Unit 3: Causal Factos and Viewpoints

Contributory Causes

A cause (x) that increases the probability of a disorder (y) developing but is neither necessary nor sufficient for the disorder to occur. If x occurs, then the probability of y occuring increases. ex. parental rejection could increase the probablility that a child will have dificulty handeling personal relationships in adulthood.

Ego Psychology

A new direction to Psychotherapy developed by Anna Freud who was much more concerned with how the ego performs it central functioning as the executive branch of personality. She refined on the ego defense mechanisms and put the ego at the forground, giving it an important organizing role in personality development. According to this view, psychopathology develops when the ego does not function adequately to control or delay impulse gratification or does not make adequate use of defense mechanisms when faced with internal conflict.

Adoption Method of Behavioural Genetics

Capitalizes on the fact that adoption creates a situation in which individuals who do not share a common family environment are nonethe less genetically related. ex. The biological parents of an individual who have a given disorder ( and who were adopted shortly after birth) are compared to the biological parent of an individual without the disorder who were also adopted shortly after birth, are compared ti determine their rates of disorder. If there is a genetic influence, one expects to find rates of this disorder in the biological relatives of those with the disorder than in that without.

Etiology

Causal patterns for behaviour

Norepinephran

Plays an important role in the emergency reactions our bodies show when we are exposed to an acutely stressful or dangerous situation, as well as in attention, orientation and basic motives.

Distal causal factors

Refer to causal factors occurring relatively early in life that may not show their effect till many years later. These may contribute to a predisposition to develop a disorder. Example: The loss of a parent in early life may serve as a distal cause for antisocial behaviour later in life.

Proximal causal factors

Refer to causal factors that occur shortly before the occurrence of symptoms of a disorder. This could trigger the onset of a disorder. Example: a crushing disappointment at school or work that could lead to depression.

Describe the sociocultural perspective and its contributions to understanding abnormal behaviour.

Studies have made clear the relationship between various sociocultural conditions and mental disorders. Further studies show that the patterns of both physical and mental disorders within a given society could change over time as sociocultural conditions change. These discoveries have added important new dimensions to modern prospectives on abnormal behaviour.

Phenotype

The observed structural and functional characteristics that result from the interaction of genotypes and environment are referred to as a pesons___________. In some cases, the genotype vulnerability that exists at birth does not express itself on the ___________ until much later in life.

Developmental Psychopathology

The study of normal human development at biological, psychological and sociocultural levels of analysis. This focuses on determining what is abnormal at any point in development by comparing and contrasting it with the normal and expected changes that course in the course of development.

Genes

are the carriers of genetic information we inherit from ancestors.

The normal inheritance consists of ________pairs of chromosomes, one from each the mother and father.

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Healthy humans have _____________ chromosomes containing genetic material that encodes the heredity plan for each individual.

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Neurotransmitters

1) Norepinephran } Monoamines 2) Dopamine } Monoamines 3) Seritonin } Monoamines 4) Glutamate and 5) Gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA)

Interactions occurring in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA Axis)

1. Messages in the form of *corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH)* travel from the hypothalamus to the pituitary 2. In response to CRH, the pituitary releases *adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)*, which stimulates the cortical parts of the adrenal gland ( located at the top of the kidney) to produce *epinephrine* (adrenaline) and the stress hormone *cortisol*, which are released into high circulation. Cortisol mobilizes the body to deal with stress. 3. Cortisol in turns provides a negative feedback loop to the hypothalamus and pituitary glands for decreasing the release of CRH and ACT, which in turn reduces the release of adrenaline and cortisol. This negative feedback system operates much as a thermostat does to regulate temperature. Malfunctioning of this negative feedback loop has been implicated in various forms of psychopathology such as depression, and PTSD. Sex hormones are produced in the gonadal glands, and imbalances in these can also lead to maladaptive behaviour and have contributed to differences in behaviour between men and women.

Biological theories of abnormal behaviour

1. neurotransmitter/hormonal imbalances 2. genetic and constitutional influences 3. and physical damage to brain structures.

The structure of Freudian personality

A person's behaviour is a result of the interaction of three key components of the psyche... *The ID*: The source of instinctual drives of life or sexual drives concerned with the libido and death drives which are destructive that tend towards aggression destruction and death. The ID follows the pleasure principle, that is solely selfishly pleasure seeking with no regard to moral considerations, and Freud overarches the life drive to embody anything that brings pleasure. Although the ID can generate mental images and which fulfilment fantisies referred to as *primary process thinking*, it cannot undertake the realistic actions needed to meet instinctual demands. *The Ego*: Is the mediator between the demands of the ID and the realities of the external world. In addition, it balances the constraints of the moral Super Ego. This develops in a child after the initial ID is developed to mediate the demands. The Ego's adaptive measures are referred to as *Secondary processes thinking* and the ego acts off the *reality principle*. Because the Ego balances the demands of the ID, the realities of the External world and the moral constraints of the Super Ego, the Ego is often called te Executive branch of personality. *Super Ego*: The demands of the ID are consistently in conflict with the rules and patterns of the external world. As the child learns and grows in development, he learns the rules of what is regarded right and wrong and this third part of the personality develops. This is an outgrowth of internalising the taboos and moral values of society. It is what we refer to as the conscience. The Super Ego is similar to the ID in that is has no regard for the realities, and demands morality and acts as a control system to mediate the desires and demands of the ID. Because these three subsystems are all striving for different goals, If unresolved, these *intrapsychic conflicts* can lead to mental disorder and abnormal personality development.

Genotype

A personals entire genetic endowment referred to their _______________ and, except for identical twins, no two humans ever begin life with the same endowment.

Diathesis

A predisposition or vulnerability towards developing a disorder is termed_____________ . It can derive from biological, psychological, or sociocultural causal factors.

Classical Conditioning

A specific stimulus may come to elicit a specific response through the process of classical conditioning. For example, although food naturally elicits salvation, a stimulus that reliably precedes and signals the presentation of food will also elicit salvation (Pavlow's dog). In this case, the food is the unconditioned stimulus, and the salvation is the unconditioned response. The stimulus that signals food delivery and eventually elicits salvation is called the conditioned stimulus. The conditioning occurred when the presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone elicits salvation - the conditioned response. Classically conditioned responses are also well maintained over time, they are not forgotten easily. However, if a conditioned stimulus is frequently repeated without the Unconditioned response, the conditioned response gradually extinguishes. This is called *Extinction* but is not unlearning because the response may return at some future point. This is known as *Spontaneous recovery*. Moreover, somewhat weaker Conditioned responses may also still elicit a different environmental context that in the one where the extinction took place. Thus any extinction may not generalise to other contexts outside the therapist's office. Classical conditioning became important because many psychological and emotional responses can be conditioned, including those of fear, anxiety or sexual arousal and this stimulated by drugs of abuse. Ex. A young man who had his first powerful sexual experiences with an attractive woman in black may find himself becoming sexually aroused at the site of black clothing in the future.

Necessary Causes

A term used to specify the role a factor plays in the causal pattern of abnormal behaviour,__________________ is a cause that must exist alone for a disorder to occur. Ex. General paresis (y) cannot develop unless a person has previously contracted syphilis (x). If Y occurs, X must have preceded it only. To date, most mental disorders have not been found to have _________________, although there continues to be a search for the cause.

*polymorphisms*

Abnormalities in the chromosomes can be linked to abnormal behaviour and mental disorders. But, more often personality traits and mental disorders are not affected by chromosomal abnormality per se. Instead, they are due to abnormality in the genes or naturally occurring variation in the gene known as ____________________________.

Biopsychosocial view point

Acknowledge the biological, psychological and sociocultural factors all play a role in psychopathology and treatment.

Developmental systems approach

Acknowledges not only that genetic activity influences neural activity, which in turns influences behaviour, which in turn influences environment, but also that these influences are bidirectional. The first direction of influence is effected by environmental, physical and social influences , which in turn effect our neural activity, and in turn can influence genetic activity back.

Eclectic Approach

Alternatively, aspects of two or more diverse approaches may be combined in a more general eclectic appraoch. Typically those who use this approach make no attempt to synthesise the theoretical perspectives. Although this approach can work in practical settings, it is not successful as a theory because the underlying principles of many of the theoretical perspectives are incompatible as they now stand. Therefore the eclectic approach still falls short of the final goals, which is to tackle the theoretical clutter and develope a single, comprehensive, internally consistent viewpoint that accurately reflects what we know empirically about abnormal behaviour.

Methods for Studying *Behaviour Genetic* Influence

Although some advancements have been made, specific defects for mental disorders cannot be isolated from a gene itself. Most of the information we have on the role of genetics in mental disorders are based on the study of people who are related to each other. Three primary methods to do this have been used traditionally. Behaviour Genetics is the field that focuses on studying heritable mental disorders. 1)Family History 2) Twin Method 3) Adoption Method Although pitfall can arise in interpreting each of these methods, if the results from the studies using all three strategies converge, one can draw reasonbly strong conclusions about the genetic influence of the disorder

Schema

An underlying representation of knowledge that guides the current processing of information and often leads to distortions in attentions, memory, and comprehension. People develop different schemas based on their temperament, abilities, and experiences.

Behavioural Perspective of Behaviour

Arose in the 20th century in a part of the reaction against the unscientific methods of psychoanalysis. Behavioural psychologists believed that the study of subjective experience did not provide enough acceptable scientific data because such observations were not open to the verification of other investigators. Only the study of observable behaviour and the stimuli and reinforcing conditions that control it could serve as a basis for understanding human behaviour. Although this was focused in the lab, its implications for explaining maladaptive behaviour soon became very evident. The roots of behavioural perspective stemmed from Pavlos study of classical conditioning. Later on, Watson and Skinner advanced behavioural approaches. *Learning* - the modification of behaviour as a consequence of experience - became the central theme of behaviourism. Because most human behaviour is learned, the behaviourist addresses the question of how the learning occurs. They focus on the effect of environmental conditions on eh acquisition, modification and possible elimination of various response patterns, not adaptive and maladaptive.

Explain why the field needs a unified viewpoint and how the biopsychosocial viewpoint may fulfill that need.

At present, the only attempt at such a unified perspective is called the biopsychosocial viewpoint. This view reflects the conviction that most disorders are the result of many causal factors - biological, psychological and sociocultural - interacting with one another. Moreover, for any given person, the particular combination of causal factors may be unique, or at least not widely shared by a large number of people with the same disorder. Therefore, we can still hope to achieve a scientific understanding of many of the causes of abnormal behaviour even if we cannot predict such behaviour with exact certainty in each individual case and are often left with some unexplained influences. The biopsychosocial approach is promising, but in many ways, it is merely a descriptive acknowledgement of the complex interactions among biological, psychological, and sociocultural​ risk factors rather than a clearly articulated theory of how they interact.

Attributions, Attributional Style, and Psychopathology

Attribution theory has also significantly contributed to the cognitive behavioural approach. An attribute is simply the process of assigning causes to things that happen. We may assign behaviour to external events such as rewards or punishment, or we may assume that the causes are internal and derive from traits within ourselves or others. Causal attribution helps us explain our own and others behaviours and make it possible to predict what we or others are likely to do in the future. The attributional style is a characteristic was in which individuals to assign causes to bad events or good events. For example, depressed people tend to attribute events to internal, stable and global causes. Ex. I failed the test because I'm stupid, not because I had a bad teacher. However inaccurate our attributions may be, they become important parts of how we view the world and can have a significant effect on our emotional well-being.

Environmental Influences

Because each type of behavioural genetic method separates environment from genetics, this allows the environment also to be studied as an influence for evaluates both shared and non-shared environmental influences. Shared environmental influences are those that would make children in a family more similar, whether this occurrence happens within the family or int he environment. Non-shared environmental influences are those which the children and the family differ. These would include unique influences from school and could be due to unique parenting in the home such as parents treating one child in a quality different than an oh we. Ex. Quarrelling parents who will draw some parents into the fight while others can remain outside of it. For many important psychological characteristics, non-shard influence has appeared to be more important - that is the experience that is specific to a child may do more to influence his or her behaviour than experiences shared by all the children in a family.

Impact of Behavioural perspective

Because of resistance be psychoanalyst supporters, behaviourism did not become well established as a powerful view for abnormal behaviour util the 1960's-1970s. By then the assumed of the behaviourist was well on its way, and much evidence had been gathered on the power of its techniques. Using relatively few basic concepts, behaviourism attempts to explain the acquisition, modification and extinction of nearly all behaviour. Maladaptive behaviour is essential seen as the result of a failure to earn necessary adaptive behaviours or competencies such as how to establish a satisfying personal relationship and the learning of ineffective or maladaptive responses. Maladaptive behaviour is thus the result of learning that has gone awry and is defined regarding particular, observable, understandable responses. The focus of therapy is on changing specific behaviours and emotional responses - eliminating undesirable reactions and learning desirable ones. It is known for its precision and objectivity and its ability to be scientifically evaluated. It's been criticised however for its concern with symptoms over underlying causes. However, this has been rebutted due to the profound impact treatment of symptoms has had on giving patients their lives back. Others argue that behavioural approaches oversimplifies human behaviour and is unable to explain all the complexities.

genetic and constitutional influences

Biochemical processes are affected by *genes*: which consist of very long molecules of DNA and are present at various locations on *chromosomes*: which are chain-like structures within a cell nuclus that contain genes. Although not exclusively, we know that some behaviour and mental disorders have some genetic implications. genetically vulnerable people have usually inherited a large number of genes or polymorphisms of genes, that operate in some addictive or interactive fashion to increase vulnerability. Collectively they may lead to abnormality, but these are rarely expressed in a simple or straightforward mannor.

Impact of Biological Viewpoint of Abnormal Behaviour

Biological discoveries have profoundly affected the way we think about human behavior. We now recognize the important role of biomechanical factors and innate characteristics, many of which are genetically determined, in both normal and abnormal behavior. We have since witnessed the benefits of new drugs that can dramatically alter the severity of certain mental disorders and have allowed for more immediate results. However, many researchers still argue that it is not enough to know the biological differences between those with and those without disorders. All behavioural traits ( abnormal or not) are characterised by distinct biological characteristics, yet we do not label all of these traits with an illness? Thus the decision as to what constitutes as an illness ultimately still resides in clinical judgement regarding the functional effects of the disorder, specifically in if it leads to clinical distress or impairment of functioning. Establishing the environmental substrate does not bear on this issue because all behaviour has a biological substrate. Few mental disorders, if any, are free and independent of a person's personality or the problems they face. Environment will always influence profoundly genetic inclinations. It is not enough to have genetics on their own, environment and each unique individual must be considered when diagnosing.

Early Deprivation or Trauma

Children who do not have the resources are typically supplied by parents or parental surrogates may be left with deep and sometimes irreversible psychological scars . The needed resources range from food and shelter to love and attention. The most severe of deprivation is found in the form of abandonment, where children need to be institutionalised or placed in foster homes. However, this can also occur in intact families where, for one reason or another, parents are unable or unwilling to provide close and frequent human attention and nurturing. Such deprivation might result in oral fixation (Freud), interfere with (Erikson) basic trust, retard the attainment of needed skills (Skinner), or acquisition​ of dysfunctional schema and self-schemas (Beck) in which relationships are represented as unstable, untrustworthy, and without affection. A combination of these perspectives would be the best way of conceptualising the problem.

Parenting Styles: Warmth and Control

Differing parenting styles can also have an impact on child development and increased his to psychopathology, even when disconnected from the more severe potentials of trauma and abuse. Parenting styles, as well as disciplinary styles, have been found to affect children's behaviours over the course of development. A parenting style reflects an attitude and values that are expressed towards that child over a wide range of settings. Four types of parenting styles include: 1) Authoritative: Which the parents both are very warm and very careful to set clear standards ad minutes on certain kinds of behaviours while allowing considerable freedom within these limits. They are attentive and sensitive to their needs, while still enforcing limits and this style is associated most positively with early social development. Children tend to be energetic and friendly. With secure attachment relationships. 2) Authoritarian Parenting: Parenting with a permissive/indulgent style are high on warmth but low on discipline and control. This limited style of parenting is associated with impulsive and aggressive behaviour in children and adolescence. Over-indulged children are spoiled, selfish and impatient, and do less well academically later in life and show more antisocial ehaviour. 3) Neglectful Parenting: Low on warmth and control these parents tend to be disengaged and not supportive of their children. This is associated with disruptive attachment during childhood and with moodiness and low self-esteem in childhood. These children also have problems with peer relations and academic performance. Parental control includes both behavioural control ( rewards and punishment) and psychological control ( instruction, approval and disapproval).

Marital Discord and Divorce

Disturbed parent-child patterns such as parental rejection are rarely found in severe form unless the total family context is also abnormal. Marital discord, for example, has long-standing damaging effects on both children andparents. Severe cases may expose children to stressors already discussed, but even less severe cases of marital discord also have a negative effect on many children. Divorce can have a traumatic effect on children and adults leading to feelings of insecurity and rejection, conflicting loyalties. serious maladaptive behaviour in children has been noted as a result including temperament issues, delinquency, lower education and income potential as adults etc. However, many children also adapt quite well to divorce and the effects of divorce on children are often more favorable than the effects of remaining​ in a home torn with marital conflict.

What the Adoption of a Perspective Does and Does Not Do

Each of these three perspectives contributes to our understanding of Psychopathology., but none alone can account for the complexities of maladaptive human behaviour. Because different causal perspectives influence with components of maladaptive behaviour their observer focuses on, each perspective depends on generalizations from limited observations and research. Thus, which perspective we adopt has important consequences. It influences our perception of maladaptive behaviour, the types of evidence we look for and the way we are likely to interpret data. A wide range of causal factors are implicated in the origins of maladaptive behaviour, and some of these different viewpoints provide contrasting and sometimes complementary explanations for the causal factors exert and their effects.

Freudian Psychosexual Stages

Each stage is characterised by a dominant mode of achieving sexual pleasure: 1: Oral Stage: First 2 years of life. Mouth is the erogenous zone. The greatest source of gratification is sucking. 2: Anal stage: age 2-3. The anus is the erogenous zone where toilet training is often going on, and children have urges to retain and eliminate. 3: Phallic stage: age 3-5. Self-manipulation of genitals provides major pleasure sensation. 4: Latency period: age 6-12 where sexual motives are received as the child becomes preoccupied with developing skills and other activities. 5: Genital stage: After puberty, the deepest feeling of pleasure come from sexual relations. The appropriate gratification during each stage is necessary if a person is to avoid being stuck or fixated at a certain level.This fixation can lead to maladaptive behaviour.

Interpersonal Perspective

Emphasises the social and cultural factors rather than the internal determinants of behaviour. People are inherently social beings motivated primarily by their desire to belong and participate in a group. Erich Fromm and Karen Horney, later on, grew out of this theory and departed from traditional psychoanalytic theory for its neglect of crucial social factors. These two theorists focused on the orientations or dispositions that people adopted as a result fo their social environments. Horney in addition rejected Freud's views of women. Erik Erikson also extended Freud's stage theory into more socially acceptable orientations of eight stages.

Inadequate Parenting Styles

Even in the absense of severe deprevation, neglect, or trauma, many kinds of deviations in parenting can have profound effect on a childs subsequent ability to cope with lifes chalenges andthus can create a childs vulnerability to various forms of psychopathology. Psychological viewpoints on cause of psychopathology all focus on behavioural tendencies a child acquires in the course of early interaction with others - cheifly parents or parental surrogates. Parental Psychopathology: finds that parents who have various forms of psychopathology tend to have one or more children who are at a heightened risk for a wide range of developmental difficulties unless protective factors are present. Many researchers believe that although there is evidence for genetic components of this, genetics cant account for all the adverse effects these can have on children. ex. Although children of alchoholics may not have an inclination to abnormal behaviour, some may have elevated rates of truancy, substance abuse and greater levels of anxiety and depression etc.

What is extinction and how might it be used in treating a disorder?

Extinction is a factor of classical conditioning. In Classical conditioning specific stimulus may come to elicit a specific response. For example, although food naturally elicits salvation, a stimulus that reliably precedes and signals the presentation of food will also elicit salvation. In this case, the food is the unconditioned stimulus, and the salvation is the unconditioned response. The stimulus that signals food delivery and eventually elicits salvation is called the conditioned stimulus. The conditioning occurred when the presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone elicits salvation - the conditioned response. Classically conditioned responses are well maintained over time. However, if a conditioned stimulus is frequently repeated without the unconditioned response, the conditioned response gradually extinguishes. This is called *Extinction* Extinction in classical conditioning has become important in treating disorders because many psychological and emotional responses can be conditioned or extinguished through these means. A classical conditioning professional would be able to treat a disorder such as fear, anxiety or sexual arousal, stimulated by drugs or abuse, by frequently repeating the stimulus without the unconditioned response. Eventually over time the conditioned response of maladaptive behaviour would gradually extinguish, helping treat the disorder.

Object Relations Theory

Focus on individuals interactions with real and imagined other people ( external and internal objects). And on the relationships that people experience between their internal and external objects. The object is considered to be another thing or person in the child's environment, most often a parent. Through the process of introjection, a child symbolically incorperates into their personality ( through images or memories) important people into their lives. For example, a child might internalise images of their punishing father; that images then becomes a harsh self-critic and influences how that child behaves. These internalised objects could have various conflicting properties such as exciting versus holstile, and these objects could split off from the central ego and maintain an independent existence, thus giving rise to inner conflict. An individual experiencing splitting among internalized objects is a servant to many masters and cannot lead an integrated or orderly life.

Brain Communication

For the brain to function adequately, neurons, or nerve cells, need to be able to communicate effectively with one another. The site of communication between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body if another neuron is the *synapse* - a tiny fluid-filled space between neurons. The interneuronal transmissions are accomplished by *neurotransmitters* - chemical substances that are released into the synapse but the presynaptic neuron when a nerve impulse occurs. There are many kinds of neurotransmitters; some increase the likelihood of that postsynaptic neuron will fire, and others inhibit the impulse. Whether a neurological message is successfully transmitted to the postsynaptic neuron depends on the concentration of certain neurotransmitters within the synapse.

Freudian Structure of Personality Fundamentals

Freud founded the psychoanalytic school of thought, which emphasise the role of unconscious motives and thoughts and their dynamic interrelationship in the determination of normal and abnormal behaviour. the conscious resembles a very small part of behaviour, where the unconscious, submerged like an iceberg, is a larger portion. In the unconscious hurtful memories, forbidden desires, and other experiences have been repressed. Yet, these unconscious materials try to seek expression and emerge in the preconscious and conscious in the forms of fantasies, dreams and slips of the tongue. Until these unconscious materials are brought to awareness through psychotherapy, they appear in maladaptive forms that can affect behaviour.

Cognitive Theory

Fundamental to Becks perspective is the idea that the way we interpret events and experiences determine our emotional reactions to them. The central issue for cognitive therapy, then, is how to best alter​ distorted and maladaptive cognitions, including the underlying maladaptive schemas that lead to different disorders and their associated emotions. Clinicians use a variety of techniques designed to alter whatever negative cognitive biases the client harbors. This is in direct contrast with psychodynamic practice, which assumes that diverse problems are due to a limited array of intrapsychic conflicts and tends to not focus treatment directly on the person's particular problems or complaints.

Seritonin

Has had important effects on how we think and processes information from our environment as well as on behaviour and moods. It plays a role in emotional disorders such as anxiety and depression as well as in suicide.

Hormonal Imbalances

Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by a set of endocrine glands in the body that secrete hormones into the blood streme that travel to affect target cells in various parts of the brain and body, influencing diverse events such as fight or flight, sexual responses, physical growth and other psychical and mental states.

Twin Method of Behavioural Genetics

Identical twins share the same genetic endowment because they developed out of a single zygote. Thus if a given disorder were completely heritable, one would expect a concordance rate 0 the percentage of twins sharing the disorder trait - to be 100%. However, there are no forms of psychopathology in DSM-5 TR where the concordance rates for identical twins are this high, so we can safely conclude that no mental disorders are completely heritable. Never the less we see relatively high concordance rates in identical twins in some more severe forms of Psychopathology. These are particularly influential when they differ from those found in none identical twins. Nonidenticle twins do not share any more genes than do siblings from the same parents because they developed out of two distinct eggs. One would expect concordance rates for a disorder to be much lower in these if the disorder had a strong genetic component. This evidence for genetic transmission of a trait or disorder can be obtained by comparing the concordance rates between identical and not identical twins. For most disorders, concordance rates are much lower for nonidenticle twins than identical. Some argue that environment may have a large role as identical twins tend to be treated more similarly than none identical twins or sibilings, but most research states that the genetic similarity is more important than the similarity of the parent's behaviour. The ideal study, however, involves identical twins who have been reared apart in significantly different environments. This is very difficult to find.

Generalization and Descrimination

In both classical and instrumental conditioning, when a response is conditioned to one stimulus or set of stimulus, it can be evoked by other similar stimulus. this is called __________________. Example. A person who fears bees may generalise this to all flying objects & A process which occurs when a person learns to distinguish between similar stimuli and to respond differently to them based on which ones are followed by reinforcement. Ex. Because red strawberries taste good and green ones do not, a conditioned discrimination would occur if a persona as an experience with both. Although generalization enables us to use past experiences to size up new ones, the possibility of making inappropriate generalizations always exists, as when a trouble adolescence fails to discriminate between friendly and hostile teasing from peers In some instances, an important discrimination seems to be beyond an individual's capacity and may lead to inappropriate and maladaptive behaviour.

Institutionalization

In some cases children are raised in an institution where compaired to an ordinary home, there is likely less warmth and physical contact, less emotional and intellectual stimulation, and lack of encouragement and help for positive learning. Many children institutionalised in infancy, and early childhood shows severe emotional, behavioural and learning problems and are at risk for disturbed attachment relationships. Institutionalization in later childhood was not found to be so damaging, and some children show out of the ordinary resilience from other positive experiences experiences. As a result of this research, social policy has made great advancements to place children in adopted home instead of institutions. Yes, this remains a problem in eastern Europe.

SocioCultural Causal Factors

Include: 1) Socioeconomic Status and Unemployment 2) Prejudice and discrimination in race, gender and ethnicity 3) Social Change and Uncertainty 4) urban stressors such as violence and homelessnessAre all associated with greater risk for various maladaptive and abnormal personality disorders. Details on ph 100-103

Sufficient Cause

Is a Cause (x) that guarantees the occurrence of a disorder (y). For example, hopelessness (x) is _______________ for depression (y). If x occurs then y will also occur guaranteed. However, _________ does not be a necessary cause. There may be a condition that guarantees the occurrence, but it may not be the only condition that precedes it, and other causes apart from this that could precede it.

Impact of Psychoanalytic Theory

It developed therapeutic technique such as free association and dream analysis for becoming acquainted with both conscious and unconscious aspects of mental health which lead to current thinking of unconscious motives and defense mechanisms impacting human behaviour, the importance of early childhood development, and the importance of sexual factors in human behaviour and mental disorders. Also, Freud demonstrated that certain abnormal mental health phenomenon occurs in the attempt to cope with severe problems and are simply exaggerations of normal ego defense mechanisms. It is criticised for its inability to generate a scientific theory to explain abnormal behaviour. It fails to acknowledge the scientific limits of personal raports or information. There is also the lack of scientific evidence to support many of its explanatory assumptions, and it has been criticised for its over-emphasis on sex drives and its demeaning view of women. It focuses on unconscious motives without taking into account external influence and motives towards personal growth have also been criticised.

Attachement Theory

John Bowlby theory has become enormously influential in child psychology. Drawing of Freud and others from these perspectives, Bowlby's theory emphasises the importance of early experiences, especially early experiences with attachment relationships, as laying the foundation for later functioning through childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. He stressed the importance of quality parental care to the development of secure attachments, but he also sees the infant as playing a more active role in shaping the course of his or her own development than had most earlier theories.

Neglect and Abuse

Most infants subjected to parental deprivation are not separated from their parents, but rather suffer from maltreatment at home. Neglect, sexual and physical abuse are also factors, but studies show neglect may be worst than physical abuse. Abused children have a tendency to be overly aggressive, have difficulty linguistically, and significant problem in behavioural, social, and emotional functioning. Abused children often adopt a *distorted style of attachment* characterised by disorganised, insecure and inconsistent behaviour with the primary caregiver and expect others in external relationships to treat them in the same way. Previously abused individuals often suffer from lower education, employment and earning potential. It also can predict both familial and non-familial violence - hence why a large number of those who abuse others have been abused themselves.

Chemical Circuit

Neurons sensitive to a particular neurotransmitter tend to cluster together, forming a neural pathway between different parts of the brain called a ____________.

Brain Dysfunction and Neural Placicity

Observable defects to the brain are rarely a primary cause of a psychiatric disorder. However, advances in understanding how more subtle deficiencies of brain structure or function are implicated in many mental disorders have been increasing. Through new techniques and genetic programming we are learning about the neural plasticity of the brain to be able to make changes in the organization nd function in response to pre- and postnatal experiences, stress, diet, disease, drugs, maturation, etc. Existing neural circuits can be modified, and new circuits can be generated in a way that is either beneficial or detrimental to an individual depending on their circumstances.

Hypothalamus & Pituitary Glands

Our central nervous system is linked to our endocrine system by the effects of the hypothalamus on the pituitary gland, which is the master gland of the body that regulates and controls the other endocrine glands.

Schemas and Cognitive Disortions

Our schemas about the world around us are our guides through the complexities of living in the world as we understand it. For example, we have schemas about other people, about social roles, and about events. Our "self Schema: includes our views about who we are, what we might become, and what's important to us. Other parts of this concern our notions of the various roles we occupy such as "woman", "man", "Student", "parent" etc. Most people have a clear idea about at least some of their personal attributes and less clear about other ones. Schemas are vital to our ability to engage in a practical and organised behaviour because they enable us to focus on the most relevant and important bits of information available to us. However, schemas are also sources of psychological vulnerability because some of our schemas may be distorted and inaccurate, and we may be resistant to change our view of them consciously or not. We tend to try to *assimilate*, or work our experiences into our current cognitive framework and *reject or distort* things that contradict it. *Accomidation* is used to change our existing framework to make it possible to incorporate new information that does not fit - is for threatening. This is the goal pf psychological therapies. Another important feature of information processing is that a great deal of information is processed *non consciously* or outside our awareness.

Maladaptive Peer Relationships

Peer relationships also have a significant effect on the development of maladaptive behaviour. A child who fails to establish satisfactory relationships with their peers during the developmental years is deprived os a crucial set of background experiences and is at higher risk for a variety of negative outcomes in adolescence and adulthood including depression, school dropout, suicidal ideation, and delinquency.

Genotype-Environment Interaction

People with different genotypes may be differently sensitive or susceptible to their environments. Ex.a genetic predisposition to stress may be more affected by environmental stress than those without the predisposition.

Dopamine

Plays a role in pleasure and cognitive processing, and it has been implicated in schizophrenia as well as addictive disorders.

Temperment

Refers to a child's reactivity and characteristic ways of self-regulation. Out early temperament is thought to be the basis for which our personality develops. These seem to be related to the three most important dimensions of adult personality: (1) neuroticism or negative personality, (2) extraversion of positive emotionality and (3) contraint or conscientiousness and agreeableness. Temperament may also set the stage for the development of various forms of psychopathology in later life. Ex. a fearful and hypervigilant child could develop an anxiety disorder later. Behaviorally inhibited children could lead to anxiety disorders in adulthood. Behaviourally uninhibited children show little fear of anything and may have difficulty learning moral standards leading to aggressive or delinquent behaviours as adults. pg. 73 if further detail is needed.

Cognitive-Behavioural Perspectives on Behaviour & Its Impact

Since the 1950's many psychologists have focused on cognitive processes and their impact on behaviour. Cognitive psychology involves the study of basic information processing mechanisms such as attention and memory, as well as higher mental processes such as thinking, planning and decision-making. This view resulted from a rejection of the mechanistic nature of the radical behaviourist viewpoint, including its failure to attend to the importance of mental process - both in their own right and for their influence on emotions and behaviour. Albert Bandura, a learning theorist, placed considerable emphasis on the cognitive aspects of learning stressing that human beings regulate behaviour by internal symbolic processes or thoughts. That is, we learn by *internal reinforcement*. According to Baundra, we prepare ourselves for difficult tasks, for example, by visualising what the consequences would be if we did not perform them We do not always require external reinforcement to alter our behavioural pattern; our cognitive abilities allow us to solve many problems internally. A human being has the capacity for self-direction stating that one can achieve their desired goals, and cognitive behavioural treatment works in large part to improve this self-efficacy. TODAY: a Cognitive behavioural perspective on abnormal behaviour focuses on how thoughts and information processing can become distorted and lead to maladaptive behaviour and emotions. One major aspect of this is the notion so *Schema* which is an underlying representation of knowledge that guides the current processing of information and often leads to distortions in attentions, memory, and comprehension. People develop different schemas based on their temperament, abilities and experiences.

Association Studies

Start with two large groups of individuals, one group with and one group without a given disorder. Researchers then compare the frequencies int these two groups of certain genetic markers known to be located on a particular chromosome( such as eye color). If one or more common genetic marker occurs with a higher frequency in the individuals with the disorder than in the people without, the researchers would infer that one or more genes associated with the disorder are located on the same chromosome.

Discuss the diathesis-stress model to understanding the causes of abnormal behaviour.

The *Diathesis* is a relatively distal necessary or contributory cause, but it is not sufficient enough to cause a disorder. There generally must be a more proximal undesirable event ( the stressor), which may also be contributory or necessary but is not sufficient by itself to cause the disorder except in someone with the diathesis. *Stress* is the response of an individual to demands that he or she perceives as taxing or exceeding his or her personal resources. It usually occurs when an individual experiences a chronic or episodic event that is undesirable and leads to behavioural, psychological and cognitive accommodation. Contributors to Diathesis are themselves sometimes highly potent stressors. *The Additive Model* Suggests individuals who have a high level of diathesis may need only a small level of stressors before a disorder develops, but those who have a low level of diathesis may need to experience a large amount if stress to develop a disorder. The diathesis and the stress sum togehter, will have, and when one is high the other can be low; and vice versa. * The Interactive Model* suggests some amount of diathesis must be present before has any effect. Someone with no diathesis will never develop a disorder, no matter the level of stress they experience, whereas someone with diathesis will show the increasing likelihood of developing the diorder with increasing levels of stress. More complicated models exist as well because diathesis often exists on a continuum. typically, neither the diathesis nor the stress is by itself sufficient to cause disorder, but in combination, they can sometimes lead to behave abnormally. These should be considered in the broad framework of multicausal development models.

Neurotransmitter Imbalances

The believe that imbalances in neurotransmitters in the brain can result in abnormal behaviour is one of the basic tenets of the biological perspective today, although most agree this is only part of the causal pattern involved in most disorders. neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that pass to and from neurons through the axon to stimulate cell responses. Imbalances in neurotransmitters may be created by... 1. Excessive production and release of neurotransmitter substance into the synapse, causing a functional excess of levels of that neurotransmitter. 2. There may be dysfunctions in the normal process by which neurotransmitters, once released into the synapse, are deactivated. Ordinarily, this deactivation occurs either through the process of reuptake of the released neurotransmitters from the synapse into the axon endings or through the process of degradation by certain enzymes that may be present in the synapse and in the presynaptic axon endings 2. Finally, there may be problems with the receptors in the postsynaptic neurone, which may be either abnormally sensitive or abnormally insensitive. Medications are often used to correct these imbalances by altering the process of how these neurotransmitters function.

Freudian Anxiety, Defence Mechanisms and Unconscious

The concept of Anxiety - generalised feelings of fear and apprehension - is prominent in the psychoanalysis viewpoint because is is almost a universal symptom of neurotic disorders. Freud believed that anxiety played a significant role in all forms of psychopathology and at some times it is overtly expressed nd at others it is repressed or transformed into a manifest in order to overt symptoms such as conversion blindness o paralysis. Anxiety is a warning of impending danger and forces the individual to take corrective action. Often the ego can cope with objective anxiety through rational measures. However, neurotic and moral anxiety because they are unconscious usually cannot be dealt with through rational measures. In these cases, we result to *Ego-defense mechanisms* which discharge or soothe anxiety by pushing painful ideas out of the conscious rather than dealing with the problem.These result in a distorted view of reality. These includes: Displacement: Discharging pent up aggression on objects less dangerous than those arousing feelings Fixation: Attaching oneself in an unreasonable way to some person or arresting emotional development on childhood or adolescent level. Projection: Attributing one's unacceptable behaviour to others. Rationalization: Using contrived explanations to conceal or disguise unworthy motives for one's behaviour. Reaction Formation: Preventing the awareness of expression of unacceptable desires by an exaggerated adoption of the opposite behaviour. Regression: Retreating to an earlier developmental phase involving less mature expression. Repression: preventing painful or dangerous thoughts from entering consciousness. Sublimation: Channeling frustrated sexual energy in substantive activities like painting wildly erotic pictures.

Advantages to Theoretical ViewPoints

Theoretical Integrity and adherence to a systematic viewpoint have a key advantageL They ensure a consistent approach to one's practice or research efforts. Once mastered, the methodology can guide a practitioner or researcher through the complex web of human problems. But it also had disadvantages. By excluding other possibilities and explanations, it can blind researchers to other factors that may be equally important. Each is limited in some way by its focus. two general trends occur as a result. First, the original model or theory may be revised by expanding or modifying some elements, or to multiply and co-exist - each theory with its own proponents - rather than assimilating into previous views.

Impact of Psychodynamic Perspective of Behaviour

There are many more Psychological than Biological interpretations of abnormal behaviour, reflecting a wider range of opinions on how to best understand humans as people with motives desires, perceptions and thoughts, rather than just biological organiz=sms. Three distinct viewpoints 1) Psychodynamic, 2) Behavioural and 3) cognitive behavioural represent three distinct and sometimes conflicting orientations, but in many ways are complementary. Each emphasises the importance of early experience and an awareness of psychological processes within an individual and how these are also influenced by the social environment.

Family History Behavioural Genetics

This is also known as Pedegree, which requires an investigate to observe a sample of relatives of each proband or index case ( the subject, or carrier, of the trait or disorder in question) to see whether the incidence increases in proportion to the degree of heredity relationship. In addition, the incidence of the disorder in a normal population is compaired as the control. the main limitation to this method is that many people who share the same genetics also tend to share more similar environments, which makes it difficult to distinguish between environmental influence for behaviour and genetic influence.

Instrumental Conditioning

This is when an individual learns how to achieve the desired goal. This is essentially the concept of reinforcement - the delivery of a reward or the removal from an aversive condition. New responses are learned and tend to recur if they are reinforced. Although it was originally believed instrumental conditioning consisted of simple reinforcement, it is not believed that an animal or person can learn a response-outcome expectancy where it learns that a response will lead to a rewarding outcome. If sufficiently motivated for that outcome, the person will make a response that he or she has learned this outcome. Initially, a high rate of reinforcement may be necessary, but eventually, a lesser rate is required.

Discuss feedback and circularity models for understanding behaviour

Traditionally in the sciences, the task of determining cause-and -effect- relationships has focused on isolating condition x ( cause) that can be demonstrated to lead to condition y (effect). For example when the alcohol content of the blood reaches a certain level, alcoholic toxication occurs. When more than one causal factor is involved, the term causal pattern is used. This concept of cause follows a simple linear pattern in which a given variable or set of variables leads to a result either imminently or later. In behavioural science, however, not only do we usually deal with a multitude of interacting causes but we also have difficulty distinguishing between what is a cause and what is an effect because the effect can serve as feedback and which can turn and influence the causes. The effect of feedback and the existence of mutual, two-way influences must be taken into account. Causal relationships must take into account the complex factors of bidirectionality of feedback. ex. A boy with a history of disturbed interactions routinely misinterprets others intentions as being hostile. He then develops defensive strategies to counteract supposed hostility. Others, as a result, become defensive and hostile due to his prickly behaviour and affirm and strengthen his distortions.

Psychological Causal Factors of Abnormal Behaviour

Unfortunately, some of our experiences we experience in early childhood may be much less helpful in our later lives, and we may be influenced by factors from early childhood that we have and had no control over. exposure to multiple uncontrollable and unpredictable frightening events in childhood is likley to leave a person vulnerable to anxiety and negative affect, a central problem in a number of mental disorders such as anxiety and depression. An individual who has the same frequency of experineces with negative experiences that *are* controlled or predictable, however are more likley to not experience the same vulnerability to anxiety. Psychological causal factors that effect socioemotionl developments interact with eachother and with other psychological factors, as well as with genetics, sociocultural factors and environements. Although psychological factors are often studies indepedently from genetic, tempermental, and sociaocultural factors, the more comprehensive biopsychosocial understanding should be the ultimate goal.

*Polygenic*

Vulnerabilities to mental disorders are almost always ___________________: influenced by multiple polymorphisms of genes, with only one gene having only one very small effect.

Conditioned avoidance

When an individualconsistantly avoids something that elicits a response of anxiety, thus reinforcing the fear.

Genotype-Environment Correlation

When the genotype shapes the environmental experiences a child has early in life that lead to later in life experiences, we refer to this as __________________. there are three important ways in how this can come about... 1. Childs genotype may have a *passive* effect on the environment resulting from genetic similarity to parents and children. ex. Highly intelligent people may have a highly intellectually stimulating environment for their child, thus creating an environment that will interact in a positive way with the child genetic endowment for intelligence. 2. A child's genotype may *evoke particular types of reactions* from social and physical environments - an evocative effect. Ex. Active, happy babies, evoke a more positive response from others. 3. The child's genotype may *play a more active role* in shaping the environment - "active effect". In this, the child seeks out to build an environment that is congenial - "Niche Building". Ex. Children who are extroverted may seek out others to enhance their tendencies to be sociable.

Widely Prescribed Antidepresents

Zoloft and Prozac

Linkage Analysis

____________ studies of mental disorders capitalise on several currently known locations on chromosomes of genes for other inherited physical characteristics or biological processes ( ex. eye color). Researchers might conduct a large family pedigree study on schizophrenia going back several generations, while also tracking something like the eye color of each indiidual because it has a particularly known marker on a specific chromosome. If researchers found a link in the eye color and pattern of schizophrenia they could infer that a gene affecting schizophrenia must be located nearby on the chromosome that contains the genetic makeup of eye color.

Protective Factors

_______________ Are the influences that modify a person's response to environmental stressors making it less likely the person will experience the adverse consequences of the stressors. Ex. a child having a protective and supportive parents that allow a solid attachment to form that can protect the child against the harmful effects of abuse. ________________ are no necessarily positive experiences, sometimes exposure to stressful experiences that are dealt with successfully can promote self-confidence and serve as a protective factor. Protective factors most often lead to *resilience* or the ability to adapt successfully to difficult circumstances. We can observe protective factors that either derives from particular experiences or certain qualities of the person, that can promote resilience in the face of vulnerability or stress. Protective factors can be the reason why two identical genetic individuals experience different inclinations to disorders. different models of abnormal behaviour identify different diatheses nd stressors as the route to abnormal behaviour, and different protective factors as the route to resilience in the face of adversity.

Reinforcing Contributory Causes

a condition that tends to maintain maladaptive behaviour that is already occurring. ex. extra attention that may come when a person is ill; these pleasant experiences may unintentionally discourage recovery.

Monoamines

meaning each is synthesized from a single amino acid

Oedipus & Electra Complex

occuring during the phallic stage, Freud took this stage from greek mythology where Oedipus unknowingly killed his father and married his mother. Each young boy longs to be with his mother sexually and viewed the father as the rival. They also believe the father will punish them by cutting off their penis. This is castration anxiety that forces boys to repress these sexual feelings for their mothers. Eventually, if all goes well, the boy identifies with his father and comes only to have harmless affection for his mother channeling his sexual impulses towards other women. The Electra complex is the female counterpart to the Oedipus complex. Each girl desires to possess her father and replace her mother. Each girl also expresses penis envy, wishing she could be more like her father or brothers. She emerges out of the complex when she comes to identify with her mother and settles for a promissoru note: one day she will have a man of her own who will give her a baby which serves as a type of penis substitution. resolution to these conflicts is considered essential if a young adult is to develop satisfactory heterosexual relationships.