U.S. Foreign Policy

Mission creep

A gradual shift in objectives during the course of a military campaign, often resulting in an unplanned long-term commitment. Undesirable due to the dangerous path of each success breeding more ambitious attempts, stopping only when a final, often catastrophic, failure occurs. Example: after driving the North Koreans out of South Korea in just three months, the U.S.-led force expanded the mission and crossed the 38th parallel, seeking to remove the regime and reunite the Korean peninsula. As a result, the United States fought for two and a half more years, losing 30,000 lives only to end up back at the 38th parallel More recently, in Afghanistan and Iraq, the goal expanded from regime change to nation building, resulting in the loss of thousands of lives and the expenditure of trillions of dollars in an attempt to make those countries stable democracies.

Iran-Contra Affair

1985-1987. Political scandal which took place during the second term of the Reagan Administration. Senior administration officials secretly facilitated the sale of arms to Iran, which was the subject of an arms embargo. They hoped, thereby, to fund the Contras in Nicaragua while at the same time negotiating the release of several US hostages. Under the Boland Amendment, further funding of the Contras by the government has been prohibited by Congress.

Fast-track authority

Renamed Trade Promotion Authority in 2002 Ability of US President to negotiate international agreement that Congress can approve or disapprove but cannot amend or filibuster, which can affect the President-Congress relationship. The authority is granted to the President. Many bilateral trade agreements were created in this manner. Ex. TPP Significance: Vital for the power of the presidency during the latter half of the Cold War as it allowed him to engage in diplomacy with foreign countries with the reassurance that when said deals were brought back to the US the substance of deal would not be altered by congress. It has been used most often when negotiating multilateral free trade deals and extensively by Presidents Bush and Obama in recent years.

NSC 68

- "the rapid building up of the political, economic, and military strength of the free world." - National Security Council Paper NSC-68 was a Top-Secret report completed by the U.S. Department of State's Policy Planning Staff on April 7, 1950. - Blueprint for militarization of the Cold War - The 58-page memorandum is among the most influential documents composed by the U.S. Government during the Cold War. - Its authors argued that one of the most pressing threats confronting the United States was the "hostile design" of the Soviet Union. - Best course of action was to respond to Soviet threat and weapon build up to our own massive buildup of US military and weaponry.

Reagan Doctrine (1985)

- Support for anti-communist revolutions (this is the Reagan doctrine) - Cold War tensions intensified in his early years - He would not tolerate communism in the hemisphere (as clear by invasion into Grenada where Soviet and Cuban troops began constructing military aircraft) - Aid in Afghanistan to anti-Soviet freedom fighters -Nicaragua- most controversial application: Reagan approved training of anti-Sandinista rebels (contras) to wage war from Honduras with CIA providing assistance. In '84 congress ordered an end to covert aid to the contras. Circumvented Congress by getting contributions from private individuals or foreign govs. - Iran Contra Affair

Nixon Doctrine (1969)

- US retreat from unconditional defense guarantees to lesser allies/ non-allies (driven by financial concerns and policy re-examination) - US could act as nuclear umbrella when requested though - Goals of detente and nuclear arms control with Soviet Union - Established formal diplomatic relations with People's Republic of China, shifting the direction on international policies in Asia - argued for the pursuit of peace through a partnership with American allies

Carter Doctrine (1980)

- Use military force if necessary to defend national interests in Persian Gulf - Response to Soviet Union intervention in Afghanistan in 1979, intended to deter Soviet Union from seeking hegemony in Persian Gulf region (attempt to gain control of this region is seen as assault of vital interests of US) - Oil interests in Persian Gulf

National Security Council

- inception under Harry S. Truman in 1947 - Principal forum used by the President of the US for consideration of national security and foreign policy matters with senior national security advisors and Cabinet officials - Part of the executive office of the president of the United States - Function: to advise and assist the president on national security and foreign policies. The Council also serves as the president's principal arm for coordinating these policies among various government agencies. - On May 26, 2009, President Barack Obama merged the White House staff supporting the Homeland Security Council (HSC) and the National Security Council into one

Intermestic issues

"Intermestic issues" refers to those matters of international relations which, by their very nature, closely involve the domestic economy of a nation. In the United States, such issues as international trade, oil imports, immigration, and transnational pollution (acid rain, etc.) are "intermestic," for they all combine American foreign relations with the state of the economic health of the nation.

Clinton Doctrine (1999)

- "The question we must ask is, what are the consequences to our security of letting conflicts fester and spread. We cannot, indeed, we should not, do everything or be everywhere. But where our values and our interests are at stake, and where we can make a difference, we must be prepared to do so" - Clinton later made statements that augmented the doctrine of interventionism: "Genocide is in and of itself a national interest where we should act" and "we can say to the people of the world, if somebody comes after innocent civilians and tries to kill them en masse because of their race, their ethnic background or their religion, and it's within our power to stop it, we will stop it." - The Clinton Doctrine was used to justify the American involvement in the Yugoslav Wars. - President Clinton was criticized for not intervening to stop the Rwandan Genocide of 1994. Other observers viewed Operation Gothic Serpent in Somalia as a mistake.

NATO and 'San Francisco System'

- Also known as the "Hub and Spokes" architecture (US is hub, no connection between spokes) - ^ this allowed US to exercise effective control over smaller allies of East Asia - Network of bilateral alliance pursued by the United States in East Asia, after the end of the World War II - allowed the United States to develop exclusive postwar relationships with the Republic of Korea (ROK), the Republic of China (ROC or Taiwan), and Japan. - Emerged under the U.S powerplay rationale, and is the most dominant security architecture in East Asia up to now Significance: These treaties are an example of bilateral collective defense. The legacy of the system is continuing until today, represented by the absence of the multilateral security architecture in the region like NATO. The hub and spokes system allowed the United States to not only contain the Soviet threat but also have exclusive power over the East Asia. With this system the US would be able to control of the rogue allies (rogue state) - anticommunist dictators who might start wars for reasons for domestic legitimacy (political) of their own regime. The US had a fear that it may be entrapped in an unwanted war, thus needed a way to contain these rogue allies. It is important to note that the nature of the relationship was a bit different with Japan from other East Asian countries. The US viewed Japan as a possible great power in East Asia. Thus, the US constructed the strongest defense treaty with Japan. The US wanted Japan to be more involved and share the burden in peace keeping in Asia.

Kennan's 'long telegram'

- Article published in Foreign Affairs in 1947 by George Kennan under pseudonym "Mr. X" - Kennan was convinced that the Soviets would try to expand their sphere of influence, and he pointed to Iran and Turkey as the most likely immediate trouble areas. In addition, Kennan believed the Soviets would do all they could to "weaken power and influence of Western Powers on colonial/ dependent peoples." - Said USSR would back down whens trong resistance was encountered, thus US and allies would have to offer such resistance - posited concepts that became the foundation of US Cold War Policy: USSR is at perpetual war with capitalism, USSR would use controllable Marxists in capitalist world as allies, Containment!!

Operation Desert Storm

- First major foreign crisis for US after end of Cold War - Saddam Hussein, dictator of Iraq, ordered an invasion of Kuwait - The United States had provided massive military aid to Iraq during their eight-year war with Iran, giving them the fourth largest army in the world. Kuwait was a major supplier of oil to the United States. The Iraqi takeover posed an immediate threat to neighboring Saudi Arabia, another major exporter of oil. - In 1990, the United States participated in the defense of Saudi Arabia in a deployment known as Operation Desert Shield. The UN condemned Iraq and helped form a coalition to fight Saddam militarily. Bush, remembering the lessons of Vietnam, sought public support as well. - January 16th 1991 Desert Shield became Desert Storm. Bombing sorties pummeled Iraq's military targets for the next several weeks. Iraq responded by launching Scud missiles at American military barracks in Saudi Arabia and Israel. Attacking Israel was a stratagem to persuade all the neighboring Arab nations to join the Iraqi cause. After intense diplomatic pressure and negotiation, the Arab nations remained in opposition to Iraq. On February 24, the ground war began. American foot soldiers moved through Kuwait and entered southern Iraq. This posed a dilemma for the United States. The military objectives were complete, but Saddam was still ruling Iraq from Baghdad. President Bush feared that the allies would not support the occupation of Baghdad. Concerns were raised that if Saddam's regime were toppled, the entire nation could disintegrate into a civil war. Iraq agreed to terms for a ceasefire, and the conflict subsided.

Selective Engagement

- Grand strategy; advocates that the US should intervene in regions of the world only if they directly affect its security and prosperity. - Focus on those powers with significant industrial and military potential and the prevention of war amongst those states. -Focuses on preventing nuclear proliferation and any conflict that could lead to a great power war, but provides no clear guidelines on humanitarian interventions. - Avoids both overly restrictive and overly expansive definitions of U.S. interests, finding instead a compromise between doing too much and too little militarily. Sig: Seen as the best strategy for achieving both realist goals—preventing WMD terrorism, maintaining great power peace, and securing the supply of oil; and liberal goals—preserving free trade, spreading democracy, observing human rights, and minimizing the impact of climate change.

Neoconservatives

- Liberal ends to a realist means, - Played major role in promoting and planning 2003 invasion of Iraq. - liberal mugged by reality (one who became more conservative after seeing the results of liberal policies) - Neoconservatives typically advocate the promotion of democracy and American national interest in international affairs, including by means of military force and are known for espousing disdain for communism and for political radicalism - "a tendency to see the world in binary good/evil terms", a "low tolerance for diplomacy", a "readiness to use military force", an "emphasis on US unilateral action", a "disdain for multilateral organizations" and a "focus on the Middle East". Ex: Want to alter regime type, using war to spread democracy (bring democracy to Iraq), jumpstart democracy at the end of a bayonet.

Truman Doctrine (1947)

- Main purpose: counter Soviet geopolitical expansion during the Cold War (such as containment in Greece and Turkey) - Direct American military force not involved (but Congress did give financial aid to support economies and militaries of Greece and Turkey) - Implied American support for other nations allegedly threatened by Soviet communism - Foundation of American foreign policy during Cold War - Led to NATO (1949) - His speech signified start of Cold War -Shift from detente to containment (as advocated by Kennan)

Eisenhower Doctrine (1957)

- Middle Eastern countries could request American economic assistance or aid from U.S. military forces if they are threatened. - Singled out the Soviet threat, committed US forces to prevent spread of communism - Phrase "international communism" made doctrine much broader than simply responding to Soviet military action - Danger linked to communists of any nation could invoke the doctrine - Suez Crisis; UK had control on Suez canal, gave it to Egypt, they were communist and said only a few people can use it, UK came back but US defnded

Group of 2, Group of 8, Group of 20, BRICs

-Group of 2: Proposed informal relationship between the world's two largest economies, the U.S. and Peoples Republic of China (PRC). Idea by C. Fred Bergsten. China and US would work together on global issue. Also would avoid possibility of tension build-up. China refused stating prefers a multipolar world. -Group of 8: (G8) Forum for the governments of a group of eight leading industrialized country. Originally formed by six leading industrialised countries and subsequently extended with two additional members. Began 1975 with France, West Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States. Russia was added to the group from 1998 to 2014, which then became known as the G8. In 2012 the G8 nations comprised 50.1% of 2012 global nominal GDP (excludes China). The G8 discusses and creates global policies. However, adherence to these policies is not obligatory, and other countries can decide whether or not to obey. -Group of 20: A group of the world's 20 major economies that convenes to discuss issues related to the global economy. -BRICs: Brazil, Russia, India, China- the four countries with the most rapid rates of economic growth. They are important because they are the most likely competitors to the United States' global economic dominance. Sig - Liberal institutionalism.

Powell Doctrine

-Journalist-created term, named after General Colin Powell in the run-up to the 1990-91 Gulf War. -It is based in large part on the Weinberger Doctrine, devised by Caspar Weinberger, former Secretary of Defense and Powell's former boss. T - Denotes the exhausting of all "political, economic, and diplomatic means", which, if all futile, is the only condition that nation should resort to military force. - Powell has so asserted that when a nation is engaging in war, every resource and tool should be used to achieve decisive force against the enemy, minimizing casualties and ending the conflict quickly by forcing the weaker force to capitulate. 1. Is a vital national security interest threatened? 2. Do we have a clear attainable objective? 3. Have the risks and costs been fully and frankly analyzed? 4. Have all other nonviolent policy means been fully exhausted? 5. Is there a plausible exit strategy to avoid endless entanglement? 6. Have the consequences of our action been fully considered? 7. Is the action supported by the American people? 8. Do we have genuine broad international support?

Bush Doctrine

-Principles include unilateralism and the use of preventative war. - Unilaterally withdrew from the Anti-Ballistic Missile treaty and rejected Kyoto protocol - After 9/11 > US had the right to secure itself against countries that harbor or give aid to terrorist groups (justified 2001 war in Afghanistan) - Strongly associated with decision to invade Iraq in 2003 - Strategy of preemptive strikes, particularly in the Middle East to counter terrorists (justifying invasion of Iraq)

New World Order

-Refers to any new period of history evidencing a dramatic change in world political thought and the balance of power. -Primarily associated with the ideological notion of global governance. -The key characteristics of the potential new order include: unchallenged American primacy, increasing integration, resurgent nationalism and religiosity, a diffusion of security threats, and collective security. -Changes in communications, the international economic system, the nature of security threats, and the rapid spread of new ideas would prevent nations from retreating into isolation. One of the first and most well-known Western uses of the term was in Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, and in a call for a League of Nations following the devastation of World War I. However, many commentators have applied the term retroactively to the order put in place by the World War II victors as a "new world order." The most widely discussed application of the phrase of recent times came at the end of the Cold War. Presidents Mikhail Gorbachev and George H. W. Bush used the term to try to define the nature of the post Cold War era, and the spirit of great power cooperation that they hoped might materialize. The Gulf War of 1991 was regarded as the first test of the new world order: "Now, we can see a new world coming into view. A world in which there is the very real prospect of a new world order... The Gulf war put this new world to its first test. This is a chance for the democratic peace predicted by liberal international relations theorists to come closer to reality.

Strategic Defense Initiative

A proposed missile defense system intended to protect the US from attack by ballistic strategic nuclear weapons. The concept was announced by Ronald Reagan in 1983. As a critic of the MAD doctrine, he called upon scientists and engineers of the US to develop a system that would render nuclear weapons obsolete. In 1987 the American Physical Society concluded that the technologies were decades away from being ready for use and soon the SDI budget was cut. After the Cold War support SDI collapsed. Significance: SDI is controversial for threatening to destabilize the MAD-approach and to possibly reignite an offensive arms race. This idea suggests there is a way to stop a nuclear attack before it happens.

Nation building and failed states

A state whose political or economic system has become so weak that the government is no longer in control. Characteristics: political and economic instability, poverty, civil disorder, terrorism, human trafficking, ethnic conflict, disease, and genocide. Current collapse in Africa/ Asia has roots in vast proliferation of nation-states at the end of WWII. Nation building: constructing or structuring a national identity using the power of the state. Broad process through which nations come into being. Aims at unification of the people within the state so that it remains politically stable in the long run. Some US military intervention constitutes nation building. 3 criteria: 1. Purpose for changing or propping up regime 2. Deploy large numbers of US ground troops 3. Involve US troops and civilians in political administration of the country. US attempted at nation building throughout history: Europe after WWII (successful, showed democracies could be built with little experience), Iraq (failure), Afghanistan (failure).

Ethnic lobby groups (AIPAC, CANF, AAA)

AIPAC: American Israel Public Affairs Committee- lobbying group that advocates pro-Israel policies. More than 100,000 members and has a vast pool of donors. One of the most powerful lobbying groups in the US. Some say it acts as agent of Israeli government and has strong hold on US Congress. CANF: Cuban American National Foundation- Cuban exile organization. Established in Florida in 1981. Used to advocate for isolation of Cuba by the USA but in 2009 they called for lifting US restrictions on aid and travel to Cuba and aiding civil society groups there. Accused by Cuba of funding terrorist attacks. AAA: Armenian Assembly of America- aim to improve US relations with Armenia in terms of aid, blocking aid to Turkey and Azerbaijan and Armenian Genocide recognition. Aims to influence foreign policy (like AIPAC). Significance: Spend a lot of money to influence and place their goals into the limelight of american politics through campaign donations and lobbying. AIPAC is most successful, most recently seeing success in the decision of the US to recognize Jerusalem as the capital of Israel instead of Tel Aviv. Challenges realist idea of unitary actor influencing foreign policy

Allison's three models

Allison published book in 1971: Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis, uses the crisis as a case study. Said that under 2nd two models nuclear war was possible. Challenges assumptions that states are rational and consider all options, challenges realist model. Attempt to explain international behavior, why states do what they do 1. Rational actor model: The state acts as a unitary rational actor to make decisions 2. Organizational Process model: The subunits of the state act according to predetermined procedures to produce an output. The state is still a unitary actor, but the analogy is now a quarterback not a chess player. 3. Governmental politics model: Those in charge of various states responsibilities (i.e. secretary of state, secretary of defense etc.) make predictable arguments based on their present position. Outcomes are the result of negotiations among these leaders and result from compromise, competition and confusion among gov officials.

Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA)

An agreement between a host country and a foreign nation stationing military forces in that country. These are often included as a comprehensive security arrangement. A SOFA does not constitute a security arrangement; it establishes the rights and privileges of foreign personnel present in a host country in support of the larger security arrangement. Intended to clarify the terms under which the foreign military is allowed to operate. The US military has the largest foreign presence and therefore accounts for most SOFAs. SOFAs can be complicated by the fact that many host countries have mixed feelings about foreign bases on their soil.

Balance of Power

Approach to order that assumes a rough equilibrium among the great powers helps to maintain stability, since no state can initiate war and be confident of victory. If one actors does begin to amass power that could challenge the balance, other countries should band together to take them down. Will balance against countries that are (1) high degree of military capabilities and are (2) proximate. -Internal: nation increasing its own military and economic power in order to rival and equal the power of the threatening hegemon (ex. rise of China) -External balancing: strengthening a countries alliances and cooperation with neighboring states to achieve the same goal Examples for US Foreign Policy: Mostly balancing against USSR/Russia NATO. Motive of having allies in South America during Cold War led US to back authoritarian regimes in Chile and Argentina and elsewhere. Nixon's opening to China in 1972 was inspired by fears of rising Soviet power and the recognition that closer ties with Beijing would put Moscow at a disadvantage.

Marshall Plan

April 3, 1948 A US initiative to aid Western Europe in which the US gave over $13 billion in economic assistance to help rebuild Western Europe economies after WWII. Goal was to make europe prosperous once more and prevent the spread of Communism. Lessened interstate barriers. Although offered benefits, USSR and Eastern bloc countries such as East Germany and Poland rejected the Plan.

National Security Adviser

Assistance to the President for National Security Affairs: senior aide in the Executive Office of the President, who serves as main advisor on national security issues. Appointment by president, does not need confirmation by senate. Participates in meetings of NSC and chairs meetings of the Principals Committee of the NSC. Influence and role varies from administration. Depends of qualities of the person and style of president. Ideally they serve as honest broker of policy options for president. Able to offer daily advice due to proximity independent of vested interests of bureaucracies. No authority over department of state or dod. Current: John Bolton

Attentive public, mass public, 'one-issue mobilizables'

Attentive public: Part of the public that is attuned to current affairs and its media coverage. Much of the American public is disinterested in politics and policy, so opinion leaders and policy makers must direct their ideas to, and seek support from, the smaller attentive public, rather than the broad, general public. 39% o f Americans follows US politics closely. Mass public: the rest, often uniformed One-issue mobilizables: citizens that will only rally for a single issue. For example, hippies that only protested the Vietnam War.

Groupthink

Occurs within a group of people in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or dysfunction decision-making outcome. Group members try to minimize conflict and reach consensus decision without critical evaluation of alternative viewpoints by actively suppressing dissenting viewpoints and by isolating themselves from outside influences. Ex: US Bay of Pigs Invasion: Plan was initiated by Eisenhower administration, but when Kennedy administration took it over they "uncritically accepted" the plan of the CIA. When people tried to present objections, Kennedy team ignored them and maintained morality of their plan. Pearl Harbor: Lack of precaution taken. Warning by Washington was not taken seriously.

Belief systems, evoked set, operational code

Beliefs play a pivotal role in explaining the process of foreign policy decision making, the ensuing process of strategic interaction between actors engendered by their decisions, and the political outcomes resulting from this interaction process Belief system: the organized and integrated perceptions of individuals in a society, including foreign-policy decision makers, often based on past history, that guide them to select certain policies over others. Evoked set: The tendency to look for details in a contemporary situation that are similar to information previously obtained. Ex: if US says its willing to start war if N Korea and then a plane is flying over N Korea, they might shoot it down due to the previous news Operational code: a set of general beliefs about fundamental issues of history and central questions of politics, and their effect on a decision-maker's action.

Base force plan, Bottom up review

Bottom Up Review: process of analyzing defense structures, assets and resources. Last big BUR in 1990s after Cold War--how to restructure? Base closing, consolidation of command structures, reductions. Base Force Plan: one type of BUR. The Base Force military strength cut of 25 percent was predicated in part on the collapse of the Soviet Union and the demise of the Warsaw Pact. A "new world order" was anticipated. There would be fewer challenges to US interests and security, and the US could rely more on periodic deployments of forces to demonstrate commitment and protect American interests. (look at terms for more info)

Bounded Rationality; substantive and procedural rationality, crisis decision making

Bounded Rationality - In decision making, rationality of ind. is bounded by info they have, cognitive limitation of mind, finite time to make decision. Theory proposed by pol. sci Herbert Simon Substantive Rationality - goal oriented rational action, objective is outcome and moral/ethics don't play role (realist). Behavior that "is appropriate to the achievement of given goals within the limits imposed by given conditions and constraints" Procedural Rationality - Decision making using a reasonable procedure. However just bc procedure is good doesn't guarantee good outcome. Outcome of appropriate deliberation. Sig - Framework to evaluate previous decisions and formulate decisions in future.

Burden sharing, free riders

Burden Sharing: Sharing a burden among many states. First created in terms of NATO, with the burden being providing security and sharing in terms of placing it among the 29 states. New example: accepting refugees. Free rider: An entity that reaps some form of benefit from a collective public good without using any of its own resources to achieve that public good. Instead, this entity relies on the work and effort of another entity in order to produce the good and subsequently enjoy the benefits. Often time free-riding is a state's behavior at the international level. Ex: NATO was established in 1949 as a collective security organization led by the US. The good that NATO produces is security, and all of NATO's members benefit from this security. However, the US contributes a substantial amount more than some of the other members to achieve the collective security that benefits all. So we can see a member country such as Luxembourg as a free rider. It contributes significantly less resources than the US but still achieves the same benefits. Significance: is that countries are incentivized to contribute the least amount possible to international agreements while still maximizing benefits.

Central Intelligence Agency, Director of National Intelligence, Intelligence Community

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA): Civilian foreign intelligence service of the US federal government tasked with gathering, processing, and analyzing national security information from around the world using human intelligence. Now law enforcement function and mainly focuses on overseas intelligence gathering with only limited domestic focus (unlike FBI). Principal member of IC, reports to DNI and provides intelligence for president and cabinet. Director of National Intelligence (DNI): US government cabinet level official, subject to the authority, direction, and control of the President- required by the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 to: 1. Serve as head of 17 member US IC 2. Direct and oversee National Intelligence Program 3. Advise president, National Security Council, and Homeland Security Council about intelligence matters related to national security. Intelligence Community (IC): Federation of 17 separate US government agencies that work separately and together to conduct intelligence activities to support the foreign policy and national security of the US. The members of the Community collect and produce foreign and domestic intelligence, contribute to military planning, and perform espionage. Established in 1981 by Reagan. Significance: ?

'China differential', 'China Card' ?

China differential: Demands by the US in the 1950s to restrict allied exports to China more heavily than allied exports to the Soviet bloc. ( because of Chinese civil war). Angered allies and was eventually abandoned in 1957 where exporters could export the same amount to both USSR and China. US-Chinese embargo lasted until 1971. China Card: Proposed in the 1970s and 80s. The US' detente with China in order to cause alarm towards the USSR and make the USSR seek more conciliatory policies in terms of arm control agreements. Trying to deepen divide between China and Russia. Refers to Nixon's China policy. Shifting politics by opening to china (communist isn't one big bloc) to scare USSR

Soft Power

Coined by Joseph Nye in 1990, the term refers to the ability of a country to persuade others to do what it wants without force or coercion, but rather attraction. This involves shaping other states' long term attitudes and preferences. 3 resources: 1. Culture 2. Political values 3. Foreign policies. Tools of soft power may include: diplomacy, strategic communications, foreign assistance, civic action, and economic reconstruction and development. Example: General examples- allies, economic assistance programs, and vital cultural exchanges. Specific- Marshall Plan after WWII when the US gave billions of dollars to war ravaged western Europe to prevent it from falling to the influence of the Communist Soviet Union. Educational exchange programs such as Obama's 100,000 Strong initiative with China. Significance: It shows that hard power, or that associated with military force, coercion, and intimidation, is not necessary and that state interests can be achieved without war or violence. There are many ways a state can go about exerting its influence and foreign policy goals

Collegial, competitive and formalistic models of presidential management

Collegial: Team of advisers working together to solve problems; bring in many ideas and emphasizes collaboration over competition; president at the center who must mediate to maintain the collaborative atmosphere (wheel and spokes). ex: JFK originated this system, built it around his own personal strengths and abilities, did not like the strict/ restrictive formalistic approach. Competitive: President is at the center of the system, often very demanding; open free flow of information and opinion; overlapping responsibilities of agencies lead president to resolve conflicts. ex: FDR fostered rivalries among advisors to get the best out of them, only one to really pull this off since its high cost in terms of time and workload. Formalistic: This style is based on one that is orderly and structural in that of which gathers information through a hierarchical chain of command, limiting the president's exposure to conflict. Bottom up- President--Advisers and Cabinet Heads-- Agencies within departments. Might choose to establish more fluid machinery or reach further down the information channels when facing a decision of particular importance to his Admin. ex: originated with Eisenhower, he's an ex military guy, details remained at lower levels to leave president to concentrate on major issues, Eisenhower ran everything with hidden hand

Department of Energy

Concerned with US policies regarding energy and safety in handling nuclear material. Its responsibilities include the nation's nuclear weapons program, nuclear reactor production for the US Navy, energy conservation, energy-related research, radioactive waste disposal, and domestic energy productions. (energy.gov) Primary FP function is the handling of nuclear weapons

Operation Iraqi Freedom

Conflict in Iraq that consisted of two phases. The first of these was a brief, conventionally fought war in March-April 2003, in which a combined force of troops from the United States and Great Britain (with smaller contingents from several other countries) invaded Iraq and rapidly defeated Iraqi military and paramilitary forces (/operation Iraqi Freedom). It was followed by a longer second phase in which a U.S.-led occupation of Iraq was opposed by an insurgency. After violence began to decline in 2007, the United States gradually reduced its military presence in Iraq, formally completing its withdrawal in December 2011. Many see the new type of technologically-reliant warfare used during the Iraq war as the reason for the rapid modernization of the US military. The Bush administration based its rationale for the war principally on the assertion that Iraq, which had been viewed by the U.S. as a rogue state since the Persian Gulf War, possessed weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) and that the Iraqi government posed an immediate threat to the United States and its coalition allies Preventive war, he didn't actually have WMDs

Detente and linkage

Detente: easing of strained relations especially in a political situation. Often used in reference to a period of general easing of geopolitical tensions between the Soviet Union and the US (distinct lessening of the Cold War) beginning in 1969 with Nixon and Kissinger administration calling for detente. "Thawing out" at a period in the middle of the Cold War in efforts to avoid the collision of nuclear risk. This period was characterized by treaties such as SALT I and the Helsinki Accords. Ended after Soviet intervention in Afghanistan which led US to boycott the Olympics. Reagan was elected on anti-detente campaign marked return to Cold War tensions. Linkage: When decision makers tie one foreign policy area to another. It is not a one time trade off but rather an ongoing strategic approach to policy formulation and implementation that can be tightly or loosely applied. Most notable instance of linkage is in Nixon/Kissinger policy of coupling military and political issues in its approach to Cold War adversaries. Often times security partners would trade preferentially with each other. Critics of détente advocated "linkage"— linking trade, arms control, and improved relations with Soviet behavior in world affairs and in the regime's human rights policies. Ex. link grain sales to USSR to them pressuring Vietnam allies to come to table. Strategy to get USSR to behave in areas where we wanted them to by dangling carrots or sticks.

Economic liberalism, economic nationalism

Economic liberalism: Committed to principles of free trade, world without trade barriers, where money and capital flows freely among nations. Reduce tariff barriers and opening markets to global network. Related to capitalism. Major actors: WTO and IMR and World Bank (they give out developmental loans to developing countries in exchange for them 'liberalizing' ie opening their markets). Some say it only benefits western developed countries and exploits others. Economic nationalism: ideology that favors state interventionism in the economy, with policies that emphasize domestic control of the economy, labor, and capital formation, even if this requires the imposition of tariffs and other restrictions on the movement of labor, goods and capital. In many cases, economic nationalists oppose globalization or at least question the benefits of unrestricted free trade. Economic nationalism is the doctrine of mercantilism, and as such favors protectionism. Significance: two theories important to understanding how countries interact with each other in the realm of global trade. US goes back and forth between these.

Empire, 'unipolar moment', 'indispensable nation'

Empire: are political entities which extend across vast geographical regions over which they have to prior claim of sovereignty and exert hegemonic political, military, social power over these regions, extracting value from them in an uneven balance. Ex British Empire, Roman Empire. Unipolar moment: one power which far outstrips every other in its military capabilities and its ability to project power over would-be competitors. It is widely believed that the United States is the current unipole in the international system, a role it assumed after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Indispensable nation: An indispensable nation is one upon which the international system is dependent on, either for leadership and guidance, or military support and security. Tied closely to the above definition, the United States is believed by many to be an indispensable nation within the international system. Significance: Madeleine Albright in 1998 first spoke of "indispensable nation" and "unipolar moment". Talked in terms of US post Cold War- indispensable in maintaining global peace, security, and prosperity. Influence modern american identity

Department of Homeland Security

Founded after the 9/11 attacks, the primary responsibilities of the DHS include protecting the United States of America and U.S. territories from and responding to terrorist attacks, man-made accidents, and natural disasters. In 2003, DHS absorbed the Immigration and Naturalization Services (INS) and then divided them into the Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) and Citizenship and Immigration Services.

Department of Commerce

Founded in 1903 promotes job creation, economic growth, sustainable development and improved standards of living for all Americans. Works to strengthen the international economic position of the United States and facilitates global trade by opening up new markets for U.S. goods and services and promotes progressive business policies that help America's businesses and entrepreneurs and their communities grow and succeed

Funnel of causality and relative potency (foreign policy causation)

Funnel model used to explain decision making among large groups of people. Widest part = public. In the middle = congressmen, lobbyists, other leaders in Washington. smallest part = Pres. and executive branch. Problems and events filter form public all the way to exec and Pres. Eventually turns in concrete policy by Pres. Policy in turn affects public which affects policy again. Rel. Potency = respective strengths of each of the sections. Sig - pushing back on realist model.

Genocide

Genocide The act of eliminating from existence in whole, or in part a national, ethnic, religious or racial groups. This is done by means of killing, seriously harming, bringing about physical destruction, or preventing births. Genocide Convention 1948 145 signatories. Clinton Doctrine. Relevance: There have been numerous examples of genocides throughout history but perhaps some of the most important and relevant today include the Armenian genocide (1915-1917), Holocaust (1933-1945), Rwandan genocide (1994) and Rohingya genocide (2017-ongoing). Genocides are some of the most internationally hated actions and often a pretext for humanitarian interventions at the UN level. Despite outrage and disgust at such actions, the UN has struggled with how to appropriately deal with handling genocides. The current crisis in Myanmar with the Rohingya people is an excellent example of this struggle.

Geoeconomics, geopolitics

Geoeconomics: Use of economic tools to advance geopolitical objectives. Interplay of international economics, geopolitics, and strategy. Started in 1990 with article by Edward Luttwak who argued that end of Cold War meant importance of military power was giving way to geoeconomic power. Empowered by increase of economic resources at states' disposal and the integration of global trade links and financial markets, maybe geoeconomic tools more powerful. ex: rise of China which increasingly uses economic tools to project power. Geopolitics - The relationship between politics and the geographical makeup of territories. Attempts to explain why events occur in certain areas based on geographical makeup. Ex: The United States has never experienced a full invasion after its independence due to its isolation from the major powers. The study of the effects of geography (human and physical) on politics and international relations.

Global commons and lifeboat ethics

Global Commons- resource domains outside of reach of any 1 nation state. Aka earth's unowned natural resources such as the oceans, atmosphere and space. Lifeboat ethics: metaphor for resource distribution proposed by ecologist Garrett Hardin in 1974. Lifeboat with 50 people. 100 more swimming in ocean. Q: Should swimmers be rescued? Hardin argues no - either try to help them all and lifeboat sinks or randomly pick 10. Unfair selection process. In metaphor, rich countries are lifeboats and poor countries are swimmers. Sig - realist viewpoint. Every man for himself Terms deal with how nations should divide and conserve the earth's natural resources that are not within their borders.

'Iron triangle' and military industrial complex

Iron triangle: closed and mutually supportive relationship between the US government agencies, special interest lobbying organizations, and the legislative committees. The result is a three way stable alliance that is sometimes called sub-government because of its durability, impregnability, and power to determine policy. Can result in the passing of narrow policies that benefit a small segment of the population. Interests of constituency met while needs of population is not. Problematic for popular concept of concept. Military Industrial Complex: informal alliance between a nation's military and the arms industry which supplies it, seen together as a vested interest which influences public policy. Both sides benefit (from obtaining war weapons and being paid to supply them). Sometimes it is referred to as the military-industrial (weapon makers)- congressional complex (MICC), adding the U.S. Congress to form a three-sided relationship termed an iron triangle. Eisenhower warned against this.

Goldwater-Nichols Act

Made the most sweeping changes to the United States Department of Defense since the department was established in the National Security Act of 1947 by reworking the command structure of the United States military. Signed into law by President Reagan on October 1, 1986. Named after Sen. Barry Goldwater & Rep William F. Nicols. Military advice was centralized in the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs (CJC) as opposed to the service chiefs. The Chairman was designated as the principal military adviser to the President of the United States and National Security Council. Service chiefs no longer exercise any operational control over their forces. Sig - The restructuring afforded integrated planning and a reduction or elimination in inter-service rivalry.

National Security Act of 1947

Major restructuring of the US government's military and intelligence agencies following WWII. Act merged the Department of War and the Department of the Navy into the National Military Establishment (NME), headed by the Secretary of Defense. Also created Department of the Air Force and the US Air Force. Protected Marine Corps as an independent service. Established National Security Council and the CIA, first US peacetime non-military intelligence agency. Council's function was to advise the president on domestic, foreign, and military policies and to ensure cooperation between the various military and intelligence agencies.

Manifest destiny and US 'exceptionalism'

Manifest destiny: widely held belief in 19th century that settlers to US were destined to expand across the American continents (justified and inevitable). 3 themes: special virtues to the American people and their institutions, mission of the US to redeem and remake the west in the image of agrarian America, irresistible destiny to accomplish this essential duty. American exceptionalism: special character of the US as a uniquely free nation based on democratic ideals and personal liberty. The revolution and its aftermath of freeing US from British control are important in this idea. Also refers to its unique mission to transform the world.

Free Trade Agreements (NAFTA, CAFTA-DR, TTIP, TPP)

NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement): Entered into force January 1 1994. Mexico, US, Canada. Tariffs, duties, and quantitative restrictions (except for limited number of agri. products from Canada) were eliminated by 2008. Renegotiating NAFTA would adversely affect US economy and cost jobs. CAFTA-DR (Dominican Republic-Central American Free Trade Agreement): First free trade agreement between US and group of smaller developing economies (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Dominican Republic). Promotes stronger trade and investment ties, prosperity, and stability. 16th largest goods trading partner (combined). TTIP (Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership): Proposed trade agreement between the EU and US with the aim of promoting trade and multilateral economic growth. Considered companion agreement to TPP. Halted following 2016 election. Largest bilateral trade initiative ever negotiated. Help promote US international competitiveness, jobs and growth. Would bolster already strong relationship. TPP (Trans-Pacific Partnership): trade agreement between Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, and Vietnam signed on 4 February 2016 which has not entered into force. US withdrew from it afterwards, leading to negotiations for new agreement called COmprehensive and Progressive Agreement for TPP. Original TPP was part of Obama's "pivot to asia". Contained measures to lower non tariff and tariff barriers to trade and establish dispute settlement mechanism. Significance: Through multilateral trade agreements the US seeks to spread its soft economic power and influence across the globe. By entering into prosperous trade deals not only does the US strengthen its own economy but it also promotes good will with the countries it partners with. In recent years the US decision to pull out from many of these agreements has contributed to the impression that US global interest and hegemony is deteriorating while China is taking the mantle of economic integration for itself.

NATO out of area disputes; articles 4,5,6 of NATO treaty

NATO has a legitimate right to project force beyond the geographical boundaries of the NATO alliance. That NATO has been unwilling or unable to do so since 1949 results from a combination of factors relating to disagreements between the members over the geographical scope of the alliance, shifts in allied foreign policies and inter-allied tensions brought on by the Cold War. Article 4: members can bring any issue of concern, especially related to the security of a member country, to the table. Consultation is a key part of NATO's decision-making process since all decisions are made by consensus. Article 5: "an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them all." - mutual defense Article 6: Qualifies areas protected under article 5. Ex. Not Hawaii

Grand strategy of the US// National Security Strategy (NSS)

NSS: Document prepared periodically by the executive branch of the government of the US which outlines the major national security concerns of the US and how the administration plans to deal with them. The legal foundation for the document is spelled out in the Goldwater-Nichols Act. Grand strategy can be understood simply as the use of power to secure the state. Thus, it exists at a level above particular strategies intended to secure particular ends and above the use of military power alone to achieve political objectives. One way to comprehend grand strategy is to look for long-term state behavior as defined by enduring, core security interests and how the state secures and advances them over time. In a 1997 piece for International Security entitled "Competing Visions for U.S. Grand Strategy," Barry R. Posen and Andrew L. Ross outlined four major grand strategies applicable to U.S. foreign policy in the post-Cold War world: 1. Neo-isolationism 2. Selective engagement 3. Cooperative security 4. Primacy

Congress and foreign policy: oversight, war powers, advise and consent, 'twilight zone'

Oversight: The Executive and Legislative Branches share power over American foreign policy. This was intended to be an example of checks and balances on the government level, but in reality the President is the prime maker of foreign policy (Congress generally defers to the President). According to the Constitution → all legislative powers go to Congress; it regulates commerce with foreign nations and sets trade policies (tariffs, quotas) as well as foreign exchange War Powers: Article 1 Section 8 of Constitution grants Congress the power to declare war. The President derives the power to direct the military after the Congressional declaration. Essentially Congress funds or declares war while the President directs it. Nethertheless in modern times Presidents have often engaged in military operations without express Congressional consent: Korean War, Vietnam War, Operation Desert Storm, Afghanistan War of 2001, and Iraq War of 2002. -War Powers Resolution (1973) - the President must consult with Congress before starting hostilities, give written report within 48 hours and has 60 days to get Congressional authorization Advise and Consent: Appears in US constitution (article 2, section 2). ⅔ majority vote required by the Senate to ratify treaties; the Senate must consent to all appointments of Ambassadors Twilight Zone: term used to describe the Constitution's unclear allocation of authority between presidential and congressional powers in regards to foreign policy

Linkage

Policy championed by Nixon and Kissinger, during the 1970s period of Cold War Détente - Aimed to persuade the Soviet Union and Communist China to cooperate in restraining revolutions in the Third World in return for concessions in nuclear and economic fields. -Despite this lack of Soviet intervention, a large number of revolutions still occurred in these third world countries, thereby undermining this policy. - The premise behind linkage, as a policy, was to connect political and military issues, thereby establishing a relationship making progress in area "A" dependent on progress in area "B."

Pre-emptive and preventive war

Pre-emptive war: War that starts in an attempt to defeat a perceived imminent offensive threat or invasion, or to gain a strategic advantage in an impending (unavoidable) war shortly before that attack materializes. It is a war that preemptively breaks the peace. Legal under international law. Example: 1967 war Preventive war: This is a war that is launched to destroy a potential threat when an attack is not imminent or known to be planned. This is illegal under international law because if not any nation could use suspicion as a legitimate reason to start war which would lead to chaos. Example: Some argue that the U.S. invasion of Iraq by the Bush administration was preventative because there did not exist solid evidence that Saddam Hussein had possession of weapons of mass destruction, and it was later revealed that such weapons did not exist in Iraq. Significance: These terms dictate when it is acceptable to attack another country under international law. It is especially relative to the current North Korea crisis in which Donald Trump must decide if it's necessary to attack North Korea today to prevent it from developing WMD that could attack major US cities tomorrow. He must wait until the threat of North Korea is imminent in order for this to be considered pre-emptive war.

Kissinger and Nixon's grand design

Refers to the foreign policy from 1969-1973 pursued by Nixon and Kissinger 3 principal elements: (1) the acceptance of the emergence of a tripolar configuration of power among the United States, the Soviet Union, and the People's Republic of China; (2) the development of a moderate international system supported by these three powers; and (3) halting the spread of communism to areas of the world in the traditional Western sphere of influence while avoiding direct military confrontation with the USSR. The means for achieving these objectives: the acceptance of the Soviet achievement of parity in nuclear weapons; containing the spread of communism through the use of positive inducements and negative sanctions; the employment of careful, presidentially controlled crisis management; the development of regimes (agreed rules, procedures, and institutions) in various issue areas; and the maintenance of American foreign policy commitments with reduced congressional and public support.

Arms Controls Negotiations (SALT, SALT II, INF, START, New START)

SALT: Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (started 1969)- 1972 discussions and agreements signed between the US and the USSR in the 1970s intended to reduce the expansion of offensive nuclear weapons. Led to Anti-Ballistic Missle Treaty and interim agreement. Beginning of detente period under Nixon. SALT II: Second round of SALT talks. Led to agreement in 1979 that US senate did not ratify in response to soviet war in Afghanistan. USSR also did not ratify it, expired 1985. INF (1987): Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty. Required the US and USSR to eliminate and permanently forwear all of their nuclear and conventional ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges of 500-5500 km. First time the superpowers had agreed to reduce nuclear arsenals, eliminate entire category of nuclear weapons, and utilize on site inspections. Over 2500 missiles were eliminated by 1991. START: Strategic Arms Reduction Talks- SALT talks led to STARTs. Discussions and agreements between the US and USSR in the 90s to reduce the number of nuclear warheads in their respective arsenals, resulted in largest and most complex arms control treaty in history. START I: 1991 completed agreement START II: 1993 agreement between US and Russia (never entered into force) New START: signed in 2010, entered into force in 2011. Number of strategic nuclear missile launchers will be reduced by half. Trump attacks the treaty saying in favors Russia.

Smart Diplomacy

Smart power is the effective and efficient combination of hard power and soft power in pragmatic ways that help nations advance their international interests. an approach that underscores the necessity of a strong military, but also invests heavily in alliances, partnerships, and institutions of all levels to expand one's influence and establish legitimacy of one's action. Ex: Nye utilizes the example of terrorism, arguing that combatting terrorism demands smart power strategy. He advises that simply utilizing soft power resources to change the hearts and minds of the Taliban government would be ineffective and requires a hard power component. In developing relationships with the mainstream Muslim world, however, soft power resources are necessary and the use of hard power would have damaging effects.

'Statesmen vs Politician' (George)

Statesmen: A person who is skilled in the management of public or national affairs. Interested in common good of constituentes. Political realists, look at policy in terms of its effect on the nation. Platform of fundamental truths. Certain core values. Politician: A person who gives much time to political affairs; a person who is experienced in politics. Interested in reelection. Beliefs are flexible. Base decisions on power, wealth, or conformity (for self, party, or government).

Global War on Terror

Strategy espoused by George W. Bush in September 2001 following the 9/11 attacks. Uses a metaphor of war to refer to a variety of actions that do not constitute a specific war as traditionally defined. The GWAT was the unofficial overarching term to denote the numerous military campaigns the US undertook against al-qaeda and other terrorist cells from 2001-2013 Relevance: The Global War on Terror was the impetus for the majority of conflicts the US entered into during the first decade of the 21st century including but not limited to the Iraq War and Afghanistan War. GWAT also served as the main reason for the incredible expansion of surveillance and intelligence gathering the US conducted around the globe and even in its own country, much of which continues to this day.

Massive retaliation, flexible response, mutual assured destruction

Terms which all relate to theories on the use of weapons of mass destruction. Massive Retaliation: a military doctrine and nuclear strategy in which a state commits itself to retaliate in much greater force in the event of an attack. Flexible response: a defense strategy implemented by JFK in 1961 to address the Kennedy administration's skepticism of Eisenhower's New Look and its policy of massive retaliation. Calls for mutual deterrence at strategic, tactical, and conventional levels, giving the United States the capability to respond to aggression across the spectrum of war, not limited only to nuclear arms. Mutual assured destruction (MAD) is a doctrine of military strategy and national security policy in which a full-scale use of nuclear weapons by two or more opposing sides would cause the complete annihilation of both the attacker and the defender.

Dollar as world reserve currency

The 1944 Bretton Woods agreement kickstarted the dollar into its current position. Before then, most countries were on the gold standard. Their governments promised to redeem their currencies for their value in gold upon demand. The world's developed countries met at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, to peg the exchange rate for all currencies to the U.S. dollar. At that time, the United States held the largest gold reserves. This agreement allowed other countries to back their currencies with dollars, rather than gold. By the early 1970s, countries began demanding gold for the dollars they held. They needed to combat inflation. Rather than allow Fort Knox to be depleted of all its reserves, President Nixon separated the dollar from gold. By that time, the dollar had already become the world's dominant reserve currency.

Department of Treasury

The Treasury Department is the executive agency responsible for promoting economic prosperity and ensuring the financial security of the United States. The Department is responsible for a wide range of activities such as advising the President on economic and financial issues, encouraging sustainable economic growth, and fostering improved governance in financial institutions. The Department of the Treasury operates and maintains systems that are critical to the nation's financial infrastructure, such as the production of coin and currency, the disbursement of payments to the American public, revenue collection, and the borrowing of funds necessary to run the federal government.

Domino theory

The domino theory was applied to the US's strategy of containment and general opposition to communist and socialist ideologies during the Cold War with the USSR. The theory goes, if one state becomes a communist regime, that puts more pressure on the other states around it to follow. The US, as a result, declared as its national interest to contain the spread of communism, even to countries that were themselves not of great strategic importance, for fear that the fall of those regimes to communism would put pressure on others to do the same. This is why beginning in the 1950s the US (Eisenhower) deployed troops in Vietnam to prevent Ho Chi Minh from converting the Vietnamese regime to communism. This is also why the US got involved in Korea to stop Korea at the 38th parallel. The US was afraid that if communism was successful there, then other countries would develop similar regimes.

Department of Defense

The mission of the DoD is to provide the military forces needed to deter war and to protect the security of our country. (defense.gov) Charged with coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the government concerned directly with national security and the US Armed Forces. The DoD has three subordinate military departments: Department of the Army, Department of the Navy, and Department of the Air Force. There are also several other Defense Agencies within the department

Pivot to Asia

This phrase refers to the significant shift in American foreign policy during the Obama administration from a Middle Eastern/European focus to an East/South Asian one. This new regional strategy, deployed in 2012, aimed to: 1. Strengthen bilateral security alliances 2. Deepen working relationships with emerging powers including China 3. Engage with regional multilateral institutions 4. Expand trade and investment 5. Forge broad based military presence 6. Advance democracy and human rights. According to the administration, specifically secretary of state Hillary Clinton, nearly half of the world's population resides in Asia making it's development vital to American economic and strategic interests. Example: The Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP)

Elite theories of foreign policy determinacy

This theory acknowledges how elites shape foreign policy in countries. The political power is held by a small, wealthy group of people who share similar values and interests. This "hegemon" has an influence in their political making process and in who gets elected, making it difficult for others to enter the political arena and have an influence. (Corporate interest influencing foreign policy). See LBJ's cabinet.

Department of Justice

To enforce the law and defend the interests of the United States according to the law; to ensure public safety against threats foreign and domestic; to provide federal leadership in preventing and controlling crime; to seek just punishment for those guilty of unlawful behavior; and to ensure fair and impartial administration of justice for all Americans. (justice.gov) FBI remains part of DoJ

Sanctions and embargoes

Trade sanctions target specific types of transactions, as in a prohibition to sell arms to a specific business country, government or regime. An embargo represents a complete prohibition of all trade activities between countries. Sig: These are both political tools to restrict trade and thus pressure target countries to maintain or restore international peace and security. Although the ultimate objective varies based on the situation, the principal purpose is to change the behavior of the target country's regimes, individuals or groups in a direction which will improve the situation in that country. Example: In 1986 South Africa's most important trading partners imposed economic sanctions to pressure the end of Apartheid. Led to 1985 debt crisis and forced concesion of Apartheid regime.

Department of State

US federal executive department that advises the President and represents the country in international affairs and foreign policy issues. Is responsible for the international relations of the United States, negotiates treaties and agreements with foreign entities, and represents the United States at the United Nations. The Department was created in 1789 and was the first executive department established.

Monroe doctrine

US policy of opposing European colonialism in the Americas beginning in 1823. President Monroe stated that further efforts by European nations to take control of any independent state in North or South America would be viewed as "unfriendly disposition toward the US". At the same time, it said that US would recognize and not interfere with existing colonies. Happened at a time when Latin American colonies of Spain and Portugal were at the point of gaining independence. Significance: Defining moment in US foreign policy. Objective was to free the newly independent colonies of Latin America from European intervention and avoid situations which could make the New World a battleground for the Old World powers, so that the U.S. could exert its own influence undisturbed. The doctrine asserted that the New World and the Old World were to remain distinctly separate spheres of influence. This doctrine was part of a policy of regional hegemony by the United States.

Foreign aid: USAID & Millennium Challenge Corporation

USAID: "US Agency for Int'l Development"- provides and administers US civilian foreign aid and development assistance to countries, typically in the form of disaster and poverty relief, technical and economic development. It is less than 1% of US federal budget. Half of all US foreign assistance (highest in the world). First US foreign assistance organizations who primary focus was long term socioeconomic development. Millennium Challenge Corporation: a bilateral US foreign aid agency est. by the Bush Admin. in 2004 to administer US development aid to countries eligible for aid, based on a set of 17 criterion that took into account openness of trade, good governance, civil liberties, etc. Goal is to put development decisions more into the hands of the countries that received aid instead of having the US choose what to fund specifically. 3 guiding principles: 1. Competitive selection 2. Country led solutions 3. Country led implementation Significance: Two of the most prevalent ways US supplies developmental aid to the world. US is largest contributor of aid world wide. One of the most potent ways US can grow its soft power and global goodwill. 2 dif view points on how this can be accomplished.

Global Warming agreements (UNFCCC, Kyoto, Paris Agreement)

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): main international agreement on climate action. 1 of 3 conventions adopted at the Rio Earth Summit (1992). Ratified by 195 countries. Way for countries to work together to limit global temperature increases and climate change, and to cope with their impact Kyoto: international treaty that extends the 1992 UNFCCC that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions based on scientific consensus that global warming is occurring and it is likely that Co2 emissions have caused it. 192 parties. Entered into force 2005. Only required developed countries to take actions, only applies to 14% of world emissions after US did not sign and Canada pulled out. Paris agreement: Agreement within UNFCCC dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation, adaption and finance starting in the year 2020. As of now 195 members have signed the agreement. Aims to keep global temp rise below 2 degrees above pre industrial levels. Each country determines, plans and reports its own contribution to mitigate global warming. So mechanism to force a country to set a specific target. US withdrew June 2017

Cuban Missile Crisis

What: A 13 day (October 16-28, 1962) confrontation between the US and USSR concerning American ballistic missile deployment in Italy and Turkey with consequent Soviet ballistic missile deployment in Cuba. In response to Bay of Bigs and missiles in Italy/Turkey, Khrushchev agreed to Cuba's request to place nuclear missiles on the island to deter future invasion. US confirmed this plan when spy plane got photographic evidence of the preparations. US established a military blockade as to not allow offensive weapons to be delivered and demanding that weapons in Cuba be dismantled. After tense negotiations, it was decided that US would promise not to invade Cuba again if USSR dismantled weapons. Secretly US also said it would dismantle weapons deployed in Turkey. Negotiations were helped by direct communication line between Washington and Moscow, thus a hotline was established. Significance: Closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full scale nuclear war.

Bretton Woods system

What: A landmark new system for monetary and exchange rate management established at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944. Founded in 1944 as a liberal international economic order. At the core of Bretton woods was a system of exchange rates pegged to the dollar, with the dollar serving as the world's reserve currency. Bretton Woods established the IMF, World Bank, and the GATT. Significance: First example of a monetary order intended to govern monetary relations among independent states. Right after WW2, people want cooperation

Coercive diplomacy

What: Attempt to get a target/state/group/non-state actor to change its objectionable behavior through either the threat to use force or the actual use of limited force. Diplomatic strategy that relies on threat of force rather than use of force. If force is used, it is in an exemplary manner in the form of limited military action to demonstrate resolution and willington to escalate if necessary. Example: Cuban Missile Crisis, Clinton's 1994 negotiations with North Korea in attempt to end its nuclear ambitions (failure).

Bureaucratic politics

What: Attempts to explain why particular public policy decisions got made. Says that outcomes result from game of bargaining among small highly placed group of governmental actors. Actors choose strategies and policy goals that best serve their organizational and personal interests (not national or collective interests). "Where you stand depends on where you sit". Significance: Since this process is neither dominated by one individual nor likely to privilege expert or rational decision, it may result in suboptimal outcomes that fail to fulfill the objectives of any of the individual participants. Bureaucratic politics is often offered as a counterpoint to realist conceptions of unitary and rational decision makers.

Counterinsurgency doctrine

What: Comprehensive civilian and military efforts taken to simultaneously defeat and contain insurgency and address its root causes. (Insurgency is a rebellion against a constituted authority when those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents.) Organized use of subversion and violence to seize, nullify or challenge political control of a region. Primarily a political struggle. The United States has conducted counterinsurgency campaigns during the Philippine-American War, the Vietnam War, the post-2001 War in Afghanistan, and the Iraq War. The wars in Iraq and Afghanistan have resulted in increased interest in counterinsurgency within the American military

Civil-military relations

What: Describes the relationship between civil society as a whole and the military organization established to protect it. Relationship between civil authority and military authority. Studies often decide that civilian control of the military is preferable to military control of the state. Attempts to explain how civilian control over the military is established and maintained. Example: Size of US military, unprecedented in peacetime, caused concern over the effect of such a large force in a democratic society. Worried that military culture was inherently dangerous to a non militaristic liberal society. Some predicted disaster. Two tracks: Samuel Huntington and Morris Janowitz. Significance: Agreement that there are two distinct worlds (civilian and military) that are fundamentally different from one another. Argument over how best to ensure the two could coexist without endangering liberal democracy.

Bay of Pigs

What: Failed military invasion of Cuba undertaken by the CIA sponsored paramilitary group on 17 April 1961. A counter-revolutionary military group (made up of mostly Cuban exiles who traveled to the US after Castro's takeover, but also some US military personnel), trained and funded by the CIA, intended to overthrow the communist government of Fidel Castro. Launched from Guatemala and Nicaragua, the invading force was defeated within 3 days by the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces under Castro. Significance: Failure significantly strengthened Castro's leadership position, made him a national hero, and entrenched the rocky relationship between the former allies. Also strengthened relations between Cuba and Soviet Union. Led to Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. HUGE humiliation of Kennedy and CIA and US in general.

Containment

What: Geopolitical strategy to stop the expansion of an enemy. Known for the Cold War foreign policy strategy of the US and its allies to prevent the spread of communism. Responded to a series of moves by the USSR to increase communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, Africa, and Vietnam. Middle ground between detente and rollback. Doctrine was articulated in "Kennan's Long Telegram". For the US any communist or socialist country was a threat even if they did not have direct connections to the USSR (Chile/Argentina). Significance/ examples: Dominated US foreign policy, led us to war with Korea and Vietnam, connects to domino theory.

Covert operations

What: Military operation that intended to conceal the identity of or allow plausible denial by the sponsor. Intended to create a political effect which can have implication in the military, intelligence, or law enforcement arenas affecting either the internal population of a country or individuals outside it. Aim to secretly fulfill their mission objectives without anyone knowing who sponsored or carried out the operation, or in some cases, without anyone knowing that the operation has even occurred. CIA is normally the government agency legally allowed to carry out covert action (from National Security Act of 1947). Special activities include covert political influence and paramilitary operations. Examples: Chile (1973) US backed coup by Chilean military ousts President Salvador Allende; Afghanistan (2001-present) CIA plays pivotal role in backing insurgents successful bid to oust Taliban government.

Brinksmanship

What: Practice of trying to achieve an advantageous outcome by pushing dangerous events to the brink of active conflict. This maneuver of pushing a situation with the opponent to the brink succeeds by forcing the opponent to back down and make concessions. Might use diplomatic maneuvers by creating the impression that one is willing to use extreme methods rather than concede. Ex: Cuban Missile Crisis, during Cold War the threat of nuclear force was often used as such an escalating measure.

Extended deterrence

What: This refers to the ability of the United States to use the concept of deterrence not only for its own safety against an attack, but to also protect (and reassure) its allies. This concept can be seen in practice in the tendency of American allies to step back and let the United States take the lead on international security and defense issues. Ex. US protects NATO Relevance: Since the end of the Cold War the US has used its unrivaled military power to act as the world's policeman and guarantee of peace. It has been effective in using its military and nuclear capabilities as a deterrent to most over international conflicts, when not preventing them serving as a force for de escalation. This theory has come into question recently as competitors China and Russia have learned to operate in a grey area between overt conflict and hybrid warfare to achieve their goals. US military dominance has also come into question after both Iraq and Afghanistan wars.

Boland amendment

What: US legislative amendments between 1982 and 84 that aimed to limit US government assistance to the Contras (rightist rebel group against government) in Nicaragua. Outlaws US assistance to the Contras for the purpose of overthrowing the Nicaraguan government, while allowing assistance for other purposes. Significance: Beyond restricting overt U.S. support of the Contras, the most significant effect of the Boland Amendment was the Iran-Contra affair, during which the Reagan Administration circumvented the Amendment, without consent of Congress, in order to continue supplying arms to the Contras.

Asymmetrical warfare

What: Unconventional tactics adopted by a force when military capabilities of opposing power are so vastly different that it does not make sense to attack one another. Ex: Guerilla warfare (between lightly armed partisans and a conventional army) such as in Vietnam. Terrorist attacks such as hijackings and suicide bombings. Smaller weaker groups attacking strong one because attacks on civilians are one-way warfare (ISIS, Al-Queda)

Blowback

What: Unintended consequences, side-effects, or repercussions of a covert operation that falls back on those responsible for them. To the civilians suffering the blowback of such operations, the effect looks like "random" acts of political violence without a discernible cause because the public, in whose name the intelligence agency acted, is unaware of the affected seret attacks that provoked revenge (counter attack) against them. Originates from American Intelligence community. Examples: CIA's financing and support for Afghan insurgents to fight an anti-Communist proxy guerilla war against the USSR in Afghanistan; some of the beneficiaries of this CIA support may have joined al-Qaeda's terrorist campaign against the United States. During the Syrian Civil War, United States and Saudi Arabia supported and aided anti-Assad armed groups. Some of those groups later shifted loyalty to ISIS

CNN effect

What: Says development of 24-hour international television news channel had a major impact on the conduct of states' foreign policy in the late Cold War period and post Cold War period. CNN played pioneering role, although term is not exclusive to CNN and refers to real time modern media. Specific effects: 1. Policy agenda setting agent 2. Impediment to the achievement of desired policy goals 3. Accelerant to policy decision making 4. Policy certainty reduces as media influences increases and vice versa. Ongoing coverage demands political attention as governing politicians attempt to demonstrate that they are on top of current issues. Led to immediate public awareness and scrutiny of strategic decisions and military operations. Pro: increases transparency Con: Complicate sensitive diplomatic relationships or force official reaction from governments that should have been minimized. Examples: Saturation coverage of events like the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, the fall of Communism in eastern Europe, the first Gulf War, and the Battle of Mogadishu was viewed as being strongly influential in bringing images and issues to the immediate forefront of American political consciousness and beyond.

Democratic Peace Theory

What: The theory which states that democracies are hesitant to engage in armed conflict with other identified democracies. Several factors are held as motivating peace between democratic states: 1. democratic leaders are forced to accept culpability for war losses to a voting public, 2. publicly accountable statesmen are inclined to establish diplomatic institutions for resolving international tensions, 3. democracies are not inclined to view countries with adjacent policy and governing doctrine as hostile, 4. democracies tend to possess greater public wealth than other states, and therefore eschew war to preserve infrastructure and resources. Significance: United States has used this theory to justify becoming involved in other countries' affairs (city on a hill, mission to spread democracy and peace globally). Example: 2003 Iraq War, this clearly did not work. Entering WWI, Wilson said "the world must be made safe for democracy".

Realism and neorealism

What: dominant post WWII, IR is a struggle for power among sovereign states, competitive, pursuit of power, effort to secure state interests, power comes from military capability, more prone to violence and war, anarchy (no effective world government). Human nature realists: Scholars (also called "classical realists") who see the struggle for power that characterizes international relations as rooted in the essential character of human nature. Product of Morgenthau. Structural realism (dominant form of realism, also called neorealism): Scholars who see the struggle for power that characterizes international relations as rooted in the structure of the international system, especially the condition of anarchy. Product of Waltz

Deterrence

What: the usage of military power so as to be able to prevent an adversary from taking an undesirable action that they might otherwise be tempted to do. Deterrence is thus the threat of retaliation. The effectiveness of the threat depends upon a state's ability to to convince a potential adversary that it has both the will and the power to punish him severely if he undertakes the undesirable action in question. ex: During the Cold War this specifically referred to the strategy of nuclear deterrence practiced by the US and USSR. Significance: Deterrence theory gained increased prominence as a military strategy during the Cold War with regard to the use of nuclear weapons. It took on a unique connotation during this time as an inferior nuclear force, by virtue of its extreme destructive power, could deter a more powerful adversary, provided that this force could be protected against destruction by a surprise attack.

Foreign direct investment

an investment made by a company/ entity based in one country, into another company/entity based in another country. Occurs between open economies and investors generally have a great deal of influence/ control over the company. The key feature of foreign direct investment is that it is an investment made that establishes either effective control of, or at least substantial influence over, the decision making of a foreign business. Increase in FDI encourages econ. growth bc of influx of capital and increase in tax revenue. Competition among FD investors leads to increase of production and efficiency in host country. Provides training and job opps. for local people. Significance: FDI has been a major characteristic of globalization in the early 21st century. This has allowed the national identities of many companies to become blurred as they conglomerate or fall under the influence of foreign businesses. Rise in globalization, economic liberalism, increasing interdependence, China is the largest recipient.

'Imperial presidency'

used to describe the modern presidency of the United States. It became popular in the 1960s and served as the title of a 1973 volume by historian Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., who wrote The Imperial Presidency out of two concerns; first that the US Presidency was out of control and second that the Presidency had exceeded the constitutional limits. Believed presidency changed during WW2 and Great Depression under FDR. The activities of some Nixon staffers during the Watergate affair are often held up as an example. Also, unannounced to Congress, Nixon also ordered the invasion of Cambodia and Laos. Sig - Governmental decision making. Governmental politics model