unit 3: political parties, elections, and elected officials
What is the difference between a closed and an open primary?
In a closed primary, only party members can vote for a nominee; in an open primary, anyone can vote.
The Media Campaign
Political campaigns depend on both paid and free media. Paid media includes the political advertisements that have been purchased by the campaign and are completely under the campaign's control. Free media is the regular coverage of the candidate and the campaign that the press does as part of its normal news gathering. Political campaigns do not control the free media, but they do their best to manipulate it. A candidate's campaign staffers will attempt to limit the media's access to their candidate, reducing the chances that reporters will goad the candidate into saying something unplanned. They will also try to stage media events that will make it into the news: those events include photo opportunities that provide appealing images of the candidate along with sound bites, which are brief, clever quotes that do not rely on context. Campaign advertisements include a variety of ad types, such as positive ads, negative ads, and contrast ads. Positive ads stress a candidate's qualifications, good character, and popular positions on policy issues. Negative ads attack an opponent's lack of qualifications, poor character, and unpopular stances on issues. Contrast ads compare the records and platforms of two candidates with a bias toward the candidate paying for the ad.
State Elections
The federal government has only four elected positions: representative, senator, vice president, and president. Many more officials are elected at the state level. Some state offices fill roles that are equivalent to federal positions. Like the president, a governor serves as the chief executive of a state government. A lieutenant governor fills a role similar to that of vice president, though the powers of the lieutenant governor vary from state to state. In some states, the lieutenant governor is elected separately from the governor, which can result in a state having leaders from different parties. Every state also elects a state legislature. As in Congress, state legislatures, except Nebraska's, are divided into upper and lower houses. States usually call the upper house a senate, and the lower house a house of representatives or a general assembly. The size of state legislatures varies widely. Alaska's upper house has only 20 members, but New Hampshire's lower house has 400. The number of constituents served by each legislator ranges from 2,000 in New Hampshire to 300,000 in California. At the national level, the president appoints an attorney general to head law enforcement for the country. Likewise, most states elect (or appoint) an attorney general to head up the state's law enforcement efforts. A number of elected positions at the state level have no counterpart in the federal government. Many states, for example, elect an insurance commissioner to regulate the insurance industry. In general, terms in office for state officials are shorter than those for federal officials. State legislators and officials serve for either two or four years, and states usually hold elections in even years, similar to federal elections.
1828-Democratic-Republican Party Splits and Jackson Wins Election
differing opinions, primarily around slavery, caused the Democratic-Republican Party to split, creating the Democratic and National Republican Parties. Andrew Jackson won the 1828 presidential election as a Democrat, defeating the National Republican candidate, John Adams.
1964-1968-Reemergence of Conservatism
After the Civil War, states in the former Confederacy voted Democratic in order to avoid supporting the Republican Party of Abraham Lincoln. As a result, the Democratic Party became a hodgepodge of different viewpoints and beliefs, from Dixiecrat segregationists to progressive New Dealers. Ultimately, many in the South grew upset at the increasingly liberal leanings of the modern Democratic Party. The 1964 and 1968 presidential elections saw the South vote for Republican candidate Barry Goldwater. Goldwater rejected the legacy of the New Deal and supported states' rights. He is often credited with the resurgence of the conservative politics that became the foundation of the modern Republican Party.
1790-Federalists and Democratic-Republicans Emerge
After the ratification of the Constitution and the formation of a federal republic, the nation's first political parties formed. The Federalists favored a more powerful central government and were led by John Adams. The Democratic-Republicans believed that the state governments should retain more power. They were headed by Thomas Jefferson.
1796-Washington's Farewell Address Warns Against Political Parties
As George Washington completed his second term, he chose to retire and to return to his Virginia home. President Washington warned the nation about the dangers posed by political parties. Despite this warning, political parties soon grew in power and influence. In the letter, Washington said The alternate domination of one faction over another, sharpened by the spirit of revenge, natural to party dissension, which in different ages and countries has perpetrated the most horrid enormities, is itself a frightful despotism.... There is an opinion that parties in free countries are useful checks upon the administration of the government and serve to keep alive the spirit of liberty. This within certain limits is probably true; and in governments of a monarchical cast, patriotism may look with indulgence, if not with favor, upon the spirit of party. But in those of the popular character, in governments purely elective, it is a spirit not to be encouraged
Political Parties
At the most basic level, political parties arise from the organized efforts of office holders, candidates, activists, and voters to influence and control the government in a way that agrees with their common interests. In short, the goal of the party is to attain power and have an impact on governing the country. And political parties are good at what they do. The 1992 presidential election provides a good example. Republican candidate and incumbent president George H. W. Bush competed against Democratic candidate Bill Clinton. A third candidate, Ross Perot, ran as an independent, without any political party affiliation. After a fierce political race, Bill Clinton won the election and became president. Clinton finished with 43 percent of the vote and 370 electoral votes (270 are needed to win), while Bush had 37.5 percent of the vote and 168 electoral votes. Perot, who spent millions of his own money, earned 19 percent of the vote, but didn't get any electoral votes, meaning he didn't win any states. Political parties allow individuals to organize and gain political power. But without the vast infrastructure of a political party, Perot had a difficult time competing during a long election.
Types of Political Polls
Different types of political polls, including tracking polls and exit polls, serve different purposes. Tracking polls are repeated periodically, asking the same questions, to monitor changes in public opinion. For example, a daily tracking poll during a candidate's campaign for office allows the candidate to gauge the impact of his campaign strategies from day to day. Long-term tracking polls monitor such issues as the president's approval rating and consumer confidence in the economy. Exit polls are conducted outside the places where people vote. Pollsters survey a sampling of voters in certain precincts that are considered representative of the district or the country as a whole. As voters exit the polling places, they answer how they voted. Media outlets use exit polls to predict the outcome of elections and to monitor election processes to make sure they are fair.
Elections and Campaigns
Elections provide the means through which political change occurs in the United States. They are the foundation of a representative system. Free and regular elections give the government legitimacy and confirm that the government is running with the consent of the people, upholding the American ideal of popular sovereignty. Not all countries in the world operate this way, however. For instance, some nations claim to be democratic systems, but their elections are neither free nor fair. In the United States, elections occur regularly every two, four, or six years, depending on the position that is up for election. Because different positions are elected on different schedules, elections at some level of government occur every year.
Two-Party System
For most of US history, the national political structure has featured a two-party system. Early on, there were the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans, then the Whigs and the Democrats, and finally the Republicans and the Democrats. Some countries, particularly communist and other authoritarian regimes, operate as one-party states. All political discourse and participation takes place under a single organization, and all candidates for office belong to a single party. Naturally, a one-party system tends to limit the choices available to voters. Most democracies in the world have multiparty political systems. In these nations, several political parties compete for control of the government. Multiparty systems offer many different options, some with radical views. France, for instance, features a Communist Party as well as a right-wing nationalist movement. Multiple parties most commonly exist in parliamentary systems, which receive proportional representation. Seats in the legislature are delegated according to the percentage of the vote that each party earned. The United States, in contrast, uses a winner-take-all system where only the top vote getter gains office. This feature of the US system of government, among others, favors a two-party system. Another factor that reinforces the two-party system is that the United States has single-member districts, meaning that a given election district has only a single representative in the House (while two senators represent each state). Furthermore, election laws make it difficult for third-party candidates to even get listed on an election ballot. The two-party system has existed for so long in the United States that it's difficult for many Americans to imagine an alternative system.
Functions of Political Parties
In the US system, the two major parties aren't based on a narrow set of political beliefs or goals, nor are they centered around a single individual. While each of the major parties does embody a loose set of political principles, both parties include diverse constituencies, or followers, that often disagree on important issues. What unites each party is not ideological purity, but the common goal of winning elections and gaining political power. Interestingly, some Founding Fathers did not approve of political parties. George Washington wrote in his farewell address that: The spirit of party . . . serves always to distract the Public Councils, and enfeeble the Public Administration. It agitates the Community with ill-founded jealousies and false alarms; kindles the animosity of one part against another, foments occasionally riot and insurrection. Even today, parties are often viewed as an unfortunate but necessary feature of US politics. Whether this view is accurate or not, political parties remain an important element of the US political system. Parties provide the essential bridge over the gap between people and government. Without parties, our system of government would look very different. As one of their primary functions, parties nominate, or choose, candidates for political office. The power to nominate candidates for office distinguishes parties from other politically influential groups. Without party nominations, voters would have to choose between a bewildering number of candidates on their ballots. Party nominations simplify and streamline the election process by providing voters with a limited number of choices. Parties serve other purposes as well. They help to educate the public about political issues and help citizens generate informed positions on important public policies. If a party isn't in the majority, it still serves a valuable function by overseeing and checking the power of the majority party. Finally, parties also help unify the country. They soften radical viewpoints and create compromise between different constituencies. The moderation of the parties can have the effect of limiting or delaying political reforms, but it also ensures that changes are acceptable to a broad swath of the US public.
2010-2011-Notable Increase in Congressional Party Unity Partisanship
In the early 2000s, partisanship became more pronounced, with Democratic and Republican politicians sticking strictly to their parties' platforms. Since the 1960s, members of each party have become increasingly unified in their voting patterns, tending in Congress to not work across the aisle with the other major party. This trend has led to more extreme and less moderate views dominating political discussions.
Local Elections
Local governments do not have a separate status in the Constitution; rather, they are subdivisions that states create to make governing easier. Several different types of local governments exist, with geographical jurisdictions that often overlap. Counties, townships, special districts, and municipalities are all types of local governments. Every local government elects its own officials. Some officials, such as mayors, serve as chief executives. Others, such as city aldermen, hold legislative functions. A great many officials fulfill specific tasks, such as enforcing the law (county sheriff) or overseeing public education (members of the school board).
Nonelected Positions
Many government officials are not elected at all; rather, they are appointed to their posts. Nonelected officials have expertise in what they do and require independence from the public will. Supreme Court justices, members of the president's cabinet, and senior military officials are all nonelected officials.
How Public Opinion Is Measured
Politicians use many sources of information to help them gauge public opinion, including election results, mail, email, telephone calls to public officials, letters to the editor in newspapers, and demonstrations. Candidates and parties use polls, or surveys, to formally measure public opinion. In a poll, pollsters interview a representative group of people and use the survey results to project the feelings and beliefs of the entire population. Public officials sometimes use information from polls to help guide their campaign and policy decisions. The questions in an opinion poll must be carefully worded to prevent the pollster's point of view from influencing the responses. Polls usually use multiple-choice questions, giving the respondents a limited range of answers, rather than open-ended questions. It is easier to quantify, or count, multiple-choice answers. For instance, a pollster can say that 80 percent of respondents favor choice A, 15 percent favor choice B, and only 5 percent favor choice C. A politician can then use this information to develop a position or build support for a particular policy.
Private Ownership of the Media
Private companies own most of the media outlets in the United States, a situation that has both benefits and drawbacks. Private ownership of both print and electronic media, combined with the constitutionally protected freedom of the press, allows the US news industry to enjoy more freedom of political expression than in most other areas of the world. However, this freedom comes at a price: the US news industry (other than public radio and television) depends on advertising revenues to function and make a profit. A media source boosts its revenues by increasing its audience and advertising. Because private news sources depend on advertising revenues, media companies often have to infuse their broadcasts with entertainment, which is often more profitable than strictly news programming. Concentration of media ownership into a few very large corporations is a growing trend. For instance, a small handful of companies own the vast majority of newspapers published in the United States. Often, a single company owns several different types of media in the same market, such as owning a newspaper, radio station, and television station all in the same city. These trends raise fears that media conglomerates will censor news that is unfavorable to their advertisers.
How Politicians Use the Media
Public officials can get information to the public through several journalistic channels. Press releases provide written statements to the media from government officials. Press conferences allow officials to answer questions coming from the press. Presidents and other chief executives use media interest in their offices to address the public directly through televised speeches. Officials offer statements in press conferences, press releases, and public addresses that are "on the record," meaning that the information from these sources can be quoted word-for-word and the sources of the information can be identified. Officials often speak to reporters on "background" or on "deep background," which means that the information gathered cannot be attributed to a specific individual. Information that is gathered "off the record" cannot be used at all in a story. In the United States, government officials may be prosecuted for revealing government secrets but journalists are protected. Reporters must guard their sources carefully—a source that is revealed without the source's permission may refuse to provide information to the reporter in the future. Increasingly, politicians attempt to manipulate the media by putting their own "spin" on events. In an attempt to influence public opinion, a politician will interpret issues and events in a way that places the politician or a cause or issue in the most favorable light. Politicians also provide off-the-record interviews to leak negative information about rival politicians or policies—again, in an attempt to influence public opinion. They often try to stage media events that they attend so as to maintain maximum control over the image of themselves that is ultimately conveyed to the public. In addition, politicians may conduct their own public opinion polls, in which they choose not only the questions that will be asked of people but the type and range of answer choices. Thus, they can manipulate the polls and control the reporting of public opinion.
Public Opinion and the Media
Public opinion is what people think of a given issue, whether the issue is violence in video games or US foreign policy. Americans form opinions on politics in several ways: by attending political events, by gathering political knowledge, by listening to the statements of leaders and opinion makers whom they respect, and by considering their own personal interests and values. Many Americans don't have strong opinions on issues that don't directly affect them. For example, teenagers typically don't form strong opinions on Social Security retirement programs, and the elderly do not often hold strong opinions about public school reforms. People much more readily form opinions on issues relevant to their everyday lives. Americans maintain a relatively high literacy rate in comparison to other countries; thus, their political knowledge can be formed from reading about the issues and reading others' opinions on these issues. Although most citizens can form their own political opinions, when candidates have only slight differences on an issue, or when generalized political knowledge is not sufficient, many people listen to statements from the media. Highly visible politicians, with access to the media, can influence the public.
1992-Ross Perot Runs a Successful Independent Presidential Campaign
Ross Perot used millions of dollars of his own money to run for president as an independent in the 1992 election. While he did not win a single state, Perot ran a remarkably successful campaign, receiving 19 percent of the popular vote. This campaign showed that third parties could find some success in the US political system. Perot ran for president again in 1996, this time as the candidate of the Reform Party, but gained only 8 percent of the popular vote. On a more limited scale, the formation of the Reform Party under Perot inspired the candidacy and success of Jesse Ventura, who won the governorship of Minnesota in 1998.
Congressional Elections: The House
The Constitution established that the US Congress would be bicameral—that is, divided into two legislative chambers, or houses. The Framers, wanting each chamber to have a distinct character, designed a different election process for each. The Framers intended the House of Representatives to be the part of the federal government closest to the people. Each of the 435 members of the House represents a single congressional district with a population of about 640,000 people. Every state has at least one congressional district, even if its population is less than 640,000 (like Wyoming). Every two years, representatives must submit themselves to the voters in their district. The small size of congressional districts and the frequency of House elections ensure that representatives remain responsive to their constituents. Unlike the president, representatives have no constitutionally determined term limits; representatives can serve as long as they are reelected.
1800-Jefferson Wins Election with Democratic-Republican Congres
The Democratic-Republican candidate, Thomas Jefferson, won the 1800 presidential election, and his party gained control in Congress. These victories spelled the end for the Federalist Party, which had a difficult time regaining power. In effect, the Democratic-Republicans dominated the next 20 years, with limited influence by the Federalists. The next major power struggle occurred within the Democratic-Republican Party, demonstrating the diminished influence of the Federalists
Congressional Elections: The Senate
The Senate is the House of Representative's counterpart in Congress. The Constitution originally called for senators to be selected by state legislatures, but since the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, the people have directly elected senators. States are given House seats in proportion to their population, but every state has two senators. All the voters in the state choose their senators every six years. Like representatives, senators can be reelected indefinitely with no federal term limits. Senatorial terms are rolling: every election cycle, one-third of the 100 seats in the Senate are up for election. The two Senate seats in a state are never up for election at the same time. Because they occur every six years, senate elections sometimes fall in the same year as a presidential election. So-called midterm elections occur in years when there is not a presidential election
Primaries and General Elections
The first stage of an election in the United States is a primary. To win a place on the election ballot, a candidate must first win a primary election, assuring the candidate a nomination by his or her party. In most states, each party nominates a candidate by a direct, popular vote, meaning voters go to the polls to vote for a candidate. The candidate who wins a majority of votes wins the party's primary nomination. In a closed primary, only party members can vote for candidates. Open primaries allow all registered voters, including independents and members of the opposite party, to vote for a party nominee. Once the parties have selected their candidates for various offices, each state holds a general election. In general elections, voters decide which candidates will actually fill each public office. These elections are held at many levels, including municipal, county, state, and national.
Media and Public Opinion
The media can have a powerful influence on public opinion. By acting as a gatekeeper of information, the media can focus on one event and ignore others, thus determining what news people receive and discuss. If someone does not have a great deal of knowledge or strong opinions about a topic, and if the topic is not relevant to his or her everyday life, the media can wield a very strong influence. While the press in the United States strives for objective reporting, many examples of bias still emerge. Bias is the tendency to see or present information from a certain point of view, which prevents the unprejudiced consideration of an issue. Many in the United States believe press bias is becoming increasingly apparent. Certain news channels or publications appear to have a conservative or liberal bias, making it important to carefully consider the sources we choose for information about current issues.
Presidential Campaigns
The presidential election differs slightly from other national elections. In early US history, party leaders would hold a meeting called a caucus where they would choose a candidate to run in the presidential race. The parties closed these meetings to those who were not party members. The nominees who ran for office were therefore not popularly elected. Today, only a few states use caucuses as part of a primary election, but these meetings are open to all eligible voters. In the Iowa caucuses, for example, residents from the state's 1,700 precincts meet to elect delegates to county conventions. The Iowa caucuses get a great deal of media coverage because, since about 1972, they have been the nation's first major event in the presidential election process. In a modern presidential election campaign, politicians who decide to run for president have a long slog ahead of them. They first have to announce their intention to run, which is often done years in advance. This allows a candidate to start getting support for his or her campaign as early as possible. Money has become a key issue in national campaigns, particularly in presidential campaigns, which now cost hundreds of millions of dollars. At this early point, the campaign focuses largely on winning the nomination at the national party convention. Along the way, candidates have to win support in the states. Today, most states hold primaries to select the candidate they believe should be chosen as a nominee. The delegates who head to the party's national convention then officially choose the candidate who will win the nomination. The delegates usually vote according to the results of their states' primaries. After securing the party nomination, each candidate focuses on winning the general election. In this campaign contest, candidates from opposing parties square off to earn votes. The Electoral College decides presidential elections, and states with bigger populations and more representation in Congress get more Electoral College votes. These states become incredibly important to the candidates' campaigns. As a result, a big part of campaigning involves traveling around the country to make speeches and hold rallies to gain support in important states. These campaign activities require a lot of money. With the Internet and television, candidates have many communication and advertising methods at their disposal. Candidates can choose to use negative attack ads against an opponent or use positive, self-supporting ads. Candidates must also pay for a campaign staff and professional campaign consultants. The campaign staff arranges travel, researches the opposing candidate, writes speeches, manages the media, and produces political advertisements.
Party Structure
The two major parties consist of local and state party organizations that are tied together at the national level by a national committee. The national committee, headed by the national chair of the party, works to coordinate strategy and distribute resources across the country. The national party leaders have limited control over the party at the local level. The real power of the Democratic and Republican parties exists at the local, or grassroots, level. The local parties organize volunteers, hold party meetings, recruit candidates, and raise money. They also select delegates to send to the state and national party conventions, where they get to vote on important party decisions. Party organization plays a valuable role in gaining votes and winning elections. National political party leaders depend on state party leaders to organize and spread information to local party leaders and activists in order to turn voters into supporters. Party formation unfolds in complex ways, but it shows how local politics still play a valuable role and even affect the national and state levels. Local and state party organizations were once stronger than they are today. Until well into the twentieth century, local political "machines" exerted enormous influence. These organizations, usually located in urban areas, used the patronage system to maintain their power: the machine would provide jobs, government contracts, and other favors to supporters in exchange for their votes. This system created greed and corruption that spread through government. Political reformers helped put an end to this corrupt system, diminishing the power of local political organizations and parties in general. The power of political parties has also declined as a result of the increasing number of minor parties and independents. Today, roughly a third of the electorate identifies with one of the major parties and another third identifies with the other party. The remaining third behave as independents or identify with one of the many minor parties. You might be surprised to know that the United States actually has more than 54 political parties. The smaller parties, commonly referred to as "third parties" because they are not one of the two major parties, include the Green Party, the Libertarian Party, the Reform Party, and the Constitution Party.
Presidential Elections
When most people hear the word election, they think first of America's quadrennial presidential campaign. That's only natural since the president of the United States is the single most important elected official in the country. But the president is only one of more than half a million public officials in the United States. Since they began in 1788, presidential elections have taken place every four years. Presidential election years are always divisible by four: 1864, 1900, 2008, and so on. Also, the Twenty-Second Amendment to the Constitution limits the president to two terms in office, so there is always a new president at least every eight years. As mandated by Article II of the US Constitution, presidential elections are not decided by a direct, popular vote. Instead, the Electoral College selects the next president of the United States. In this system, each state has a number of electors equal to the sum of its representation in Congress (two senators plus the number of representatives). In 48 states, whoever wins the popular vote in that state wins all of the state's electors. The exceptions are Maine and Nebraska, which allocate some of their electors by congressional district rather than selecting all electors on a statewide basis. To prevail in the presidential election, a candidate needs an absolute majority of electoral votes, which is half the total electoral votes plus one. With 538 electors, a candidate must receive at least 270 votes to be elected to the office of president or vice president. Should no presidential candidate receive an absolute majority, the House of Representatives determines who the next president will be. In all but a few cases in US history, the presidential candidate who received a majority of the popular vote also won the greatest number of electoral votes. The presidential election in 2000 was an exception. George W. Bush won a thin majority in the Electoral College, but nationally he received about 500,000 fewer votes than his opponent, Al Gore. Bush won the election, however, because he had more electoral college votes.
1832-First Presidential Nomination Convention
the democratic Party held the first ever presidential nomination convention, where it renominated Andrew Jackson to run for a second term. Shortly thereafter, the National Republican Party dissolved, and the Whig Party formed out of its ashes. The Whigs ran Henry Clay for president, but Jackson secured a second term in 1832.
1870-Political Machines Form
with poor workers and immigrants feeling left out of the political process, political machines formed in urban areas to fill the gap in local governments. Political machines provided jobs and services in exchange for votes. This system led to extreme greed and corruption, exemplified by William Tweed in New York City. Within a few decades, progressive political reforms emerged in part to address the corruption of political machines.
1932-New Deal Coalition Forms
with the crash of the stock market and the Great Depression setting in, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt launched a progressive platform aimed at boosting employment, wages, and financial security for struggling Americans. This New Deal platform would form the modern Democratic Party's foundation as a party of the working class, which favored targeted interventions in the free-market economy of the country.
1850-Rise of Republican Party as a Third Party
with the debate regarding the issue of slavery growing in bitterness, the Republican Party formed in the North to support the elimination of slavery. Around that time, the Whig Party fizzled away after 20 years as a national party and two successful presidential campaigns. Abraham Lincoln became the first Republican president in 1861
