's suicide was the result of an increasing schizophrenia and that this pathological process is reflected in his architecture (not supported theory)

Il Gesu, including the Triumph of the Name of Jesus ceiling fresco.

Rome, Italy. Giacomo da Vignola, plant (architect); Giacomo della Porta, facade (architect); Giovanni Battista Gaulli, ceiling fresco (artist). Church: 16th century C.E.; facade: 1568-1584 C.E.; fresco and stucco figures: 1676 - 1679 C.E. Brick, marble, fresco, and stucco. Form: A Gesú, which is simply Italian for the name for the mother church Church was designed by Giacomo da Vignola and Giacomo Della Porta in 1575 Triumph of the Name of Jesus is a fresco painted in the traditional style Ceiling fresco done in 1678-1679 by Giovanni Battista Gaulli Function: Serves as the main and original church for the Jesuits Important place for previous and current Jesuits, as it is the mother church Also served as a model for the future Jesuit churches in terms of architecture and style Ceiling fresco serves to illustrate the beliefs of the Jesuits Called the people to their faith and scared them into not believing A strong emphasis to choose this path and not leave or refuse it Content: Single aisled church, removing others as a space for traffic to clear it up Church has a cruciform floor plan, although the transept is not overly long on either side so it does not bear exactly like a cross in terms of proportions The church has a dome over the intersection of the large nave and transept Very dark interior, and it is thus chiefly dependent on natural lighting from outside An interesting mix of the rational and Baroque styles Focus on the altar in the center Renaissance style columns Corinthian, ornate, and made of rich materials Some of them reuse ancient pieces Context: Saint Ignatius of Loyola, the founder of the newfound Jesuit religion, needed a church to serve as the religion's center The Jesuit religion was a very dramatic response to the recent reformation They were very against the reformation and focused their teachings on charitable works, education, and missionaries Very tense moment in terms of religion, as the reformation was almost 100 years prior and there were many religious wars going on It was then funded by Cardinal Farnese, who was the Pope's grandson Church is in the center of old Rome Very close to the Pantheon and Roman Forum Themes: Religion, spirituality, beliefs and values War and social conflict Power and authority Social concerns/issues God/religion Cross-Cultural Connections: Comparable to Bernini's Apse at Saint Peter's Basilica Similar in terms of interior size, shape, and style Comparable to Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel The Sistine Chapel features an incredible ceiling fresco, which serves to illustrate famous religious stories and timelines in vivid detail and color Similarly to the Sistine Chapel, the Triumph of the Name of Jesus ceiling fresco is a fresco painted on the ceiling of a church with the purpose of propagating the faith and captivating the followers

Catacomb of Priscilla

Rome, Italy. Late Antique Europe. c. 200-400 C.E. Excavated tufa and fresco. Form: architectural structure (levels of passageways underground of tufa, walls are decorated with murals/pictures) - Cubiculum and locali (poor v.s rich), both spaces that hold bodies. - Stretches about eight kilometers. Holds around 40,000 tombs stacked. - Also has some inscriptions, making it a form of written document as well Function: Thought to be an area of land donated by a wealthy Roman woman named Priscilla to be used for family burial and later a massive number of the Christian community. -Built for religious purposes as a means of burial. Wealthy people would have more space, the poor would have less - Could've been a place where Christians could escape persecution - It represents, in modern times, the beginnings of Christian iconography Content: Series of underground passageways, as deep as 3 levels underground. - On walls are horizontal niches called to hold bodies, there are cubiculum (wealthy) and loculi (poor) throughout the catacomb. - Has the earliest known representation of Madonna and child (Virgin Mary and Jesus). - Contains some of the earliest of Christian iconography painted and carved. Also inscriptions that speak to the people buried. Also carved symbols like the anchor, which speaks to safe harbor and salvation. Also use of a fish, a representation of Christ. - Themes of salvation - reference to content of both the Old and New Testament. Ex: The Greek chapel, consists of Roman first style wall painting, which is when palaster is built and painted to imitate marble to look rich, oldest part of catacombs. Lavish yet small. Meals could be eaten in this place so as to honor the dead. - Divine intervention scenes - the Book of Daniel (three youths in a fiery furnace, story is that they are asked to worship pagan idols but refuse, so they are sentenced to be burned alive but are saved). Pieces like this relate to the struggle of Christian persecution. - Resurrection of Lazarus, and other miracles of christ. - Sacrifice of Isaac is shown, depicts Abraham in the center and Isaac off to the right carrying wood. We normally see Abraham depicted as about to kill Isaac with his wrist grabbed by an angel. - Breaking of the Bread depcited, looks like a last supper (long table, still life, seven men. Meals). It is really just a reference to the story of multiplication of loaves and fishes, another miracle of Christ, typical in early Christian Iconaology. - Cubiculum of the Veil, has images of a woman married, dressed as a bishop, and as a mother. Refers to the woman buried there. She is in a prayer pose, (referred to as an orant figure) representing the hopes of family that she will enjoy a blessed afterlife. She is looking up to heaven. - Largest painting in this cubiculum is Christ as the Good Shepherd. Depicts three goats, one over shoulders. He is in a contrapposto stance, looks young, no beard, trees with doves next to him. Shows that he will care for his followers like a good shepherd for his flock. Also depicts peacocks, a symbol of eternal life. Quail, a symbol of the earth. -It is all the first tentative steps of what would become christian art. Context: A wealthy Roman woman named Priscilla gave this land for family burial and later the burials of a massive amount of the Christian community. Grave robbing would occur over time, as well as hunting for relics, which has left some tombs uncovered and empty. Holds over 40,000 tombs. Christian Martyrys buried here, had spiritual importance and power. Episodes of persecution were major concerns of Chirstian life until the Edict of Milan officially called for toleration, which slowly softened these tensions. Earliest Christian art can be seen here ( Perhaps not earlier because of the prohibition of such by the Second Commandmen. Or it didn't survive. Or a Christian vocuabulary hadn't been developed yet. The Catacombs of Priscilla is mentioned in many ancient documents on Christian topography/liturgy in Rome. There is, as mentioned, a great number of martyrs buried within, so it is called "regina catacumbarum" or the queen of the catacombs. Priscilla is spoken as a benefactor of the Christian community in Rome. It was rediscovered in the 16th century.

Santa Sabina

Rome, Italy. Late Antique Europe. c. 422-432 C.E. Brick and stone, wooden roof. Form: Architectural structure Has massive, spacious longitudinal nave. Faces the altar, is illuminated by natural light from windows, overall creates a feeling of transcendence. Light from the windows was manipulated by the architect to create a spiritual effect. Would've illuminated the mosaics on the nave walls but they don't exist anymore. Light = Christ/heaven There would have been walls decorated with mosaics. Over the columns are wine cups and bread: the first symbolization of Eucharist. Function: - Early Christian church -Has a religious function - To respect Sabina, who supposedly died on the location. Roman Emperor from the 300s and Christian convert. Martyr for Christianity - To impress the viewer and inspire them to follow Christianity Content: - The windows are made of celenite, not glass. - There is a wooden coffered ceiling - A reference to the coffered ceiling of the Pantheon in Rome. - There are paneled, wooden doors to the church. They depict Biblical scenes - possibly the first Crucifixion in one panel. - There's a colonnade with a side aisle on each side - w/ corinthian columns - Walls are broken up into entablatures like Pantheon is. Columns and pilasters create verticals that tie the horizontal entablatures together. Visualizes the building's weight and solidity. - Nave wall has little visual weight - Overall, the simple architecture places subtle emphasis on a strong, empowered foundation - Clerestory windows line the upper entablatures of the nave - Walls don't have traditional classical orders. Instead of organized columns and entablatures, they were covered in mosaics. Walls show a shift from a focus on Man's architecture to religious imagery Context: Sabina, supposedly died on the location and is deemed a martyr for Christianity.

Birth of Venus

Sandro Botticelli. c. 1484-1486 C.E. Tempera on canvas. Form: The medium itself is tempera on canvas/panel (tempera is a paint similar to acrylic, but it dries matte and can be water soluble) utilizing muted colors and organic shapes. Coming in from the right corner is the god of wind, Zephyrus, with his wife - the goddess of flowers - Chloris in arms. The two appear to be blowing a breeze towards Venus as flowers fall around them, showcasing their respective abilities while also pushing the new goddess to the shore. Waiting there is the Hora of Springtime, rushing to Venus with a cloth to cover her up. Function: The artwork was a commission for the Medici family portraying the myth of the goddess' birth as an addition to Betticelli's mythological series. Content: The piece depicts what's in the title, the birth of the goddess Venus as she rises out of the sea and is pushed to the shore. Context: There are many theories surrounding the intention of the work, but the focus will be on two for now. One belief is that the work, as it focuses on the goddess of love, was intended to fill the viewer with contemplations of love in physical and intellectual forms. In addition, the work was used frequently as a wedding painting to exemplify lovey-dovey feelings among the two spouses. Another theory believed that Botticelli based Venus off of a mistress that both the head of the family and his brother shared in order to further flatter and impress the Medicis, which seemed to work out well.

Venus of Urbino

Titian. c. 1538 C.E. Oil on canvas. Form: -Oil painting done in 1538 C.E -119.20 x 165.50 cm -Saturated, rich colors -Strong contrast Function: -Patronage was a factor -Duke Urbino Guidobaldo II Della Rovere commissioned this work from Titian for his wife -The woman (who is assumed to be Venus) looks directly at the viewer as if she is waiting for them -Her expression is confident and unfazed by her own nudity -The viewer is drawn in by the intrigue of her expression and reclined pose Content: -The woman was named Venus because this allowed the artist to paint her nude without social repercussions -Though many people have given the woman in the painting several different identities, some kind some vulgar -Many thought she wasn't Venus but just a depiction of the ideal female body type -The two woman in the back of the painting are not as debated over, it is thought the younger and older woman represent motherhood and the dog represents fidelity -The most popular theory of the woman is that Titian blended common women's identities in sixteenth century Italy to create this piece Context: -When this piece was made Venice had a strong government with good trade that was able to invest in artists -This piece helps show the social practices of intertwining marriage, sexuality, and female beauty in renaissance Italy

Pyxis of al-Mughira

Umayyad. c. 968 C.E. Ivory. Form 16cm tall 11cm wide Ivory was durable, elegant, and easily carved Highly desirable for the creation of pyxides Often given as gifts. Function Ivory objects bestowed upon members of the royal family Marriage, birth or coming of age Later they were given as gifts to important allies The practical function was to carry perfumes and other cosmetics Content Four eight-lobed medallions- surrounded by figures and animals, to be hunted Iconography element to the medallions Islamic art is commonly viewed as an iconic, but human and animal figures play an important role in iconography Context Holding cosmetics A coming of age gift for al Mughira, the 18-year-old daughter of the caliph of the Umayyad dynasty Spain was home to some of the most impressive Islamic art and architecture Ivory was part of the mediterranean art tradition This comes from the royal workshop of Madinat al-Zahra, one of the wealthiest cities in Umayyad-ruled Spain

Sistine Chapel ceiling and altar wall frescoes.

Vatican City, Italy. Michelangelo. Ceiling frescoes: c. 1508-1512 C.E.; altar frescoes: c. 1536-1541 C.E. Fresco. Form every surface--ceilings, floors--are covered in mosaic and fresco Function where the College of Cardinals decides who the next pope will be Content ceiling vault completely covered in fresco9 Old Testament scenes separated by painted architecture Context Michelangelo began work on the frescoes in 1508 for Pope Julian he continued work on it for 4 years, but took a break in 1510, and the frescoes painted after this time are palpably different--compare the complex narrative of The Deluge, which uses smaller figures, to the more idealized, monumental figures in God creates Adam the vault frescos are undeniably some of the most important images every painted--they turned into an "academy" for painters, meaning that up and coming Renaissance artists would visit the chapel in order to try to study and imitate the monumental weight, harmony, strength, anatomical perfection, and elegance of Michelangelo's figures the chapel has recently undergone a controversial cleaning in which soot and grime from years of the chapel's use were cleaned off to try to bring back the rich colors of Michelangelo's vision Sistine Chapel Ceiling (general): revolutionary painting style where the figures were so realistic that they looked like sculptures brilliant, rich colors were used Michelangelo's style involved "carving figures out of paint" figures are massive; have gravity, weight and presence are figures of idealized beauty (shows the relative religious optimism of the time; as compared to when Michelangelo paints The Last Judgement above the altar and his style has become more cynical and Mannerist) emphasized musculature and anatomy anatomy displays drama and power (despite the fact that that many of them are in positions of relative peace--for ex. Libyan Sybil) a complex "stage" of connected yet separate scenes strong visible presence of Ancient Roman and Greek sculptural style no images of Christ, but the scenes lay the stage for the coming of Christ the richly colored, monumental figures help convey the emotional impact of the scenes to the viewers gazing up at them from the floor Layout:9 biblical scenes from Genesis that move across the ceiling lengthwise (starts with God dividing light from dark and moves on chronologically)1. Noah is drunk and disgraced2. The Great Flood/Deluge3. Noah and his family make a sacrifice after the flood4. Adam and Eve are tempted + sent from Eden 5. God creates Eve6. God creates Adam7. God divides the water from the Earth 8. God creates the sun and planets9. God divides light from darknessscenes are framed by a painted architectural framework scenes are flanked on both sides by prophets and sybils that sit within the painted architecture in the spandrels, separate from the depicted scenes but connected ideologically sybils: pagan soothsayers that foretold the coming of Christ sitting on the architectural framework of the four architectural corners of each nine biblical scenes are male nude figures, called ignudiscenes from the Salvation of Israel painted in the pendentives The Delphic Sibyl: Form Function the sibyls were said to be future-seers of pagan times who saw the coming of Christvalidates the Christian faith because the coming of Christ was foretold long before Jesus was even born shows a theme of foretelling present in Christian artwork since the Middle Ages; sibyls foretold the coming of Christ, the Old Testament foretold the coming of the New Testament, Mary foretold the death of her son Content her body has a circular composition signifies grace, balance, and harmony of proportion she has a "sculptural weight"--looks as though she is actually coming out of the walls due to the painted contour (contrapposto) of her skin and muscle she has idealized anatomy--by the way her muscles are sculpted, she looks as though she has incredible strength, yet she also possesses a sense of calm elegance (sprezzatura: a deceptive ease)shows close attention to human anatomysome believe that she was modeled after a man (which makes sense looking at the prominent muscles in her arms)--"biblical" beauty instead of sexual, like in Botticelli's Venus Context painted after Michelangelo took his break in 1510, so they show his new style of monumentality some believe that all the sibyls are modeled after the ancient sculpture the Belvedere Torso (see below) The Deluge: Form Highly modeled figures Facial expressions and dynamic poses reveal the sadness and desperation depicted in the scene Figures interact with each other Many hold each other in their arms or on their backs Some figures reach for each other or joste past one another Function Makes viewers question God's justice → why would he destroy the whole population of Earth, spare Noah and his family? Content Physical space of the water and sky separate the 4 parts of the narrative On the right: a group of people find makeshift shelter from the rain On the left: people scale a mountain to escape floodwaters Central: A small boat teeters, about to capsize due to the rising waters Background: men work to build the ark Full of figures → makes the event seem chaotic, large-scale; but also waters down (pun not intended) the emotional intensity of the narrative from a distance

The Palace at Versailles

Versailles, France. Louis Le Vau and Jules Hardouin-Mansart (architects). Begun 1669 C.E. Masonry, stone, wood, iron, and gold leaf (architecture); marble and bronze (sculpture); gardens. Function To emphasize and demonstrate Louis XIV's Importance To host parties and military agreements To compare Louis XIV's competence and wisdom with that of the ancient Greeks and Romans, especially Apollo, the Sun God. Residential palace for Louis XIV and successive French monarchs, from 1682-1789 (Revolution began) Demonstrated the shift in the French government's power from the Noble families (aristocracy) to the King, Louis XIV To embody and define the French Baroque style, and establish Louis XIV's dominance over the arts and architecture of the 1600s. To symbolize the power and prestige of Absolute Monarchy. Context Begun in 1661, completed ~1682 Louis XIV's Staff Louis le Vau: chief architect to the King Built the Grand Façade and the King and Queen's apartments Built the park's Orangerie and Menagerie Adopted the Italian-style 'invisible' roof hidden by a trophy-adorned balustrade Balustrade: a railing supported by ornamental parapets André le Nôtre: landscape designer of the gardens Charles le Brun: interior decorator and painter Jules Hardouin Mansart: favorite architect (toward the latter parts of the construction process) Jean-Baptiste Colbert: Principal advisor to the King Collaborated with Louis XIV to organize art and architecture to serve the French state. Hyacinthe Rigaud: Painter to the French King Pierre Puget: Sculptor; his works are in the King's Gardens Portraiture Often portraits of Louis XIV, the Sun King, were collaborations by artists with specializations in fabric, architecture, landscape, armor, or fur. Most famous portrait is by Hyacinthe Rigaud, called "Louis XIV," done with Oil on Canvas in 1701. Larger than life portrait Now hangs in the Louvre Shows Louis XIV in his finest robes and heels (he was only 5'4"!) Rigaud's portrait hung over his throne, and served in his place when he was absent; courtiers never turned their back to the portrait. Louis XIV Himself -- and his Plots to Control French Culture Louis XIV was most prominent patron of the arts in the 1600s France in 1600s was the largest, most powerful European nation, despite its semi-expansive economy. Louis XIV was a master of propaganda and political strategies He and Jean-Baptiste Colbert recognized the power of visual imagery and architecture in creating public personas. Louis XIV and Colbert tried to normalize artistic taste and define the dominance of the Classical Style How Louis XIV exercised his control Kept the Nobility's power in check, invited them to festivities at Versailles to remind them of his power Gave them benefits, but didn't let them rebel Stated his Divine Right to rule Named himself "le Roi Soleil," the Sun King (Like Sun God Apollo) Louis XIV converted a royal hunting lodge into the palace of Versailles Just south of Paris Louis XIV hired architects, decorators, sculptors, painters, landscapers under Charles le Brun's control Content Satellite city to the East of the Palace at Versailles Housed court and government officials, military and guard detachments, courtiers, servants City's 3 main avenues' axes converged on Louis XIV's bedchamber He could keep an eye on all the highest-ranking officials in his regime King's bedroom was an informal audience chamber Extremely detailed, ornate interior Top architects and decorators designed wall paintings, beds, doorknobs in French Baroque style Hall of Mirrors (Galerie des Glaces) Originally had furniture: gold and silver chairs, bedazzled trees Walls inlaid with mirrors Mirrors create illusion, the hallmark of the Baroque style Used for Louis XIV's many festivals Gardens Visible from Hall of Mirrors: central axis lined with trees, terraces, pools, and lakes Designed by André le Nôtre, who transformed a forest into the park/gardens Formal gardens serve as a transition from the ordered, man-made palace to the natural gardens Manicured shrubs, highly designed space Changes depending on time of day, season, and location: it's an experience Great undertaking, both in size and complexity Form Stone, marble, glass, gold, silver, wood, gardens 700 rooms 2153 windows 67,000 m^2 of floor space 2000 acres of gardens

Frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza

Viceroyalty of New Spain. c. 1541-1542 C.E. Ink and color on paper. Content: The Codex: great amount of information about the Aztec empire Frontispiece: Information about the organization, foundation, origins of the (Tenochtitlan) Aztec capital "place of the prickly pear cactus" schematic diagram of Tenochtitlan -city divided into four parts by intersecting blue/green smooth diagonals -represent: city divided into four quarters= mirror the organization of the universe, believed to be four parts aligned with the four cardinal directions (north, east, south, west). -city made of canals: depicts quadripartite division of the city and the canals running through it Aztec myth: Huitzilopochtli (Hummingbird Left) =patron deity told the Aztecs' ancestors to leave Aztlan (ancestral home) and find a place with "an eagle atop a cactus growing from a rock" → when they see this they should settle and build city there: saw this sign middle of Lake Texcoco therefore capital was on an island in the lake Center: an eagle on a cactus growing from the midst of a lake The eagle and the cactus symbolize the city founding + values Catus: The cactus (eagle sits on) symbolizes place name of Tenochtitlan is a nopal (prickly pear cactus) grows from a (tetl) stone Paired together: form te-noch → Tenochtitlan (place of the prickly pear cactus) Other figures: below the cactus + stone: is a war shield= symbolizes Mexica did not settle peacefully in the Valley of Mexico above the eagle: symbolizes a temple= maybe symbolizes Templo Mayor or the Aztec's main temple To the right of the eagle: skull rack (tzompantli)= structure found near the Templo Mayor Different types of plants: including maize (corn) huge food source → dot the city's four quadrants= agricultural fertility in the city Tenoch: Ten men depicted in four quadrants → wearing white garments + top knots in their hair men who led the Aztecs to this island location name glyphs attached to them pre-Conquest manuscripts manner= a thin black line connects to a symbol that indicates their name Priest: amongst the men distinct and differs: seated to the left of the eagle (closest to it), has gray skin, different hairstyle, red mark around his ear= identify him as a priest because he let blood from his ear as offerings to deities + ash covers his skin. His name glyph identities his as "Tenoch" speech scroll coming from his mouth (listen to his words of wisdom/god) + woven mat upon where he sit= convey his high status Surrounding the entire page: year glyphs total of fifty-one year glyphs One year is marked= the year 2-Reed → twenty-six years after Tenochtitlan's establishment this reed has a cord wound around it + fire drill appears above it symbolize year 2-Reed= first year of a new 52-year cycle → new fire was drilled to begin the new cycle and signal the completion of the previous 52-year cycle What is the New Fire Ceremony?: occurred every 52 years (a complete cycle of the solar calendar) and it assured that the sun would rise again. Just prior to the beginning of a new cycle → new fire was drilled in the body of a sacrificial victim and the fire was distributed to people to light their homes Below diagram city: 2 two scenes of military conquest emphasis of military power of Aztecs= shows two soldiers physically tower over the two men they defeat: a hierarchical scale that they are superior shield: identify them as Aztec warriors (identical to the one above that is associated with Tenochtitlan) obsidian-bladed weapons (called macana) What up with the war scene?: The defeated men (place glyphs as Colhuacan and Tenayuca) from different locations around Lake Texcoco → burning temples with hills: Colhuacan and Tenayuca were defeated Context: Codex (Codex Mendoza)= information about the lords of Tenochtitlan, the tribute paid to the Aztecs, daily life year to year, inner working of the empire 1541: Antonio de Mendoza (the first viceroy of New Spain) commissioned a codex= to record information about the Aztec empire artist(s) were indigenous: images annotated by Spanish priest that could speak Nahuatl (language of the Aztecs)→ sense of the control the story? Tenochtitlan ( former Aztec capital): established in the middle of Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico (1325) Tenoch (ruler of the Mexicas during the fourteenth century) died in 1363, first Aztec tlatoani (speaker/the ruler) was elected in 1375 by a council of elders This scene of conquest: early Aztec military victories, which aided them in building their power even prior to their first official tlatoani came to power. Function: Show power/ greatness of their empire, to record history, worship and respect the Gods, and important stories of the founding of city 1541: Antonio de Mendoza (the first viceroy of New Spain) commissioned a codex= to record information about the Aztec empire for him to know artist(s) were indigenous: images annotated by Spanish priest that could speak Nahuatl - sense of the control the story?

The Tete a Tete, from Marriage a la Mode

William Hogarth. c. 1743 C.E. Oil on canvas. Form: -Oil on canvas -27 ⅗ in x 35 9/10 in -Strong shapes and vertical lines on the columns, walls and fireplace -Very detailed, controlled chaos Function: -Similar to a political cartoon, meant to make fun of the wealthy -A satirical look at arranged marriages, this is done to appeal to the middle class -The people are shown in goofy poses and over exaggerated facial expressions Content: -The piece shows an unmarried couple in the middle of a fight -The artist makes it clear that this is a very wealthy couple by showing them in a a lavish home surrounded by expensive things carelessly strewn across the floor -The man (recognized to be Viscount Squanderfield) seems to be drunk and uninterested -A dog is also sniffing at what seems to be a bonnet in his pocket suggesting he's been cheating -The wife is also shown to be cheating as her blouse is unbuttoned and she seems all too relaxed -The accountant adds to the silliness of the painting by having an over exaggerated expression on his face with his hands in the air -The paintings of saints and christian sculptures and offerings highlight the couples immorality Context: -This is the second piece from a group of 6 works -These works are in chronological order to form a storyline -A story of a marriage for wealth that depicts the flaws of the wealthy and their immorality -Hogarth created these works to profit off of the new middle class by creating art that would be mass consumed

Annunciation Triptych (Merode Altarpiece)

Workshop of Robert Campin. 1427-1432 C.E. Oil on wood. Form: 25 3/8 x 46 3/8 in. Central panel: 25 1/4 x 24 7/8 in. Each wing: 25 3/8 x 10 3/4 in. Shiny nails, shadows, rust, all details Aged doors Interest in light Realism Space of the room doesn't make sense Not mathematically accurate Function: Can be folded up and carried Made to maintain an interest-- physical objects to spiritual ideas To aid in private devotion Religous/ Content: Center Scene-- Mary and Gabriel Not meant to secularize the scene but to make them closer to us and make prayer more intimate Gabriel appeared to Mary to tell her she will give birth to Christ Drapery has sharp folds-- falls on the floor and obscures bodies The shiny pot represents Mary's purity Many things in the room have to do with the incarnation Small figure holding a cross coming through the window heading towards Mary (the holy spirit) The Patrons-- man and his wife Kneeling-- can recognize them as donors In a walled garden (hortus conclusus)-- refers to Mary's virginity Joseph is on the right He is making tools in a workshop-- he is a carpenter Reminds us of how handmade the painting is (it is on wood) Can see prosperous city through window Mousetrap for sale outside window Context: Campin was a very successful painter with apprentices and assistants Commissions are increasing Annunciation was painted first, then the left side donors were added This painting would have been seen over and over again