U.S. History Ch. 22 Test

Developing nations were nations with primarily agricultural economies.

How are developing nations primarily different from industrial nations?

Eisenhower and Dulles worried about Nasser's links to the Soviets and feared he was laying the groundwork to take control of the Middle East. In late 1957, Eisenhower asked Congress to authorize the use of military force whenever the president thought it necessary to assist Middle East nations resisting Communist aggression. The policy came to be called the Eisenhower Doctrine. It essentially extended the Truman Doctrine and the policy of containment to the Middle East. In July 1958, Eisenhower's concerns appeared to be confirmed when left-wing rebels, believed to be backed by Nasser and the Soviets, seized power in Iraq. Fearing his government was next, the president of Lebanon sought help. Eisenhower ordered 5,000 marines to Beirut, the Lebanese capital. Once the situation stabilized, the U.S. forces withdrew.

Compare the Eisenhower Doctrine with the Truman Doctrine. What action took place following the establishment of the Eisenhower Doctrine?

That year Khrushchev delivered a secret speech to Soviet officials. He attacked Stalin's policies and insisted that there were many ways to build a communist society. Although the speech was secret, the CIA obtained a copy of it and distributed copies of it throughout Eastern Europe and the world. Many Eastern Europeans had long been frustrated with Communist rule. Hearing Khrushchev's speech further discredited communism. In June 1956, riots erupted in Eastern Europe. By late October, a full-scale uprising had begun in Hungary. Although Khrushchev was willing to tolerate greater freedom in Eastern Europe, he had never meant to imply that the Soviets would tolerate an end to communism in the region. Soon after the uprising began, Soviet tanks rolled into the capital of Hungary and crushed the rebellion.

Describe the events that followed as a result of the distribution of Khrushchev's secret speech.

Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin agreed to divide Germany into four zones. Great Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, and France would each control one zone. The same four countries would also divide the German capital city of Berlin into four zones, even though it was in the Soviet zone.

Describe the manner in which Germany was divided by Great Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, and France.

- At the end of World War II, American and Soviet forces entered Korea to disarm the Japanese troops stationed there. The Allies divided Korea at the 38th parallel of latitude. - As the Cold War began, talks to reunify Korea broke down. A Communist Korean government was organized in the north, while an American-backed government controlled the south. Both governments claimed authority over Korea, and border clashes were common. The Soviets provided military aid to the North Koreans, who quickly built an army. On June 25, 1950, North Korean troops invaded the south, driving back the poorly equipped South Korean forces. - Truman saw the Communist invasion of South Korea as a test of the containment policy and ordered American naval and air power into action. He then called on the United Nations to act - In July 1953, negotiators signed an armistice. The battle line between the two sides in Korea, which was very near the prewar boundary, became the border between North Korea and South Korea. A "demilitarized zone" (DMZ) separated them. American troops are still based in Korea, helping to defend South Korea's border. There has never been a peace treaty to end the war. More than 33,600 American soldiers died in action, and over 20,600 died in accidents or from disease.

Explain the causes of the Korean War, the reasons the United States became involved, and the outcome of U.S. involvement.

Determined to maintain control of policy and show that he commanded the military, an exasperated Truman fired MacArthur for insubordination in April 1951. Later, in private conversation, Truman explained: "I was sorry to have to reach a parting of the way with the big man in Asia, but he asked for it and I had to give it to him." MacArthur, who remained popular despite being fired, returned home to parades and a hero's welcome. Many Americans criticized the president. Congress and military leaders, however, supported his decision and his Korean strategy. American policy in Asia remained committed to limited war—a war fought to achieve a limited objective, such as containing communism.

How did Senator McCarthy's accusations of Communist influence affect domestic life and intensify Cold War tensions?

In 1953 McCarthy became chairman of the Senate subcommittee on investigations, which forced government officials to testify about alleged Communist influences. Investigations became witch-hunts—searches for disloyalty based on weak evidence and irrational fears. McCarthy's tactic of damaging reputations with vague, unfounded charges became known as McCarthyism. In 1954 McCarthy began to look for Soviet spies in the United States Army. During weeks of televised hearings, millions of Americans watched McCarthy question and bully officers, harassing them about trivial details and accusing them of misconduct. His popular support began to fade.

How did Senator McCarthy's accusations of Communist influence affect domestic life and intensify Cold War tensions?

The Red Scare and the spread of nuclear weapons had a profound impact on American life in the 1950s. Fears of communism and war affected both ordinary Americans and government leaders. Americans prepared for a surprise Soviet attack. Schools created bomb shelters and held bomb drills to teach students to "duck-and-cover" to protect themselves from a nuclear bomb blast. Cold War themes soon appeared in films, plays, television, the titles of dance tunes, and popular fiction. At the same time, the country was enjoying postwar prosperity and optimism. That spirit, combined with McCarthyism, fears of Communist infiltration, and the threat of atomic attack, made the early 1950s a time of contrasts. As the 1952 election approached, Americans were looking for someone or something that would make them feel more secure.

How did fears of nuclear war affect American society?

In 1944, at the Dumbarton Oaks estate in Washington, D.C., delegates from 39 countries met to discuss the new organization, which was to be called the United Nations (UN). The delegates at the conference agreed that the UN would have a General Assembly, in which every member nation in the world would have one vote. The UN would also have a General Assembly, in which every member nation in the world woudl have one vote. The UN would also have a Security Council with 11 members. Five countries woudl be permanent members of the Security Council: Britain, France, China, the Soviet Union, and the United States. These five permanent members would each have veto power. In February 1945, with the war in Europe nearly over, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met at Yalta—a Soviet resort on the Black Sea—to plan the postwar world. Several agreements reached at Yalta later played an important role in causing the Cold War. A key issue discussed at Yalta was Poland. Shortly after the Germans had invaded Poland in 1939, the Polish government fled to Britain. In 1944, however, Soviet troops drove back the Germans and entered Poland. As they liberated Poland from German control, the Soviets encouraged Polish Communists to set up a new government. As a result, two governments claimed the right to govern Poland: one Communist and one non-Communist. President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill both argued that the Poles should be free to choose their own government. Stalin, however, quickly pointed out that every time invaders had entered Russia from the west, they had come through Poland. Eventually, the three leaders compromised. Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to recognize the Polish government set up by the Soviets. Stalin agreed it would include members of the prewar Polish government, and free elections would be held as soon as possible. After reaching a compromise on Poland, the three leaders agreed to issue the Declaration of Liberated Europe. The declaration echoed the Atlantic Charter, asserting "the right of all people to choose the form of government under which they will live." The conference then focused on Germany. Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin agreed to divide Germany into four zones. Great Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, and France would each control one zone. The same four countries would also divide the German capital city of Berlin into four zones, even though it was in the Soviet zone.

How did the conferences at Dumbarton Oaks and Yalta attempt to shape the postwar world?

Many state and local governments, universities, businesses, unions, churches, and private groups also began efforts to find Communists. The University of California required its faculty to take loyalty oaths and fired 157 who refused. Many Catholic groups became anti-Communist and urged members to identify Communists within the Church. The Taft- Hartley Act of 1947 required union leaders to take oaths saying that they were not Communists. Many union leaders did not object. Instead, they launched efforts to purge their own organizations, eventually expelling 11 unions that refused to remove Communist leaders.

How did the post-World War II Red Scare compare and contrast with the one that followed World War I?

The Korean War had convinced Eisenhower that the United States could not contain communism by fighting a series of small wars. Such wars were unpopular and too expensive. Instead, wars had to be prevented in the first place. The best way to do that seemed to be to threaten to use nuclear weapons. This policy came to be called massive retaliation. President Eisenhower's willingness to threaten nuclear war to maintain peace worried some people. Critics called this brinkmanship—the willingness to go to the brink of war to force the other side to back down—and argued that it was too dangerous. During several crises, however, President Eisenhower felt compelled to threaten nuclear war.

How were the policies of massive retaliation and brinkmanship different from previous military policies?

As worries about nuclear war and Communist infiltration filled the public imagination, Cold War themes soon appeared in films, plays, television, the titles of dance tunes, and popular fiction. n 1953 Arthur Miller's thinly veiled criticism of the Communist witch-hunts, The Crucible, appeared on Broadway. The play remains popular today as a cautionary tale about how hysteria can lead to false accusations. (showed the brainlessness) he next year, author Philip Wylie published Tomorrow!, a novel describing the horrific effects of nuclear war on an unprepared American city. Wylie wrote his novel to educate the public about the horrors of atomic war. (showed the fear)

In the early 1950s, in what ways did literature and films about the H-bomb and Communist spies reflect the characteristics and issues of the era?

- A key issue discussed at Yalta was Poland. two governments claimed the right to govern Poland: one Communist and one non-Communist. President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill both argued that the Poles should be free to choose their own government. - the three leaders agreed to issue the Declaration of Liberated Europe. The declaration echoed the Atlantic Charter, asserting "the right of all people to choose the form of government under which they will live." - The conference then focused on Germany. Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin agreed to divide Germany into four zones.

What decisions were made at Yalta, and what role did they play in the emergence of the Cold War?

a war fought with limited commitment of resources to achieve a limited objective, such as containing communism.

What is the defining feature of limited war?

the Senate passed a vote of censure, or formal disapproval, against McCarthy. Although he remained in the Senate, McCarthy had lost all influence.

What was the effect of the Senate's vote of censure against McCarthy?

The presence of the Soviet army in Eastern Europe ensured that pro-Soviet Communist governments would eventually be established in the nations of Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia. The Communist countries of Eastern Europe came to be called satellite nations because they were controlled by the Soviets, as satellites are tied by gravity to the planets they orbit. Although not under direct Soviet control, these nations had to remain Communist and friendly to the Soviet Union. They also had to follow policies that the Soviets approved.

What was the geographic relationship between Soviet satellite nations and the Iron Curtain?

President Eisenhower's willingness to threaten nuclear war to maintain peace worried some people. Critics called this brinkmanship—the willingness to go to the brink of war to force the other side to back down—and argued that it was too dangerous. During several crises, however, President Eisenhower felt compelled to threaten nuclear war.

What was the policy of brinkmanship?

Kennan proposed what became basic American policy throughout the Cold War: "a long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies." In Kennan's opinion, the Soviet system had major economic and political weaknesses. If the United States could keep the Soviets from expanding their power, it would only be a matter of time before their system would fall apart, beating communism without going to war. The Long Telegram circulated widely in Truman's administration and became the basis for the administration's policy of containment—keeping communism within its present territory through diplomatic, economic, and military actions.

What was the policy of containment?

- containment: keeping communism within its present territory through diplomatic, economic, and military actions. - Truman went before Congress to ask for $400 million to fight Communist aggression in Greece and Turkey. His speech outlined a policy that became known as the Truman Doctrine. Its goal was to aid those who worked to resist being controlled by others. In the long run, it pledged the United States to fight the spread of communism worldwide.

What was the policy of containment? How did it affect President Truman's decision to send troops to fight in the Korean War?

President Eisenhower's willingness to threaten nuclear war to maintain peace worried some people. Critics called this brinkmanship—the willingness to go to the brink of war to force the other side to back down—and argued that it was too dangerous. During several crises, however, President Eisenhower felt compelled to threaten nuclear war. President Eisenhower relied on brinkmanship on several occasions, but he knew it could not work in all situations. It could prevent war, but it could not prevent Communists from staging revolutions within countries.

What was the role of brinkmanship in Eisenhower's foreign policy? Why was it controversial?

In early 1947, President Truman established a loyalty review program to screen all federal employees. Truman's action seemed to confirm suspicions that Communists had infiltrated the government and so added to fears that communism was sweeping the nation.

What was the significance of Truman's loyalty review program?

The advantage of the United Nations was that it put all of the great powers that had helped to defeat the Axis in the Security Council. This would force them to consult with each other and work together whenever the United Nations took action. The weakness of the United Nations was that the veto allowed any one member of the Security Council to stop the UN from taking action. On April 25, 1945, representatives from 50 countries came to San Francisco to officially organize the United Nations and design its charter. The General Assembly was given the power to vote on resolutions and to choose the non-permanent members of the Security Council. The Security Council was responsible for international peace and security. It could ask its members to use military force to uphold a UN resolution.

What were the pros and cons of the United States joining the United Nations? What elements of the UN charter help the United States protect its interests? What were the potential weaknesses of the United Nations?

President Eisenhower relied on brinkmanship on several occasions, but he knew it could not work in all situations. It could prevent war, but it could not prevent Communists from staging revolutions within countries. To do this, Eisenhower decided to use covert, or hidden, operations conducted by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).

Why did President Eisenhower want to use covert operations to combat the spread of communism?

McCarthy's sensational accusations put him in the headlines, and the press quoted him often and widely. He badgered witnesses and then refused to accept their answers. His tactics left a cloud of suspicion that he and others interpreted as guilt. People were afraid to challenge him. (+ fear of communism)

Why did many Americans believe Senator McCarthy's accusations?

In July 1945, with the war against Japan still raging, Truman finally met Stalin at Potsdam, near Berlin. Both men had come to Potsdam to work out a deal on Germany. Truman was now convinced that industry was critical to Germany's survival. Unless its economy was allowed to revive, the rest of Europe would never recover, and the German people might turn to communism out of desperation. Stalin and his advisers were convinced they needed reparations from Germany. The war had devastated the Soviet economy. At the conference, Truman took a firm stand against heavy reparations. He insisted that Germany's industry had to be allowed to recover. To get the Soviets to accept the agreement, Truman offered Stalin a small amount of industrial equipment from the other zones, but required the Soviets to pay for part of it with food shipments. He also offered to accept the new German-Polish border the Soviets had established. Stalin did not like the proposal. At Potsdam, Truman learned of the successful U.S. atomic bomb tests. He hinted to Stalin that the United States had a new, powerful weapon. Stalin suspected Truman of trying to bully him. He thought the Americans wanted to limit reparations to keep the Soviets weak. Despite his suspicions, Stalin had to accept the terms. American and British troops controlled Germany's industrial heartland, and there was no way for the Soviets to get reparations without cooperating. The Potsdam Conference marked yet another increase in tensions.

Why did the Potsdam Conference further increase tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union?

The Korean War marked a turning point in the Cold War. Until 1950, the United States had preferred to use political pressure and economic aid to contain communism. After the Korean War began, the United States embarked on a major military buildup. The war also helped expand the Cold War to Asia. Before 1950, American efforts to contain communism focused on Europe. With the Korean War, the nation became more militarily involved in Asia. By 1954 the United States signed defense agreements with Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. The United States also formed the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) with seven other countries in 1954. Aid also began flowing to French forces fighting Communists in Vietnam.

Why was the Korean War a major turning point in the Cold War?