U.S. History Chs. 5 and 6

the U.S. hope for Pan-Americanism

America also wanted to build influence in Latin America. The U.S. bought goods from L.A., but L.A. bought goods from Europe. many Americans wanted the sale of goods to increase in L.A. and show that they were the dominant power in the region. Secretary of State James G. Blaine suggested they should have a conference in D.C. He had two goals: to create a customs union requiring all nations of the western hemisphere to reduce tariffs against each other and treat each other equally in trade, which he hoped would turn L.A. away from European products. and to create a system for the nations of the western hemisphere to work out disputes peacefully, but also from keeping Europeans from meddling with American affairs. L.A. delegates rejected both ideas, but agreed to create the Commercial Bureau of the American republics, promoting cooperation among the nations of the western hemisphere. today it is known as the Organization of American States (OAS)

America annexing Hawaii

Americans found that sugarcane grew well in Hawaii, and to aid the island during its economic recession, the U.S. signed a treaty exempting sugar from having a tariff. The U.S. also did not want Hawaii to look to Britain or France for help. when this treaty was up for renewal, the U.S. insisted that Hawaii grant it exclusive rights to a naval base at Pearl Harbor. in 1887 sugar planters forced their king to accept a constitution limiting his power. these people wanted Hawaii to become part of the U.S. two years after the Hawaiian queen ascended the throne, the sugar planters, with support of U.S. sailors, overthrew the monarchy. the U.S. annexed Hawaii in 1898.

Muckrakers

Among the first people to articulate progressive ideas was a group that president Roosevelt nicknamed "muckrakers" because of their interest with scandal and corruption. They were a group of crusading journalists who investigated social conditions and political corruption. Cheap newspapers and magazines helped spread the muckrakers' ideas. Some muckrakers, such as Ida Tarbell and Charles Edward Russell, concentrated on exposing the unfair practices of large corporations. Others targeted government and social problems. Still others concentrated on social problems. Jacob Riis published photographs and descriptions of the poverty, disease, and crime that afflicted many immigrant neighborhoods in New York City in his book "How the Other Half Lives." By raising awareness of these problems, the muckrakers stimulated calls for reform.

Democratic reforms

Another group of progressives focused on making government more democratic and more responsive to citizens. Many believed that the key to improving government was to make elected officials more responsive and accountable to voters. Wisconsin became a "laboratory of democracy" under the leadership of its governor, Robert M. La Follette. Party bosses controlled the selection of convention delegates and the nomination of candidates. La Follette pressured the state legislature to pass a law requiring parties to hold a direct primary, in which all party members could vote for a candidate to run in the general election. The direct primary soon spread to other states. Other progressives also pushed for additional reforms: the initiative, the referendum, and the recall. Progressives also targeted the U.S. Senate. The U.S. Constitution originally directed each state legislature to elect two senators. Political machines and business interests often influenced these elections. Some senators, once elected, repaid their supporters with federal contracts and jobs. To counter corruption in the senate, reformers called for the direct election of senators by voters. In 1912, Congress passed a direct-election amendment. In 1913, the amendment was ratified and became the 17th Amendment to the Constitution. Although direct election was meant to end corruption, it also removed one of the state legislatures' checks on federal power.

America's New Imperialism

As the U.S. industrialized, many began to notice Europe's expading power overseas and took an interest in this new imperialism. many concluded that the nation needed new overseas markets to keep its economy strong. historian John Fiske argued that English-speaking nations had superior character, ideas, and systems of government. His ideas were known as Anglo-Saxonism, and many Americans linked this with the idea of Manifest Destiny. These Americans believed the U.S. was destined to expand overseas and spread its civilization to others. As ideas for American imperialism gained support, the U.S. became more assertive in foreign affairs. in 1888, it risked war with Germany to prevent them from taking control of Samoa, but it ended peacefully. but, it led some Americans to think that the U.S. would be shut out of foreign markets if it did not build up its navy and acquire bases overseas. U.S. naval officer Mahan helped build public support for the idea that a nation needed large fleets of ships to trade with the world and a large navy to defend the right to trade with other countries. Congress was convinced to authorize the construction of a large navy when the proponents of these ideas were supported by influential government officials.

Santiago Harbor and the Spanish surrender

Between June 22 and 24, some 17,000 U.S. troops had landed east of Santiago, Cuba. The Spanish fleet, well protected by powerful shore-based guns occupied Santiago Harbor. The Americans wanted to capture those guns and drive the Spanish fleet out of the harbor and into battle with the American fleet waiting nearby, the Rough Riders accompanying the army as it advanced. Colonel Theodore Roosevelt was second in command. On July 1, American troops attacked a village near Santiago and the San Juan Heights. The Rough Riders and the all African American 9th and 10th Cavalry Regiments attacked and held Kettle Hill, then assisted in the capture of San Juan Hill. In Santiago the Spanish commander panicked and ordered the Spanish fleet to flee the harbor. On July 3, American warships attacked them, destroying every Spanish vessel. Later, the Spanish in Santiago surrendered which left American troops to occupy Puerto Rico.

Child labor

Children had always worked on family farms, but mines and factories were more dangerous and unhealthy. Muckraker John Spargo presented detailed evidence of child labor conditions in his 1906 book "The Bitter Cry of the Children." It told of coal mines that hired thousands of 9 or 10 years old "breaker boys" to pick slag out of coal, paying them 60c for an 10 hr work day. It described how the work bent their backs permanently and often crippled their hands. Reports like these convinced states to pass laws that set a minimum age for employment and established other limits on child labor, like maximum hours children could work. At the same time, many states began passing compulsory education laws, requiring young children to be in school instead of work.

Picking the candidates for the 1912 election

Conservatives rallied behind Taft. Most progressives supported Roosevelt. When it became clear that Taft's delegates controlled the nomination, Roosevelt decided to leave the party and campaign as an independent. He became the presidential candidate for the newly formed Progressive Party, which quickly became known as the Bull Moose Party after his saying "fit as a bull moose." Because Taft had alienated so many groups, the election of 1912 became a contest between Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson, two progressives. As the governor of New Jersey, Wilson pushed through many progressive reforms. He introduced the direct primary, established utility regulatory boards, and allowed cities to adopt the commissioner form of government. In less than two years, New Jersey became a model of progressive reform.

Coal Strike

As president. Roosevelt believed that it was his job to keep society operating efficiently by helping settle conflicts between different groups and their interests. In the fall of 1902, he put this belief into practice. He worked to help resolve a coal strike between mine owners and nearly 150,000 members of the United Mine Workers. The UMW wanted increased pay, reduced hours, and union recognition. If the strike had gone on, the nation would have face a coal shortage that could have shut down factories and left many homes unheated. Roosevelt urged the UMW and the mine owners to accept arbitration. The union agreed to arbitration, but the mine owners refused, until Roosevelt threatened to order the army to run the mines. By intervening in the dispute, he took the first step toward establishing a federal government as an honest broker between powerful groups in society.

Europe's New Imperialism

Europe started expanding its nation overseas to import raw materials for manufacturing; high tariffs in industrialized nations--intended to protect industries--reduced trade, forcing companies to look for new markets overseas; investment opportunities had also slowed in western europe, so europeans began looking overseas for places to invest their capital. To protect their overseas investments, euopean nations began exerting control over their territories, making some into colonies and others into protectorates, in which the imperial power (europe) protected local rulers against rebellion and invasion. the local rulers in return had to accept europeans' advice on how to govern their countries.

insubordination

disobedience to authority

Regulating big business

Despite his lawsuit against Northern Securities and his role in the coal strike, Roosevelt believed that most trusts benefited the economy. He though that breaking up the trusts would do more harm than good. Instead, he proposed to make a federal agency to investigate corporations and publicize the findings. He believed the most effective way to prevent big business from abusing its power was to keep the public informed. In 1903, Roosevelt convinced the Congress to created the Department of Commerce and Labor. The following year, this department began investigating U.S. Steel, a gigantic holding company that had been created in 1901. Worried about a possible antitrust lawsuit, the company's leaders met privately with the president. They offered to open their files for examination. In exchange, the Department of Commerce and Labor would privately tell the company about any problems and allow them to fix those privately. Roosevelt accepted this "gentlemen's agreement" and soon made similar deals with other companies. These deals gave him the ability to regulate big business without having to sacrifice economic efficiency to breaking up the trusts. In keeping with his belief in regulation, Roosevelt pushed the Hepburn Act through Congress in 1906. The act was intended to strengthen the Interstate Commerce Commission by giving it the power to set railroad rates. At first, railroad companies were suspicious of the ICC. However, the railroads eventually realized they could work with the commission to set rates and regulations that limited competition and prevented new competitors from entering the industry. By 1920, the ICC had begun setting rates at levels intended the ensure the industry's profits. By 1905, consumer protection had become a national issue. Journalists and others reported on questionable and potentially dangerous practices of the manufacturers of patent medicines. They revealed that many of these medicines contained unknown ingredients and that the manufacturers made unproven health claims. For similar reasons, food preparation businesses came under scrutiny. In 1906 Upton Sinclair published "The Jungle" based on his close observations of the slaughterhouses of Chicago. The appalling conditions in the meatpacking industry, as described by Sinclair, enraged consumers. The government responded by passing the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act on the same day in 1906. It helped businesses by enlarging consumer confidence in their products.

Taft's achievements

Despite his political problems, Taft also had several successes. Although Roosevelt was nicknamed the "trustbuster," Taft actually brought twice as many antitrust cases in 4 years as his predecessor had in 7. In 1912, he established the Children's Bureau. This agency investigated and publicized the problems of child labor. Taft was a dedicated conservationist, and his achievements in this area equal or surpass those of Roosevelt. In 1910, Taft set up the Bureau of Mines to monitor the activities of mining companies, expand national forests, and protect waterpower sites from private development. The bureau helped make possible many new technologies in the field of mining. After Taft took office in 1909, Roosevelt left the country for a long voyage to Africa and Europe. He didn't return to American until 1910. Although disturbed by stories of Taft's "betrayal" of his progressivism, Roosevelt refused to criticize Taft. While Roosevelt was president in 1907, he had approved the purchase of the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company by U.S. Steel. In October 1911, Taft declared that the deal violated the Sherman Antitrust Act. Roosevelt believed that Taft's focus on breaking up trusts was destroying the system of cooperation and regulation that he had set up with big business. In November 1911, Roosevelt publicly criticized Taft for this decision. After Roosevelt broke with Taft, it was only a matter of time before progressives convinced Roosevelt to reenter politics. In late February 1912, Roosevelt announced he would enter the presidential campaign of 1912 and attempt to replace Taft as the republican nominee for president.

Antitrust action

During his campaign, Wilson had promised to restore competition to the economy by breaking up monopolies. After the election, he realized that Roosevelt had been right: big businesses were more efficient and unlikely to be replaced by smaller, more competitive firms. He decided against pursuing the monopolies. However, progressives in Congress continued to demand action against big business. In 1914, at Wilson's request, Congress created the Federal Trade Commission to monitor American business. The FTC had the power to investigate companies and issue "cease and desist" orders against those who found it to be engaging in unfair trade practices. If a business disagreed with its rulings, it could take the FTC to court. Wilson didn't want the FTC to break up big business, Instead, it was to work toward limiting unfair trade practices. He deliberately appointed conservative business leaders as the FTC's first commissioners. Unsatisfied by Wilson's approach, progressives in Congress responded by passing the Clayton Antitrust Act in 1914. It outlawed certain practices that restricted competition such as price discrimination, or charging different customers different prices. The passing of the Clayton Antitrust Act corrected deficiencies in the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. Before the law passed, labor unions lobbied Congress to exempt unions. As a result, the Clayton Antitrust Act stated that its provisions didn't apply to labor or agricultural organizations. When the bill became a law, Samuel Gompers, head of the American Federation of Labor, called the act the workers' "Magna Carta" because it gave unions the right to exist.

Reforming tariffs

Five weeks after taking office, Wilson appeared before Congress, the first president to do so since John Adams. He had come to present his bill to reduce tariffs. Wilson personally lobbied members of Congress to support the tariff reduction bill. Not even Roosevelt had taken such an active role in promoting legislation. In 1913, Congress passed the Underwood Tariff, and Wilson signed it into law. This law reduced the average tariff on imported goods to about 30% of the value of the goods and provided for levying the first federal graduated income tax. The 16th amendment, also passed in 1913, had given the federal government the power to levy such a tax on income.

Women's suffrage gains support

In 1890 the two groups joined to form the NAWSA. The movement still faced the challenge of convincing women to become politically active. However, as the progressive movement gained momentum, many women realized that they needed the vote to promote reforms and pass labor laws. Women began lobbying lawmakers, organizing marches, and delivering speeches. Quaker social worker and former NAWSA member Alice Paul founded the National Women's Party. Its members picketed, blocked sidewalks, chained themselves to lampposts, and went on hunger strikes if arrested. Suffragist Rose Winslow and several other women, including Alice Paul, were arrested for picketing the White House. After being sentenced to 7 months in jail, Winslow and other women prisoners went on a hunger strike.

War between China and Japan

In 1894 a war erupted between China and Japan concerning Korea's independence. Korea was currently a client state under China (dependent on China for political, economic, or military welfare). Western observers saw how weak China really was when Japan with its Western technology easily defeated China's massive military. In the peace treaty following the war, China acknowledged Korea's independence and gave Japan territory in Manchuria.

America's power in Asia

In 1899 the U.S. was a major power in Asia, with naval bases all across the Pacific. The U.S. navy--by then the world's third largest navy--could exert their power anywhere in East Asia from these bases. Their main interest in Asia was commerce. Between 1895 and 1900, U.S. export to China quadrupled. Although China bought only about 2% of U.S. exports, their markets excited American business leaders, especially those who were in the textile, oil, and steel industries.

Rebellion in the Philippines

In 1899, Emilio Aguinaldo ordered his troops to attack the American soldiers who had been sent to the Philippines. The U.S. met resistance in the Philippines. This conflict lasted until almost 1902. To fight the Filipino guerrillas, the U.S. military established reconcentration camps to separate Filipino guerrillas from civilians. While American troops fought these guerrillas, Reforms introduced by William Howard Taft such as education, transportation, and health care slowly helped to reduce Filipino hostility. In March 1901, American troops captured Emilio Aguinaldo. On July 4, 1902, the U.S. declared the war over. Gradually, the Filipinos gained more control over their government. By the mid 1930s, they elected their own Congress and president. In 1946 they gained full independence from the U.S.

Government in Puerto Rico

In 1900, Congress passed the Foraker Act, establishing a civil government for Puerto Rico that provided for an elected legislature, and a governor and executive council that were appointed by the president. Supreme Court rulings later held that Puerto Ricans were not American citizens and didn't have the rights of citizens, but eventually Congress allowed Puerto Ricans self-government. It granted U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans in 1917, who could elect their own governor 30 years later. Eventually a debate began on whether Puerto Rico should become a state, become independent, or continue as a self-governing commonwealth of the U.S. This debate still continues today.

Ballinger vs. Pinchot

In 1909, Taft further angered progressives by replacing Roosevelt's secretary of the interior, James R. Garfield, with Richard A. Ballinger. Garfield was an aggressive conservationist; Ballinger was a conservative sorporate lawyer. Once in office, Ballinger tried to open nearly a million acreas of public lands to private development. Gifford Pinchot accused Ballinger of planning to give valuable public lands in Alaska to a private business group for his own profit. Taft's attorney general investigated the charges and decided they were unfound. Unsatisfied, Pinchot went to the press and asked Congress to investigate. Taft fired Pinchot for insubordination. The congressional investigation cleared Ballinger. By the second half of Taft's term of office, many Americans had come to believe that he had betrayed the Square Deal. Popular indignation was so great that the congressional elections of 1910 resulted in a sweeping Democratic victory. Democrats took the majority in the House, and Democrats and progressive Republicans gained control of the Senate from conservative Republicans.

America supports Nicaragua

In 1911, American bankers started making loans to Nicaragua to support its shaky government. The next year, civil unrest forced Nicaragua's president to ask for greater assistance. U.S. marines entered Nicaragua, replaced the customs collector with an American agent, and formed a committee to control the customs commissions. U.S. troops supported the government and customs until 1933.

Women earn their suffrage

In 1915, Carrie Chapman Catt became NAWSA's leader and tried to mobilize the suffrage movement in one final nationwide push. As more states granted women the right to vote, Congress began to favor a constitutional amendment. In 1918, the House of Representatives passed a woman suffrage amendment. In the Senate, however, the amendment failed by two votes. During the midterm elections of 1918, Catt used NAWSA's resources to defeat two antisuffrage senators. In 1919, the Senate passed the amendment by slightly more than 2/3 vote needed. On August 26, 1920, after 3/4 of the states had ratified it, the 19th Amendment guaranteeing women the right to vote went into effect.

Work

In 1916, Wilson signed the first federal law regulating child labor. The Keating-Owen Child Labor Act prohibited the employment of children under the age of 14 in factories producing goods for interstate commerce. Although the Supreme Court declared the law unconstitutional in 1918, Wilson's effort helped his reputation among progressives. He also supported the Adamson Act, which established the 8 hr workday for railroad workers, and the Federal Farm Loan Act, which helped provide low-interest loans to farmers.

Wilson sends troops into Mexico

In April 1914, American sailors visiting the Mexican city of Tampico were arrested for entering a restricted area. After their quick release, their American commander demanded Mexico for an apology, but Mexico refused. President Wilson saw this refusal as an opportunity to overthrow Huerta. Shortly after Congress authorized the use of force, he learned that a German ship was unloading weapons at the Mexican port of Veracruz. He immediately ordered American warships there, where marines forcibly seized the city. Although Wilson expected the Mexicans to accept his action, anti-American riots broke out. Wilson then accepted international mediation to settle the dispute. Venustiano Carranza, whose forces had acquired arms from the U.S., became Mexico's president. Mexican forces opposed to Carranza were not appeased, and they conducted raids into the U.S., hoping to force Wilson to intervene. In March 1916, Pancho Villa and a group of guerillas burned the town of Columbus, New Mexico, killing 17 people. Wilson responded by sending about 5,800 troops under General John J. Pershing across the border to find and capture Villa. The expedition dragged on with not success. Wilson's growing concern over the war raging in Europe finally caused him to recall Perishing's troops in 1917. Wilson's Mexican policy damaged U.S. foreign relations. The British ridiculed the president's attempt to "shoot" the Mexicans into self-government. Latin Americans regarded his "moral imperialism" as no improvement over Roosevelt's "big stick" diplomacy. Wilson followed Roosevelt's example in the Caribbean, negotiating in 1914 exclusive rights for naval bases and a canal with Nicaragua. In 1915 he sent marines into Haiti to put down a rebellion. The marines remained there until 1934. In 1916 he sent troops into the Dominican Republic to preserve order and set up a government he hoped would be more stable and democratic than the current regime.

Calls for war

In September 1897, President McKinley asked Spain if the U.S. could help negotiate an end to the conflict so they would not have to intervene in the war. Spain removed Weyler from office and offered the Cubans autonomy, but only if Cuba remained part of the Spanish empire. The rebels refused to negotiate. Spain's concessions enraged many Spanish loyalists living in Cuba. In January 1898, these loyalists rioted in Havana. President McKinley sent the battleship USS Maine to Havana to protect the Americans living there. on February 9, 1898, the New York Journal printed a letter written by the Spanish ambassador to the U.S., describing the president as "weak." Americans erupted with fury over the insult. When the Maine exploded in Havana Harbor, the angry Americans blamed Spain for the explosion. McKinley face tremendous pressure to go to war. On April 11, 1898, he asked Congress to authorize the use of force. On April 19, Congress proclaimed Cuba independent, demanded that Spain withdraw from the island, and authorized the president to use armed force. On April 24, Spain declared war on the U.S.

The Roosevelt Corollary

In the early 1900s, Latin American nations owed European banks large debts. Britain, Germany, and Italy blocked Venezuelan ports when it defaulted on its debts in 1902. The crisis was resolved peacefully after the U.S. pressed both sides to reach an agreement. The Roosevelt Corollary stated that the U.S. would intervene in Latin American affairs when necessary to maintain economic and political stability in the Western Hemisphere. Its goal was to prevent European powers from using the debt problems of Latin America to justify intervening in the region. It was first applied by the U.S. in the Dominican Republic, which had fallen behind on its debt payments to European nations. Using the Marine Corps as its agent, the U.S. began collecting customs tariffs in the Dominican Republic in 1905.

The Payne-Aldrich Tariff

Like many progressives, Taft believed high tariffs limited competition, hurt consumers, and protected trusts. Roosevelt had warned him to stay away from tariff reform because it would divide the republican party. Nevertheless, Taft called Congress into special session to lower tariff rates. The tariff debate did, indeed, divide the republican party into two groups: the progressives, who favored tariff reduction, and conservative republicans, who wanted to maintain high tariffs. As negotiations dragged on, Taft's support for tariff reductions waned. Finally, he signed into law the Payne-Aldrich Tariff, which hardly cut tariffs at all and actually raised them on some goods.

America's debate over the annexation of the Philippines

Many Americans believed that taking the Philippines would provide the U.S. with another Pacific naval base, a stopover on the way to China, and a large market for American goods. But other Americans believed that America's duty was to help the Filipinos. Also other Americans believed that competition from cheap Filipino labor would drive down American wages. Yet other Americans believed that imperialism violated American principles. Ultimately, president McKinley decided to annex the islands. On December 10, 1898, the U.S. and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris, under which Cuba became independent. Also, the U.S. acquired Puerto Rico and Guam, and payed Spain $20 million for the Philippines. After an intense debate, the senate approved the treaty in February 1899, and the U.S. had become an imperial power.

Health and safety codes

Many adult workers also labored in dangerous and unhealthy situations. If they were injured or killed, they and their family would receive little or no compensation. Progressives joined union leaders to pressure states for workers' compensation laws. These laws established insurance funds that employers financed. Workers injured in accidents received payments from the funds. In the Lochner vs. New York case in 1905, the court ruled that a New York law forbidding bankers to work more than 10 hrs a day was unconstitutional, saying the state did not have the right to interfere with the liberty of employers and employees. However, in the Muller vs. Oregon case, which involved women working in laundries in Oregon, the court upheld the state's right to limit hours. The different judgements were based on gender differences. The Court stated that healthy mothers were the state's concern, and, therefore, the limits on women's working hours did not violate their 14th Amendment rights. On March 25, 1911, a fire on the top floors of the Triangle Shirtwaist Company caused nearly 150 women to lose their lives. This tragedy occurred in New York City and led to new reforms. The disaster illustrated that fire precautions and inspections were inadequate. In response, New York created a Factory Investigating Commission and soon passed new laws that reformed the labor code. Some progressives also favored zoning laws as a method of protecting the public. These laws divided a town or city into zones for commercial, residential, or other development, thereby regulating how land and buildings could be used. Building codes set minimum standards for light, air, room size, and sanitation and required buildings to have fire escapes. Health codes required restaurants to maintain clean environments for their patrons.

Progressives vs. big business

Many progressives agreed that big businesses needed regulation. Some believed the government should break up big companies to restore competition. This lead to the passage of the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890. Other argued that big business was the most efficient way to organize the economy. They pushed for government to regulate big companies and prevent them from abusing their power. The Interstate Commerce Commission, created in 1887 to regulate railroads, was an early example of this kind of thinking. Some activists even went so far as to advocate socialism--the idea that the government should own and operate industry for the community. They wanted the government to buy up large companies, especially industries that affected everyone, such as railroads and utilities. At its peak, socialism had some national support. Eugene V. Debs, the former leader of the American Railway Union, won nearly a million votes as the American Socialist Party candidate for president in 1912. Most progressives and most Americans, however, believed in the superiority of the American system of free enterprise.

Prohibition movement

Many progressives blamed alcohol for many of society's problems. Settlement-house workers knew that wages were often spent on alcohol and that drunkenness often led to physical abuse and illness. Some employers believed drinking hurt workers' efficiency. From these concerns emerged the temperance movement, which advocated that people stop, or at least moderate, their alcohol consumption. Women were important leaders of the temperance movement. In 1874, a group of women formed the Women's Christian Temperance Union. By 1911, the WCTU had nearly 250,000 members. As its second president, Frances Willard served for nearly 20 years and championed rights for women, including equal pay and suffrage. In 1893, evangelical Protestant ministers formed another group called the Anti-Saloon League. When the temperance movement began, it concentrated on reducing alcohol consumption, but later it pressed for prohibition.

The Battle of Manila Bay

On May 1, 1898, the American ships in George Dewey's squadron entered Manila Bay in the Philippines, quickly destroying the outdated, and they outgunned the Spanish fleet. Dewey's quick victory surprised president McKinley. The army quickly assembled 20,000 troops to sail from San Fransisco to the Philippines, seizing the island of Guam, another Spanish posession, along the way. While Dewey waited for the American troops to arrive, he contacted Emilio Aguinaldo, a Filipino revolutionary leader who had staged an unsuccessful uprising against the Spanish in 1896. While Aguinaldo and his rebels took control of most of the islands, American troops seized the Philippine capitol of Manila.

Progressivism in the government

One group of progressives drew its ideas for increasing government efficiency from business. Theories of business efficiency first became popular in the 1890s. Books like "The Principals of Scientific Management" by Frederick W. Taylor described how a company could increase efficiency by managing time, breaking down tasks into small parts, and using standardized tools--a scientific approach to business that some progressives wanted to extend to government. Progressives saw corruption and inefficiency in city government. Many leaders traditionally chose political supporters and friends to run city departments, even though they knew little about managing city services. Progressives supported proposals to reform city government. One, a commissions plan, divided city government into several departments, with each one under an expert commissioner's control. A second, a council-manager system, employed a city manager who was hired by the city council. In both systems, experts play a major role in managing the city. Galveston, Texas, adopted the commission system in 1901. In other cities, political machines were weakened by having officials elected city-wide instead of by neighbors.

The Mexican Revolution

Porfirio Diaz was dictator of Mexico for more than 30 years. During his reign, Mexico became much more industrialized, but foreign investors owned and financed the new railroads and factories that were built. Most citizens remained poor and landless. In 1910, discontentment erupted into revolution. Francisco Madero, a reformer who seemed to support democracy, constitutional government, and land reform, led the revolution. However, he proved to be an unskilled administrator. Consecutive forces plotted against him because they worried about his plans for land reform. In 1913, general Victoriano Huerta seized power, and Madero was murdered. Huerta's brutality disgusted Wilson, who refused to recognize the new government. Instead, he announced a new policy. To win U.S. recognition, groups that seized power in Latin America would have to establish a government based on law, not force. Wilson believed that, without U.S. support, Huerta would soon be overthrown. Meanwhile, Wilson ordered navy to intercept arms shipments to Huerta's government and also permitted Americans to arm Huerta's opponents.

America supports Cuba

President Cleveland delcared American as neutral when the Cuban uprising began, but Spanish atrocities in newspapers swayed many American's in the rebels' favor. Nearly 200,000 Spanish tooprs were sent to Cuba to put down the rebellion. The Spanish appointed General Valeriano Weyler as governor. The rebels' raids destroyed a considerable amount of property, some belonging to Americans. they hoped American destruction would lead the U.S. to intervene in the war. But Weyler put people in concentration camps if they wanted to support Cuba, and to prevent others from trying to help.

The Open Door Policy

President McKinley and Secretary of State John Hay both supported an Open Door policy. In 1899, Hay asked the countries with leaseholds in China not to discriminate against other nations wanting to do business in their sphere of influence. Each nation accepted the Open Door policy but wouldn't follow it unless all the other nations with leaseholds agreed. Once Hay received assurances from them, he declared that the U.S. expected the other powers to uphold the policy.

Roosevelt's ideas

President McKinley was reelected in 1900, but he was assassinated in September 1901. Vice President Theodore Roosevelt then assumed the presidency. He favored increasing U.S. power and accepted some of Anglo-Saxonism's ideas. He believed America's duty was to shape the "less civilized" corners of the Earth.

The Panama Canal

President Roosevelt and others believed that having a canal through Central America was vital to U.S. power in the world would save time and money for commercial and military shipping. Congress authorized the U.S. purchase of a French company's (who had abandoned the effort to build a canal in 1889) assets and the construction of a canal in 1902. In 1903 the U.S. offered Columbia, a country in South America, a large sum of money and yearly rent for the right to build the canal and to control a narrow strip of land on either side of it. When Columbia refused, tension increased between Columbia and Panamanians who opposed Colombian rule (Panama was a province of Colombia at that time). Worried that the U.S. might back out of its offer, the French company met with Panamanian officials and decided to make a deal with the U.S. Panama revolted against Columbia in November 1903, with U.S. ships offshore. In a few days, the U.S. recognized Panama's independence. Columbia and Panama signed a treaty allowing the canal to be built ensuring the canal stayed in Panama. Mosquitoes transmitted malaria and yellow fever during the construction of the canal. This slowed the process, but the efforts of William Crawford Gorgas minimized disease when he helped maintain a Canal Zone in which mosquitoes couldn't live.

Power in Asia

President Roosevelt supported the Open Door policy in China and worked to prevent any nation from controlling trade there. He helped negotiate a resolution of the war between Japan and Russia that started in 1904. At a peace conference in 1905, he helped settle the disputes of Russia's recognition of Japan's territorial gains. He also persuaded Japan to stop seeking further territory. This led to relations growing worse between Japan and the U.S. The two nations competed for greater influence in Asia, meanwhile respecting each other's territorial possessions, upholding the Open Door policy, and supporting China's independence.

Progressivism

Progressivism was partly a reaction against laissez-faire economics and its emphasis on an unregulated market. Progressives generally believed that industrialization and urbanization had created many social problems. After seeing the poverty of the working class and the filth and crime of urban society, reformers began doubting the free market's ability to address these problems. Progressives could be either democrats or republicans. Most were urban, educated, middle-class Americans. Leaders were journalists, social workers, educators, politicians, and clergy members. Most agreed that the government should take a more active role in solving society's problems, but no one actually thought the government in its present form could. They concluded that the government itself had to be fixed before it could help fix other problems. Progressives thought that science and technology could help improve society because of how it aided people with the telephone, light bulb, buildings, railroads, and cars. Progressivism included a wide range of reform activities. Different issues led to different approaches, and some progressives even took opposing positions on how to address some problems. They condemned government corruption but did not always agree on the best way to fix the problem.

Gifford Pinchot

Roosevelt also backed efforts to save the nation's forests. He supported careful management of the timber resources of the West. He appointed his close friend Gifford Pinchot to the the U.S. Forest Service, established in 1905. As progressives, Roosevelt and Pinchot both believed that trained experts in forestry and resource management should manage the nation's forests. These professional managers would apply the same scientific standards to the landscape that others were applying to managing cities and industry. Roosevelt and Pinchot rejected the laissez-faire argument that the best way to preserve public land was top sell it to lumber companies, who would carefully conserve it because it was the source of their profits. With the president's support, Pinchot's department drew up regulations to control lumbering on federal lands. Roosevelt also added more than 100 million acres to the protected national forests and established five new national parks and 51 federal wildlife reservations.

Roosevelt's legacy

Roosevelt changed the role of the federal government and the nature of the presidency. He used his power in the White house to present his views. Increasingly, Americans began looking to the federal government to solve the nation's economic and social problems. Under Roosevelt, the power of the executive branch of government had dramatically increased. The Interstate Commerce Commission, through the Hepburn Act, could set rates. The Department of Commerce and Labor could monitor business. And the attorney general could rapidly bring antitrust lawsuits under the Expedition Act. In addition, Roosevelt's concern for the environment and for protection of the wild areas of the U.S. helped develop a national parks system that preceded the establishment of the National Park Service in 1916.

Western land development

Roosevelt quickly applied his philosophy in the dry Western states, where farmers and city dwellers competed for scarce water. In 1902, Roosevelt supported passage of the Newlands Reclamation Act, which authorized the use of federal funds from public land sales to pay for irrigation and land development projects. The federal government thus began transforming the West's landscape and economy on a large scale.

Roosevelt and environmental conservation

Roosevelt realized that the nation's bountiful natural resources were being used up at alarming rates and he urged Americans to conserve those resources. He was an enthusiastic outdoorsman, and he valued the country's minerals, animals, and rugged terrain. He cautioned against unregulated use of public lands and argued that conservation should be the guiding principle in managing the U.S.'s natural resources.

Roosevelt takes on the trusts

Roosevelt thought that trusts and other large business organizations were efficient and part of the reason for the prosperity of the U.S., but he also felt that the monopoly power of some trusts hurt the public interest. He wanted to ensure that trusts did not abuse their power. His first target was J.P. Morgan's railroad holding company, Northern Securities. The company planned an exchange of stock that would merge existing railroad systems, creating a monopoly on railroad traffic in the Northwest. Farmers and business owners feared that without railroad competition, shipping rates would rise and reduce their profits. In 1902, Roosevelt ordered the attorney general to sue Northern Securities under the Sherman Antitrust Act. The suit charged Northern Securities with restraint of trade. The suit puzzled J.P. Morgan, who asked what could be done to fix the problem. Unmoved Roosevelt proceeded with the case. In 1904, in Northern Securities vs. U.S., the Supreme Court ruled that Morgan's firm had violated the Sherman Antitrust Act. Roosevelt was hailed as a "trustbuster," and his popularity with the public grew.

Taft's policy of dollar diplomacy

Roosevelt's successor, William Howard Taft, place less emphasis on military force and more on economic development. His policy of dollar diplomacy was the idea that supporting Latin American industry would increase trade and profits for American businesses and lift Latin American countries out of poverty and social disorder. To give Europeans less reason to intervene in Latin American affairs, Taft's administration worked to replace European loans with loans from American banks.

Spheres of influence in China

Russia was concerned with Japan's rising power because Manchuria bordered the country. With the help of France and Germany, Russia forced Japan to return Manchuria to China, but in 1898, Russia demanded Manchuria be given to it. If China leased Manchuria to Russia, the territory would still belong to China, but a foreign government (in this case, Russia) would maintain overall control. Not long after, Germany, France, and Britain demanded leaseholds in China as well. Each leasehold became the center of a country's sphere of influence.

The Boxer Rebellion

Secret Chinese societies to fight foreign control and influence were organized while foreign countries debated access to China's market. In 1900, the Boxers (known as the "Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists" to the Westerners) decided to destroy foreign devils and their own Christian converts who they believed were corrupting society. In the Boxer Rebellion, more than 200 foreigners were killed, including many Christian missionaries. After the German ambassador to China was killed, eight nations (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Britain, France, Italy, Japan, Russia, and the U.S.) intervened. This helped rescue the foreigners and end the rebellion. During the crisis, Hay worked with British diplomats to persuade the other powers not to divide China. In a second set of Open Door notes, he convinced the participating powers to accept compensation from China for damages caused by the rebellion. After some discussion, the powers agreed not to break up China into European-controlled colonies. The U.S. kept access to China's profitable trade in tea, spices, and silk, and gained a larger market for its own goods.

Cuba's Platt Amendment

The Cubans reluctantly added the Platt Amendment to their new constitution, specifying the following: 1) Cuba could not make any treaty with another nation that would weaken its independence. 2) Cuba had to allow the U.S. to buy or lease naval stations in Cuba. 3) Cuba's debts had to be kept low to prevent foreign countries from landing troops to enforce payment. 4) The U.S. would have the right to intervene to protect Cuban independence and keep order.

Unprepared for war

The Spanish in Cuba were unprepared for war. Their soldiers were weak and sick, and their warships were old and had untrained crews. If the U.S. could defeat the Spanish fleet, Spain wouldn't be able to supply its troops in Cuba, and they would be forced to surrender. But the U.S. was unprepared as well. The army had recruited volunteers but lacked proper resources to train and equip them. One volunteer cavalry unit was a mix of cowboys, miners, and law officers and became known as the "Rough Riders."

America ready for war

The U.S. Navy was ready for war with Spain. They blockaded Cuba, and Commodore George Dewey, commander of the American naval squadron based in Hong Kong, was ordered to attack the Spanish fleet based in the Philippines. American naval planners wanted to prevent the Spanish fleet from sailing east to attack the U.S.

Reforming the banks

The U.S. had not had a central bank since the 1830s. Periodic economic depressions that had occurred after that time had destroyed numerous small banks. To restore public confidence in the banking system, Wilson supported a federal reserve system. Banks would have to keep part of their deposits in one of 12 reserve banks, providing a cushion against unexpected financial losses. The Federal Reserve Act of 1913 created the regional reserve banks, supervised by a Board of Governors appointed the Wilson. The Board could set the interest rates the reserve banks charged other banks, thereby indirectly controlling the nation's interest rates and the amount of money in circulation.

Women suffrage

The first women's rights convention took place in Seneca Falls, New York in 1848. Elizabeth Cady Stanton convinced the delegates that winning suffrage should be a priority. Yet decades later, this right still had not been gained, and it became a major goal for female progressives.

Wilson vs. Roosevelt

The two progressive candidates had two different approaches to reform. Roosevelt accepted large trusts as a fact of life and set out to create proposals to increase regulation. He favored laws to protect women and children in the labor force and supported workers' compensation for those injured on the job. Roosevelt called his program New Nationalism. Wilson countered with what he called the New Freedom. He criticized Roosevelt's New Nationalism for supporting "regulated monopoly." Wilson argued that Roosevelt's approach gave the federal government too much power in the economy and did nothing to restore competition. Wilson believed that freedom outweighed efficiency. As expected, Roosevelt and Taft split the republican voters. Wilson won the Electoral College with 435 votes. He won the election even though he received less than 42% of the popular vote. A democrat was elected president for the first time since Grover Cleveland's election in 1892.

Early challenges for earning women's suffrage

The women suffrage movement started slowly. Suffragists were threatened and called unfeminine and immoral. Many of the movement's supporters were abolitionists as well, and in the years before the Civil War, putting an end to slavery was a higher priority than women's voting rights. After the Civil War, Congress introduce the 14th and 15th Amendments to grant citizenship to African Americans and voting rights to African American men. Leaders of the women suffrage movement wanted these amendment given to women as well, but they were disappointed when established politicians refused. The debate over these two amendments split the movement into two groups: the New York City-based National Woman Suffrage Association, founded by Stanton and Susan B. Anthony in 1869, and the Boston-based American Woman Suffrage Association, led by Lucy Stone and Julia Ward Howe. The NWSA wanted to focus on passing a constitutional amendment, but the AWSA wanted to focus on getting the right to vote first. This split weakened the suffrage movement. By 1900, only Wyoming, Idaho, Utah, and Colorado had granted women full voting rights.

Roosevelt's beliefs and ideas

Theodore Roosevelt was the youngest person to ever take the office--at age 42. He believed in Social Darwinism and he was a committed progressive. He believed that government should balance the needs of competing groups in American society on behalf of the public interest. His reform programs soon became known as the Square Deal.

President Woodrow Wilson's beliefs

Wilson's experience and interest were in domestic policy (just U.S. issues). He was a committed progressive and opposed imperialism. He believed democracy was essential to a nation's stability and prosperity. He wanted the U.S. to promote democracy which would create a world free of revolution and war. He hoped the U.S. would lead by moral example, but foreign affairs absorbed much of his time and energy as president.

protectorate

a country that is technically independent but is actually under the control of another country

muckraker

a journalist who uncovers abuses and corruption in a society

dollar diplomacy

a policy of joining the business interests of a country with its diplomatic interests abroad

Open Door policy

a policy that allowed each foreign nation in China to trade freely in the other nation's spheres of influence

legislation

a proposed law to be voted on by a governing body

income tax

a tax based upon the net income of a person or business

direct primary

a vote held by all members of a political party to decide their candidate for public office

guerrillas

armed fighters who carry out surprise attacks

The Cuban Rebellion/Revolution

cuba, one of Spain's oldest colonies, generated considerable wealth for Spain with its sugar plantations and produced nearly 1/3 of the world's sugar in the mid 1800s. until Spain abolished slavery in 1886, about 1/3 of the cuban population was enslaved and worked for wealthy landowners on plantations. in 1868, cuban rebels declared independence and launched a guerrilla war against Spanish authorities, but lacking internal support, the rebellion collapsed 10 years later. many cubans and their leader Jose Marti then fled to the U.S. the U.S. and Cuba had become closely linked economically by the 1890s. Cuba exported much of its sugar to the U.S., and Americans invested approximately $50 million in Cuba's sugar plantations, mines, and railroads. But when America imposed a new tariff on sugar in 1894, it devastated Cuba's economy. in financial distress, Cuban rebels launched a new rebellion in February 1895. Marti died during the fighting, but the rebels seized control of eastern Cuba, declared independence, and formally established the Republic of Cuba in September 1895.

America annexing Somoa

due to a growing trade with Asia, U.S. ships crossing the Pacific needed ports for their ships to refuel and resupply. Pago Pago of Samoa had one of the nicest ports, and in 1878, the U.S. negotiated permission to open a base there. however, an 1899 agreement divided the port between the U.S. and Germany.

jingoism

extreme nationalism marked by agressive foreign policy

America annexing Japan

in 1852, president Fillmore ordered Commodore Perry to negotiate a treaty with Japan. warships under Perry's command entered Edo Bay. When the Japanese saw the warships, they realized they were not powerful enough to resist modern weapons. in 1854, Japan signed the treaty of Kanagawa, giving the U.S. trading rights at two Japanese ports.

prohibition

laws banning the manufacture, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages

sphere of influence

section of a country where a foreign nation enjoys special rights and powers

arbitration

settling a dispute by agreeing to accept the decision of an impartial outsider

imperialism

the actions used by one nation to excersise political or economic control over a smaller or weaker nation

Pan-Americanism

the idea that the U.S. and Latin American nationsnations should work together

referendum

the practice of letter voters accept or reject measures proposed by the legislature

autonomy

the quality of or state of being self-governing

initiative

the right of citizens to place a measure or issue before the voters or the legislature for approval

recall

the right that enables voters to remove unsatisfactory elected officials from office

suffrage

the right to vote

unfair trade practices

trading practices that derive a gain at the expense of competition

yellow journalism

type of sensational, biased, or often false reporting for the sake of attracted readers