W4: sensory and short term memory

How The Modal Model of Memory works

1) Input (auditory / visual, anything from environment) → 2) sensory memory → 3)short term mem ←/→ 4) Long term memory Ex: 1) input = listening to lecture 2)first enters into sensory memory which is typically very short store, however, if we attend to this input it has the potential to enter into short term memory at which point we can engage in control processes like rehearsal in an effort to get it entered into long-term memory 3)In this model Short term memory can be thought of as information you use in the moment (working memory is typically considered an active way of using information in the short term memory domain) that gets stored in the LTM through control processes 4) Long term memory: where information is more perminantly stored --> once information is stored in the LTM you want to be able to pull this out back into short term memory so yu can use it which is why the Short term to long term memory is a bi-directional relationship

(M2) Working memory

1)Define and identify tasks dependent on working memory: Definition of working memory as an active short-term store 2)Think of relevant situations where having lower working memory ability could pose challenges. Highly verbal therapies? (might be harder for individuls with lower working memory abilities) 3) Working memory ability decreases as we age (beginning with our late 20s, early 30s... some therapies that work well with younger adults, may not be as beneficial for middle aged/ older adults, especially if you acquire patients later in life) 4) Working memory interacts with many variables in which you may be interested knowing where a person's working memory ability is is helpful in predicting where they might on other measures, what therapies will be most helpful

5 Best Strategies to improve learning and memory

1)Elaborate - associate what you are learning to what you already know 2) Generate and test (The generation effect) 3)Take breaks: Memory is better for multiple short study sessions (the spacing effect) 4) Consolidation is enhanced if you sleep after studying (in other words, no all nighters!) 5) Avoid the "illusion of learning" Familiarity does not mean comprehension

Procedure for getting info into the LTM

1)Encoding: acquiring information and transforming it into memory 2)Retrieval: transferring information from LTM to working memory 3) Maintenance rehearsal: Repetition of stimuli that maintains information but does not transfer it to LTM 4)Elaborative rehearsal: Using meanings and connections to help transfers information to LTM

Interaction b/w Episodic and Semantic memories

1)Episodic can be lost leaving only semantic: So when we acquiring knowledge it may start as episodic but then "fade" to semantic memory 2)Semantic can be enhanced if associated with episodic. A) Autobiographical memory of specific experiences can include semantic and episodic components. B) A Personal semantic memory = semantic memory w/personal significance C) Can influence what we experience (episodic) by determining what we attend to

Working Memory Model

1)Phonological Loopour way of getting information that is verbal or auditory into short term working memory store 2)Visual/ Spatial Sketch Pad: holds visual-spatial information 3)Central Executive: pulls from phonological loop and sketch pad for more complex cognitive tasks

Issues with Short-Term Memory (Modal Model)

1)Proactive interference: occurs when information learned previously interferes with learning new information Example: Your native language may make it more difficult to learn and remember a new foreign language 2) Retroactive interference: occurs when new learning interferes with remembering old learning Example: After you get a new telephone number and use it for a while, you may have difficulty remembering your old phone number

W4: sensory and short term memory

1)Working understanding of sensory memory vs. short term memory - know durations and capacities for different memory stores 2)How sensory memory serves as a framework 3)what is the Conceptualization of short-term memory in the modal framework -Capacity is 5-7 items, - duration is around 30 seconds, without rehearsal, it is less 15-20 seconds (Week 5 we will look at working memory, which was proposed by a different theorist, working memory functions as an active short-term memory store)

Phonological Loop (process/ research) (Working Memory)

1)similarity effect Letters or words that sound similar are confused 2)Word-length effect - Memory for lists of words is better for short words than for long words = Takes longer to rehearse long words and to produce them during recall 3) Articulatory suppression: A way in which rehearsal is prevented that is used in research that Prevents one from rehearsing items to be remembered. Research found this Reduces memory span, Eliminates word-length effect (short words easier to remember) and Reduces phonological similarity effect for reading words

Factors that Aid in Encoding (Cont)

1. Visual imagery 2.Self-reference effect 3. Generation effect *4.Organizing to-be-remembered information: if information is kept thematically it will improve memory performance and if that information is kept together on a test in the same categories as it was studied, this should increase performance even more 5.Relating words to survival value: deciding how useful something would be on a desert island - example of deeper processing from before 6.Retrieval practice

(Modal Model) 3 types of memory

1.Sensory, 2.Short term, 3.Long Term

Types of LTR (GET IMAGE)

2 Main categories (Explicit/ Implicit) Subcategories: Explicit: (episodic, semantic) Implicit (procedural, priming, conditioning)

W4 Improving memory

A.How can we improve our memory according to: 1)Levels of processing? 2)Retrieval cues? 3)Imagery 4)Using different kinds of encoding specificity? B. Think of interaction between memory and therapuetic realtionships Are/were there times when lack of memory could be confused for something else? Think differential diagnosis

Control processes

Active processes that can be controlled by the person Anything you do in an effort to make information enter into your long term memory store for example Maintenance Rehearsal. Any strategies used to make a stimulus more memorable including Strategies of attention that help you focus on specific stimuli

Retrieval Practice: Which results in a stronger memory trace, Re-reading the material vs Being tested on the material?

Answer: testing = this is the testing effect

Long-Term Memory

Anything from 30 seconds ago or prior would be considered LTM. Add graphic

Measuring the capacity and duration of sensory memory (Sperling, 1960)

Array of letters flashed quickly on a screen and Participants asked to report as many as possible (Whole report method) In next two studies the presentation of tone delayed for a fraction of a second after the letters were extinguished (Partial report / Delayed partial report) --> Results: Sensory memory is limited by short its short duration. Found that performance decreases rapidly with the increasing length of delay and performance is best w/out delay confirming the short duration of Sensory memory

Echoic memory

Auditory sensory memory Brief sensory memory of the things that we hear that is responsible for the persistence of sound

EPISODIC BUFFER

Backup store that communicates with LTM and WM components Hold information longer and has greater capacity than phonological loop or visuospatial sketch pad

Sensory Memory (job/limitations) (Modal model)

Holds large amount of information for a short period of time, considered a framework for processing later information, a holding dock Limitation: is duration - its capacity is limited by very short duration -JOB: STM collects information, and holds this information for initial processing, giving us a brief glimpse, acting as a framework to fill in the blanks with information (by giving you the gist you can determine if the information is interesting enough to attend to, and therefore enter in to STM and potentially dedicate serious attention in order to enter in to LTM)

Types of Sensory Memory (Modal Model)

Iconic, Echoic

Double Dissociation for STM and LTM

Important bc shows us these are independant processes and have indepdant functions so you can have one impaired and one functioning as see with the 3 examples of patients -Patients HM, Clive (STM=OK / LTM = Impaired) -KF (STM=impaired / LTM = OK)

1.Sensory Memory

Initial stage that holds all incoming information Duration: Fractions of a second up to a few seconds Capacity: Potential to hold a lot of information (limitless) however this is limited by its short duation so not all this information can get in

Distributed versus massed practice effect

Its ifficult to maintain close attention throughout a long study session however Studying after a break gives feedback about what you already know. Why reading and reviews are spread out over a semester versus doing all reading the night before a test

What Implicit Memory does

Procedural Memory, Skill memory for actions despite Not always having a memory of where or when learned the skill you can still perform procedures without being consciously aware of how to do them - People who cannot form new LTMs can still learn new skills (e.g., H.M.)

Multiple trace hypothesis

Questions the assumption that the hippocampus is important only at the beginning of consolidation - The hippocampus has been shown to be activated during retrieval of both recent and remote memories - The response of the hippocampus can change over time - Reactivation and reconsolidation evidence from research on animals - Occurs under certain conditions --> to answer the question "Are memories ever permanent? Answer: Human memory is a "work in progress"

Types of Amnesia: Retrograde/ graded

Retrograde amnesia: loss of memory for events prior to the trauma Graded amnesia: memory for recent events is more fragile than for remote events

Location of memory w/in brain (Neuropsychology)

The hippocampus is responsible for one's ability to encode new long-term memories 3 examples of patients with damages or surgery and removed part of hippocampus: -Henry Molaison (H.M.): (surgery removed hippo)= not able to store new LTM -Clive Wearing- encephalitis (modern day HM. also had hippo removed) -K.F. - brain injury in a motorbike accident In each of these examples there's an inability to develop new long term memories - they are restricted to short term memory, living in the moment, with intact long term memory from the past as well as procedural memories

Sensory Memory (Modal model)

The retention, for brief periods of time, of the effects of sensory stimulation (visual and auditory info) before information decays very quickly - Persistence of vision: retention of the perception of light ( looking at a bright light and seeing it on a white wall for a very brief period of time)

Serial Position Effect (LTM)

memory is best for items at begining and end of list and worst for those in the middle of the list (Recency Effect and primacy effect )

Implicit memory in everyday life

propaganda effect/ mere exposure effect: (happens below level of conscious awareness) the more familiarity we have with something the more likely we are to endorse or agree with those statements - the more we see a product advertised the more likely we are to purchase it or consider it a good product

Organization, Comprehension,Memory

study should that Having a mental framework of comprehension (visual image was used in the study) aided memory encoding and retrieval

Cued-recall

(Retrieving infor from LTM) cue presented to aid recall -Increased performance over free-recall -Retrieval cues most effective when created by the person who uses them -Be able to link information that you have seen presented in many different ways and sources and if you can integrate that and youve used retreval cues as you learn from many different sources youre more likely to recall on a test

Chunking

(Short Term Memory) small units can be combined into larger meaningful units--> Chunk is a collection of elements strongly associated with one another but weakly associated with elements in other chunks --> What are the items being referred to in regareds to capacity of STM? These units can be phone numbers, or any information your trying to hold in your memory --> chunking is a strategy to increase memory retention --> Research Example: Ericsson et al. (1980) Trained a college student with average memory ability to use chunking- S.F. had an initial digit span of 7. After 230 one-hour training sessions, S.F. could remember up to 79 digits ⇒ Chunking them into meaningful units

2)Semantic

(type of LTM) facts and knowledge. Semantic does not involve mental time travel rather it is General knowledge and facts that can be objectively verified

1)Episodic

(type of LTM) for personal events: Episodic involves mental time travel back to events in your past cant be objectively verified = No guarantee of accuracy

Types Coding in Long term Memory (LTM)

- Visual and auditory encoding happens in both short- and long-term memory - Semantic encoding in short- and long-term memory --> Wickens study : Interference was enhanced by the meanings of words

Module 3 Objectives - Long term memory

Define what long-term memory is : wider span than many people think Differnt Types of LTM: 1) Declarative (episodic, semantic) 2) Nondeclarative memory (procedural, classical conditioning, priming) and the different subtypes - How can you apply these to your work?

3. Long-term Memory

Duration: 30 seconds in the past for years or even decades (covers wide expanse of time) wonce memory is in LTM its fairly permanent Capacity: Can hold a large amount of information

2.Short-term Memory

Duration: for about 15 to 20 seconds (no rehearse) or 30 w/ rehearsing Capacity:Holds five to seven items

Types of LTM

Episodic memory and Semantic memory Episodic and semantic show a double dissociation - can have one intact and the other impaired - Examples in patiens: 1) K.C. damaged hippocampus: No episodic memory, cannot relive any events of his past. However Semantic memory intact, can remember general information about the past 2) Italian woman: Impaired semantic memory however Episodic memory for past events was preserved

State dependent learning

Learning is associated with a particular internal state: Better memory if person's mood at encoding matches mood during retrieval

Information Storage at the Synapse

Long-term potentiation (LTP) is the process of Enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation during consilidation which leads to structural changes and enhanced responding

Effect of Time (2)Semanticization of remote memories

Loss of episodic (personal association) details for memories of long-ago events overtime --> meaning episodic memories start to change into semantic memories as more time passes (personal associations become remembered as factual events)

Levels of Processing Theory

Memory depends on how information is encoded. Theory states that the degree to which information is processed determines the chances of it being endcoded and later recieved Degree/ Depth of processing: 1)Shallow processing: we can process at shallow level where little attention is paid to meaning,focus on physical features like capital letters or if a word rhyms, leads to poor memory performance 2)Deep processing: As you move towards deeper procesing you pay closer attention to meaning and its leads to better memory Which task causes deeper processing? Using a word in a sentence or Deciding how useful an object might be on a desert island? Answer: Appraising a tool (There is a lot of support for Depth of processing theory however it has not been defined independently of memory performance )

Working memory differs from STM

Similar concept to Short term memory but much more active. WM is a limited capacity system for temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex tasks such as comprehension, learning, and reasoning - STM holds information for a brief period of time - same 15 - 30 second duration as WM however ... -WM is concerned with the processing and manipulation of information that occurs during complex cognition

Short-Term Memory (Modal Model)

Stores small amounts of information for a brief duration → Includes both new information received from the sensory stores and information recalled from long-term memory (bi-directionality) -Short-term memory, when rehearsal is prevented, is about 15-20 seconds w/ rehearsal = 30

Matching the Cognitive Task

There is a benefit to matching a cognitive task during encoding that is the same as during retreval - for example: if the test you are taking is multiple choice you want to study the information in multiple choice...This is called... 1) Transfer-appropriate processing: phenomenon whereby the results of a memory task will be better if the type of processing used during encoding is the same as the type during retrieval

Memory Consolidation

This is the process where we make the memories that we have been able to get in to the LTM perminant can think of this as the part of the process that transforms new memories from fragile state to more permanent state 1) The Synaptic consolidation occurs at synapses, happens rapidly 2) overtime there is Systems consolidation which involves gradual reorganization of circuits in brain that are being used the most often

Effect of Time (1) remember/ know

Typical research findings are that forgetting increases with longer intervals from the original encoding (how much time has passed) = Remember/Know procedure!!!!!! Remember if a stimulus is familiar and the circumstance under which it was encountered? -remember has a more personal experience associated with it than just knowing Know if the stimulus is familiar but don't remember experiencing it earlier? - Don't remember the stimulus at all

Capacity of short-term memory

Typical result: 5-8 items - Real world application of this: think about phone numbers and SSN are 7 and 8 repectiviely which is in the limits of what our memory is capable of

Visuospatial Sketch Pad (process/ research) (Working Memory)

Visual imagery tasks and visuospatial skills Mental rotation task --> The creation of visual images in the mind in the absence of a physical visual stimulus--> Found Tasks that called for greater rotations took longer

Iconic memory

Visual sensory memory Brief sensory memory of the things that we see that is responsible for the persistence of vision

Simultaneous Processing in the WM

WM is set up to process different types of information simultaneously however WM has trouble when similar types of information are presented at the same time - the more distinct the information is the better the outcomes are in working memory store - individuals with higher working memory capacity were more efficient at ignoring the distractors - important to know a persons working memory abilities when thinking about clinical applications (verbal abilities required by particular therapies, attentional control, reaction time) W4slide30

Encoding Specificity

We learn information together with its context Best recall occurred when encoding and retrieval occurred in the same location "diving experiment" - study on land but test in water your performance is worse but if you study under wanter and test underwater perforamnce will be higher because this is serving as a cue that can aid retreval

1) Explicit/declarative

conscious, intentional recollection of factual info, previous experience and concepts in our LTM A. Episodic: personal events/episodes B. Semantic: facts, knowledge Implicit/non-declarative: unconscious memory that influences behavior A. Procedural (skill) memory - the process of doing things B. Classical conditioning - C. Priming: previous experience changes behavioral response through unconscious processes