Week 3 Social Psychology: Attitudes
a
. An unpleasant psychological state often aroused when people hold two conflicting cognitions is called a. cognitive dissonance. b. attitude ambivalence. c. functional inconsistency. d. self-persuasion.
d
. Han and Shavout found that Korean participants would respond most favorably to which of the following advertisement slogans? a. "Treat yourself to a breath-freshening experience." b. "A style of all her own." c. "Make your way through the crowd." d. "An exhilarating way to provide for your family."
b
A negative reaction to the feeling that one's freedom is being threatened is called a. cognitive dissonance. b. psychological reactance. c. forewarning. d. the inoculation hypothesis.
D
A positive, negative, or mixed response to a person, object, or idea is called a(n) a. aversion. b. cognition. c. emotion. d. attitude.
b
A sleeper effect occurs when a. persuasion occurs in response to subliminal stimuli. b. a persuasive message from a non credible source becomes more persuasive over time. c. distraction interferes with the ability to pay attention to a persuasive message. d. people fall asleep during exposure to a persuasive message.
b
Because communicator trustworthiness is important, people tend to be readily impressed by speakers who a. take popular stands. b. argue against their own interests. c. talk slowly and deliberately. d. are well-dressed.
d
For which type of attitude would an implicit attitude measure be more predictive than an explicit attitude measure? a. an attitude toward wearing a seat belt b. an attitude toward owning a pet c. an attitude toward church attendance d. an attitude toward committing suicide
b
Gloria has a negative attitude toward smoking, but she continues to smoke two packs of cigarettes a day. According to the theory of planned behavior, one reason that her attitude and behavior are inconsistent could be that a. her attitude is based on feelings rather than beliefs. b. she doesn't believe that she can control her smoking behavior. c. her family and friends also have negative attitudes toward smoking. d. her attitudes are usually accessible when she reaches for a cigarette.
a
High self-monitors respond more to ____ advertising. a. image-oriented b. information-oriented c. fact-based d. subliminal
c
If you want to convince a friend to abandon an attitude and start thinking more like you, what would be the best approach? a. Provide information that will use fear to terrify your friend into changing his attitude. b. Use a subtle form of ridiculous so that you friend feels bad about himself for holding his current attitude. c. Be cautious in your approach and do not promote an idea that is too different than your friend's current attitude. d. Present a strong argument that is diametrically opposed to what your friend currently believes.
d
Implicit Association Tests (IATs) can detect implicit attitudes by measuring a. the participants' mood after responding to word pairings. b. the time it takes participants to complete the whole test. c. participants' facial muscles as they are exposed to positive or negative stimuli. d. the speed at which participants associate stimuli with a positive or negative word.
a
Implicit attitudes can be difficult to measure because a. people are not aware of having them. b. physiological measures are not effective in assessing them. c. they can only be measured by direct techniques. d. they are prone to the effects of social desirability.
a
In a study about political attitudes and opinions during the 2004 presidential election, researchers used brain imaging to examine what happened in the brain when participants listened to positive or negative statements about the candidate of their choice. They found that most affected were those areas of the brain associated with which of the following? a. emotion b. reasoning c. speech d. mood
d
In trying to assess attitudes about particular subjects, public opinion pollsters have become aware that attitude responses seem to be affected by all of the factors below except a. the context in which the question appears. b. the wording of the question. c. the order of the questions. d. the length of the questionnaire.
b
Jacqueline, an attitude researcher, is interested in how people feel about alcohol. She would be well-advised to use a a. Likert scale because it is not as susceptible to social desirability effects. b. bogus pipeline because it is not as susceptible to social desirability effects. c. Likert scale because it is more likely to be affected by social desirability. d. bogus pipeline because it is more likely to be affected by social desirability.
b
Jaycee is extremely judgmental. She has strong opinions about politics, social issues, and moral concerns. Jaycee is high in the a. need for cognition. b. need for evaluation. c. evaluative conditioning. d. cognitive dissonance.
a
Jon and Kate give consecutive speeches on opposing sides in a debate on solar energy. Audience members are asked to register their view a few weeks later. How might the order of the speeches affect the audience's decision? a. It should yield a primacy effect. b. It should yield a subliminal effect. c. It should yield a regency effect. d. It should not have any effect.
a
Louie runs a clinic that helps individuals to quit smoking, and he would like to use fear to motivate his clients. Which strategy would be most effective? a. First scare clients by showing them gory lung-cancer operations. Then outline the specific steps they could follow to stop smoking. b. First scare clients by showing them gory lung-cancer operations. Then allow them to come up with their own ways of quitting smoking so that they are more committed. c. Present statistics concerning the health hazards of smoking, but nothing too scary. Then allow the clients to come up with their own ways of quitting smoking so that they are more committed. d. Present statistics concerning the health hazards of smoking, but nothing too scary. Then outline the specific steps they could follow to stop smoking.
a
Measuring attitudes by assessing physiological arousal tends to identify the ____ but not the ____ of the attitude. a. intensity; direction b. direction; accuracy c. accuracy; intensity d. direction; automaticity
d
Michael believes that one's family is more important than one's career. In order for him to successfully convince his achievement-oriented friend Ronald that he should also possess such a value system, Michael should a. take the very discrepant position that careers never provide satisfaction anywhere close to what a family provides. b. use peripheral cues. c. present as many arguments for his position as possible. d. suggest more of a balance between family and career concerns than is currently true for Ronald.
c
Miss Roberto is concerned that Talia and Emily avoid playing with Michael because he is African American. Which strategy would best enable her to assess any unconscious dislike these two students feel toward Michael? a. Ask them why they don't want to play with him. b. Measure the girls' brain activity when they are forced to play with Michael. c. Administer an IAT to examine the girls' racial attitudes. d. Administer a self-report questionnaire examining the girls' racial attitudes.
c
One potential problem with self-report measures is that a. respondents typically dislike them. b. they do not provide information concerning the direction of an attitude. c. respondents might not respond truthfully. d. it is not possible to assess the validity of self-report measures.
d
One way to increase the accuracy of self-report measures of attitudes is to a. offer many, rather than fewer, response options. b. use a single attitude scale, rather than multiple scales. c. focus on attitudes regarding sensitive and personal issues. d. convince respondents that any deception can be detected.
a
People high in need for cognition are a. more likely to process a message along the central route. b. most persuaded by image-oriented appeals. c. more likely to agree with a message if they are in a good mood. d. more persuaded by the reputation and appearance of the source.
c
People who are high in intelligence and/or self-esteem tend to be ____ vulnerable to persuasion when compared to people low in intelligence and/or self-esteem. a. more b. less c. equally d. somewhat less
c
People who want to hold correct attitudes will often engage in central route processing. Doing so means that they a. will always end up with a valid attitude. b. will avoid biased information processing. c. may fall prey to overcorrection. d. will become more liberal in their thinking.
d
Persuasive communication is the outcome of three possible factors. Which is not one of those factors? a. source b. audience c. message d. context
b
Professor Shackleford is elated because she has just learned that her paper has been accepted for publication. When a student passes her in the hallway and tells her that he missed the latest exam in order to stay home with his depressed cat, her good mood renders her likely to a. be even more skeptical than usual about such an unlikely excuse. b. be less skeptical than usual about the excuse. c. overlook the student's cognitive dissonance. d. fall victim to the sleeper effect.
c
Research by Landau and colleagues (2004), in which participants were exposed to subliminal images of the 9/11 terrorist attacks, and then asked questions about then-President George W. Bush, leads to the conclusion that a. the fear of death leads people to choose the central route to persuasion. b. reminders of mortality lead people to prefer one-sided messages to two-sided messages. c. fear arousal can influence even attitudes as important as political opinions. d. the higher the level of fear arousal in a persuasive communication, the stronger the agreement with it.
d
Research demonstrates that exposure to weak versions of a persuasive argument tends to increase later resistance to that argument. This is consistent with a. the discounting cue hypothesis. b. self-perception theory. c. cognitive dissonance theory. d. the inoculation hypothesis.
b
Research indicates that subliminal influence a. never occurs. b. usually occurs in the short term for simple judgments and actions. c. is more likely among people high in the need for cognition. d. can persuade people to take action even when they were previously unmotivated to do so.
b
Research on the attitudes of twins suggests a. that genetics are not useful in predicting the attitudes different people will hold. b. the attitudes of identical twins are more similar than the attitudes of fraternal twins. c. the attitudes of twins who are reared apart from one another are more dissimilar than the attitudes of twins raised together in the same household. d. that the first-born twin is likely to be more conservative than the second-born twin, even when their births are only separated by minutes.
b
Roger and Mike always seem to disagree on music. When Roger tells Mike that he has heard a new song on the radio that he likes a lot, this experience is likely to lead Mike to a. like the song more than he would have had he not talked to Roger ahead of time. b. like the song less than he would have had he not talked to Roger ahead of time. c. be skeptical about Roger's motivation for telling him about the song. d. view Roger as an unlikable message source.
a
Sally is a staunch Democrat. She has been arguing with Jim, who is a staunch Republican. In the course of their discussion, Sally is able to withstand the arguments Jim offers for his position, but just barely. She realizes afterward that her own counterarguments to his were pretty weak. Subsequent to this realization, Sally's attitude will a. become less certain. b. remain unchanged. c. become more certain. d. change to agree with Jim.
b
Sammy and Mark watch a ballgame together. Sammy favors the home team, while Mark is an avid fan of the road team. The star player for Sammy's team makes a great play and starts to celebrate in a rather demonstrative fashion. Sammy gets caught up in the celebration, while Mark is angered because he feels this display is an insult to the players of his team. This demonstrates that a. two people's evaluations of the same event are more likely to be similar than different. b. we often interpret events and behavior based upon pre-existing attitudes. c. central route processing leads to stronger opinions than peripheral route processing. d. we can hold both positive and negative evaluations about the same object.
b
Selma's friends can't stand her new girlfriend, Patty, and have been pressuring Selma to stop seeing her. Selma gets agitated and feels that her friends should mind their own business and not try to "run her life" for her. According to the concept of ____, Selma would be most likely to respond by ____. a. psychological reactance; breaking up with Patty b. psychological reactance; feeling even more dedicated to her relationship with Patty c. attitude inoculation; eventually becoming persuaded by her friends' attitudes about Patty d. attitude inoculation; taking out her frustrations on Patty
b
Social psychologists seek to understand a. whether persuasion is moral or not. b. how and why persuasion occurs. c. the central route persuasion, but not peripheral. d. the peripheral route persuasion, but not central.
d
Stanley's stock broker calls him and says, "I have a great stock buying opportunity for you, but I need to know right away if you want to make the purchase." Stanley refuses to act so quickly, and says, "sorry but I really need to take time to think about this and decide if it is right for me. I'll get back to you." Stanley is going to use ____ as he decides if he should follow his broker's advice. a. the availability heuristic b. extension c. peripheral processing d. elaboration
b
Stephen Kraus's (1995) meta-analysis on the relationship between attitudes and behaviors showed that attitudes a. are only tenuously linked to behavior. b. significantly and substantially predict future behavior. c. significantly predict future behavior, but it is a relatively small effect size. d. invariably predict future behavior.
b
Tariq doesn't want his kids to give in to peer pressure to smoke. According to the inoculation hypothesis, one way he could build up their resistance to potential peer pressure is to a. let them smoke so that their attitudes will be based on direct experience. b. present them with weak arguments for smoking so that they can generate counterarguments. c. present them with very strong arguments against smoking on which to base their attitudes. d. have them listen to subliminal anti-smoking messages.
d
The "Lipton Ice" and dextrose pill research demonstrated that subliminal messages are most effective when participants a. cared very much about the issue. b. were low in self-monitoring. c. were low in the need for evaluation. d. really needed the item being advertised.
c
The central route to persuasion requires a. intelligence and strong arguments. b. involvement and an expert source. c. ability and motivation. d. knowledge of the issue and a credible source.
c
The covert attitude measure that uses electrodes pasted onto the scalp to record the waves of electrical brain activity is called a(n) a. facial electromyography. b. bogus pipeline. c. electroencephalograph. d. implicit association test.
a
The feeling of ambivalence can be described as an attitude that is a. mixed in terms of positive versus negative emotions. b. weak. c. strong. d. consistent in all circumstances.
d
The hypothesis that there is a genetic component to some attitudes would be supported by all but which finding? a. Attitudes of identical twins are more similar than those of fraternal twins. b. Adults who shared certain physiological characteristics also hold common political beliefs. c. When asked about attitudes for which there seems to be a genetic predisposition, research participants are quicker to respond to questions and less likely to alter their views toward social norms. d. The human genome project has identified specific genes that are responsible for the ability to hold positive or negative attitudes.
d
The study by Strachan and others (2002) found that subliminal cues regarding thirst influenced how much Kool-Aid participants drank only when a. the participants had previously been given water to drink. b. they were given something to eat as well. c. they were high in the need for cognition. d. the participants were thirsty and water had been withheld.
c
The theory of planned behavior posits that behavior is a function of attitudes, subjective norms, behavioral intentions, and the a. amount of time we have considered engaging in the action. b. correspondence between the attitude and the action. c. amount of control we perceive to have over our own actions. d. costs of engaging in the action.
b
Vicki is a lawyer who is trying to decide which of two forensic experts she should hire to provide testimony in a case. There is a large discrepancy in the fees each of the experts demands for their services. If Vicki wants the jurors to perceive her expert as trustworthy—and if she expects the witness's fees to become part of the trial record when he testifies—then she should select a. the more expensive expert. b. the less expensive expert. c. either one because of their status in their field. d. the expert who has the most experience testifying in court.
d
Wegener et al. (1995) found that happy participants used the central route to persuasion when presented with a pro-attitudinal message, but used the peripheral route to persuasion when presented with a counter-attitudinal message. This finding suggests that a. positive mood disrupts the ability to process persuasive information. b. people in a positive mood rely on superficial processing strategies. c. positive mood affects different people in different ways. d. happy people avoid processing only if it threatens to spoil their mood.
b
When message recipients use central route processing, which of the following will be true? a. Difficult messages will be more persuasive than easily learned messages. b. Memorable messages will be more persuasive than forgettable ones. c. Weak messages will engender more favorable responses than strong messages. d. Elaboration of message content will be objective and unbiased.
b
When used to measure attitudes, physiological measures such as heart rate and perspiration a. are particularly susceptible to social desirability bias. b. reveal the intensity of an attitude. c. reveal whether an attitude is positive or negative. d. are easier to control than behaviors such as nodding.
b
Which advertising slogan for a new stereo system would be most appealing to someone in a collectivist culture? a. "Play all of your favorite CDs and hear every nuance." b. "Invite your friends over so they can dance to music of the highest clarity." c. "Don't you want to have the best stereo in your neighborhood?" d. "You work hard every day—why not treat yourself to something special?"
a
Which condition is not specified in Holland's model of persuasion as necessary for persuasion to occur? a. Message recipients must elaborate on the message. b. Message recipients must attend to the message. c. Message recipients must comprehend the message. d. Message recipients must be motivated to accept the message.
d
Which of the following is not an explanation for why people in a positive mood are more susceptible to persuasion? a. A positive emotional state is cognitively distracting, making evaluation of arguments difficult. b. A good mood makes you feel that all is well, and you don't work as hard to evaluate arguments. c. Happy people want to maintain that mood, so they don't want to ruin it with critical evaluation of information. d. A positive mood makes people more thoughtful, so they are more likely to engage in central processing.
b
Which of the following is not used to overcome the limitations of traditional self-report methodology? a. the bogus pipeline b. a Likert scale c. the facial electromyography d. covert videotaping
c
Yanquan is a staunch Democrat. He has been arguing with Marcela, who is a staunch Republican. In the course of their discussion, Yanquan is able to withstand the arguments Marcela offers for her position, and he does so in strong and convincing fashion. He realizes afterward that his own counterarguments to Marcela's were pretty solid. Subsequent to this realization, Yanquan's attitude will a. become less certain. b. remain unchanged. c. become more certain. d. change to agree with Jim.
c
Your friend is thinking of purchasing a self-help weight-loss CD that promises its effects through subliminal persuasive messages embedded in the music. What should you tell her research shows about the effectiveness of such programs? a. Such programs are very effective. b. Such programs are somewhat effective, depending on the person. c. No solid evidence exists to support such programs. d. Subliminal messages work more effectively through visual (DVD) media than audio (CD) media.
b
. Markesan had made a chastity vow along with a lot of other girls in her church youth group. Her senior year, she and her boyfriend begin having sex, and Markesan becomes pregnant. Markesan doesn't really regret having sex with her boyfriend, but she is embarrassed that her friends will see her as a hypocrite. Markesan's experience fits best with which theory? a. self-perception theory b. impression management theory c. self-esteem theories d. cognitive dissonance theory
a
. What occurred in the research by Balletic and Dunning (2007) in which participants were asked to walk across a college campus wearing an embarrassing costume? a. Students in the high-choice condition underestimated how far they had walked relative to those in the low-choice condition. b. Students in the low-choice condition underestimated how far they had walked relative to those in the high-choice condition. c. Students with insufficient justification for their embarrassing actions overestimated how far they had walked relative to those with sufficient justification. d. The motivation to reduce dissonance had no effect on participants' visual representations of the natural environment.
d
A condition in which people refrain from engaging in a desirable activity, even though only mild punishment is threatened, is called a. self-monitoring. b. negative attitude change. c. insufficient justification. d. insufficient deterrence.
b
A major difference between cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory involves the extent to which ____ is necessary to lead to self-persuasion and attitude change. a. normative social influence b. physiological arousal c. self-affirmation d. an implicit attitude
c
A social psychology graduate student who works long hours for little pay becomes increasingly convinced that she loves social psychology. This student's attitude toward her chosen field of study is most likely the result of a. psychological reactance. b. self-affirmation. c. insufficient justification. d. insufficient deterrence.
a
Abby compliments Sharon on her new outfit, despite thinking it is not flattering at all. According to the "new look" at dissonance theory, a. Abby must feel physiological arousal after her lie in order to feel cognitive dissonance. b. Abby will feel dissonance because she felt her only choice was to flatter Sharon when Sharon asked her, "How do I look?" c. Abby will not feel dissonance because Sharon's outfit is not personally important to Abby. d. Abby will come to believe that Sharon's outfit is flattering in the same way that an observer might infer Abby's attitude from her behavior.
a
According to a 2014 Gallup poll, ____ were rated as being the most honest and having the highest ethical standards. a. nurses b. medical doctors c. clergy d. pharmacists
b
According to research by Formula and Petty (2002), an attitude can be ____ by a persuasive message or argument ____ it. a. weakened; for b. strengthened; against c. weakened; against d. strengthened; for
According to these theories, the influence of attitudes on behavior results from deliberate decision making. However, this influence is limited by (1) the specificity of the attitude (the more specific the attitude is regarding a specific behavior, the more influential it is), (2) subjective norms, (3) perceived control (individuals believe they have the capability to engage in the behavior), and (4) intentions (intentions do not always result in behavior). The specific attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavior control all predict behavioral intention, which is the most proximal predictor of actual behavior.
According to the theory of planned behavior, how do attitudes influence behavior?
c
According to the theory of planned behavior, one reason that a person's behavior might not be consistent with that person's attitudes is that the behavior a. is determined by norms that are consistent with the person's attitudes. b. is one that the person feels is within his or her control. c. is determined by norms that are counter to the person's attitudes. d. occurs only when the person is self-aware.
d
After giving the matter a great deal of thought, Iris declared chemistry rather than physics as her major. Having made this decision, she went out and had a good time with her classmates, who reminded her what a great friend she was. At that point, Iris was able to look at her choice and see both its pros and cons without glamorizing it. Her behavior can best be explained by the concept of a. self-perception. b. cognitive dissonance. c. impression management. d. self-affirmation.
b
After narrowing their choices to a Toyota and a Honda, Tammy Faye and James have decided to buy a Toyota. It is likely that after making this decision, Tammy Faye and James will a. soon begin to question whether they should have bought the Honda instead of the Toyota. b. feel less dissonance if they are told by friends that they have decorated their house nicely. c. tell friends looking for a new car both the pros and cons of buying a Toyota. d. feel more dissonance than they felt before making the decision.
b
All of the following are necessary conditions for cognitive dissonance specified by Cooper and Fazio (1984) except that people must a. freely choose to engage in the attitude-discrepant behavior. b. assign responsibility for the behavior to an outside source. c. experience physiological arousal as a result of their behavior. d. attribute their arousal to the attitude-discrepant behavior.
b
An attitude is implicit if you a. try to hide it. b. are unaware of it. c. cannot measure it. d. disagree with it.
a
An attitude that is brought to mind quickly and easily is said to be a. accessible. b. strong. c. weak. d. dissonant.
a
As personal involvement regarding an issue increases, a. the quality of the arguments becomes a more important determinant of persuasion. b. the credibility of the speaker becomes a more important determinant of persuasion. c. the attractiveness of the speaker becomes a more important determinant of persuasion. d. the likelihood of central route persuasion decreases.
c
Attitudes are best understood as a. being either entirely positive or entirely negative. b. being initially positive but increasingly negative as new information arises. c. varying in strength along both positive and negative dimensions. d. ranging on a continuum from positive to negative.
a
Attitudes are useful because they a. let us quickly judge whether something we encounter is good or bad. b. bias the way we interpret new information. c. make it more likely that we will change our minds later. d. allow us to take more time to evaluate others.
b
Brady and Quinn are trying to develop an ad campaign in which a key element is the trustworthiness of the message's communicator. Toward this end, they may wish to utilize a. a public service message. b. overheard communications. c. novel advertising. d. political campaigns.
c
Cacioppo and Petty (1981) recorded facial muscle activity of college students as they listened to a message with which they agreed or disagreed. The results of this study indicated that listening to a(n) ____ message increases activity in the ____. a. disagreeable; cheek muscles b. disagreeable; chin muscles c. agreeable; cheek muscles d. agreeable; muscles in the forehead and brow area
c
Cross-cultural research indicates that cognitive dissonance a. exists in similar situations and manifests itself the same way in collectivist and individualistic societies. b. does not exist in collectivist societies. c. can be seen across cultures, but emerges in different situations in different cultures. d. is more common among women in individualistic cultures, but among men in collectivist cultures.
b
Eric does not really know how to answer the essay question about cognitive dissonance on his social psychology exam. He decides to write as many facts as he knows about the topic of attitudes in his exam book, hoping that the professor will not read the exams too closely and will be impressed enough by the length of his essay to give him a good score. Eric is hoping to take advantage of a. the sleeper effect. b. the peripheral route to persuasion. c. the central route to persuasion. d. dissonance-related insufficient justification.
Insufficient justification occurs when people cannot find a good enough reason to explain their behavior. Often this results in attitude change in the effort to eliminate the unpleasant arousal caused by the behavior. The relationship between insufficient justification and cognitive dissonance is made clear by the 1959 study of Fastinger and Carl smith. In this study, subjects who had been paid only $1 for their participation in an unpleasant task (and thus received insufficient justification for doing so) were more inclined to exaggerate their enjoyment of the task (thereby reducing their cognitive dissonance) than were subjects who had been paid $20. The $1 was insufficient justification to account for why the participants had lied to someone else about how fun the task was, so participants adjusted their attitudes about the task accordingly in order to alleviate the cognitive dissonance. The $20 participants had sufficient justification for their behavior, and therefore no attitude change was necessary.
Describe the phenomenon of insufficient justification, and explain its relationship to cognitive dissonance.
The answer to this question can be found in Table 6.4. The options include the following: attitude bolstering, counter arguing, social validation, negative affect, assertions of confidence, selective exposure, and source derogation. Student examples of these different techniques will vary.
Discuss and given an example of at least four different techniques that one can use to resist others' attempts to persuade them to change their attitude.
The answer to this question can be found in Table 6.5. The five techniques are to change one's attitude, to change one's perception of their behavior, to add consonant cognitions, to minimize the importance of the conflict, and to reduced perceive choices. Examples will vary from student to student.
Discuss and given an example of five different techniques that one can use to overcome cognitive dissonance.
Whereas cognitive dissonance theory posits a state of psychological tension that people are motivated to reduce by bringing their attitudes more in line with their behaviors, (1) self-perception theory suggests that people interpret their attitudes by observing their behaviors and that physiological arousal is not necessary for self-persuasion to occur, (2) impression-management theory maintains that what matters is not the consistency between attitudes and behaviors but the appearance of such consistency, and (3) self-affirmation theory proposes that attitude change is spurred by threats to the self-concept.
Discuss three alternatives to cognitive dissonance theory.
b
Dr. Flintstone, president of Quarry College, needs to convince students that the college must double its tuition beginning in five years. He is hiring someone to promote this idea, as well as developing supportive arguments. Would he need to adopt a different strategy if he instead wanted to implement the change in the next academic year? a. No. He should do the same thing either way. b. Yes. If the change is to happen next year, the strength of the arguments will matter more than whom he hires to promote the idea. c. Yes. If the change is to happen next year, the person he hires will matter more than the strength of the arguments. d. Yes. If the change is to happen next year, obtaining a credible promoter and generating strong arguments will both be more crucial than if the change will happen in five years.
b
Elias believes that gun control is necessary. Which of the following would cause Elias to change his attitude the most? a. He hears a speech against gun control, then gives a speech that takes a similar position. b. He anticipates giving a speech against gun control, and then gives the speech. c. He anticipates giving a speech for gun control, and then must give a speech against it. d. He gives a speech for gun control, followed by a speech against it.
The central route to persuasion tends to be rational and information-based. People engaged in this route of processing are actively trying to understand and evaluate the arguments in a persuasive message. In contrast, the peripheral route involves persuasive cues that are peripheral to the message content. Such cues might be source credibility or likeability, a highly distracting environment, or simply other contextual factors. Both routes can produce persuasion, although persuasion via the central route is often more resistant to later persuasive attempts. However, the central route is subject to some biased processing, such as overcorrection. Individuals eager to hold a "correct" attitude may sometimes work hard to show that they are persuadable by an unlikeable source, having learned that they are prone to be persuaded more by a likeable source.
Explain the difference between the central and peripheral routes to persuasion.
d
Gino, a salesperson, wants to use techniques that will lead his potential customers to rely on peripheral route persuasion. He should do all of the following except a. speak quickly (but not too quickly) when presenting information about his product. b. get the customer to nod in the affirmative while he is presenting his sales pitch. c. present his sales pitch to customers who are clearly in a rush. d. approach prospective buyers who obviously care deeply about his product.
a
Harmon-Jones and others (1996) research in which participants drank Kool-Aid mixed with sugar versus vinegar showed that a. negative consequences for lying are not essential to dissonance. b. negative consequences for lying are essential to dissonance. c. attribution of arousal is essential to dissonance. d. attribution of arousal is not essential to dissonance.
d
Hoshino-Browne and colleagues' (2005) post-decision dissonance experiment found that Japanese participants a. felt no dissonance. b. felt less dissonance than their Canadian counterparts. c. felt more dissonance then their Canadian counterparts. d. felt dissonance when making a decision for a friend rather than themselves.
This process, known as the sleeper effect, occurs when the source of a message gradually loses its impact over time. Initially, people are more readily persuaded by credible sources than by no ncredible sources, but over time, they seem to lose the connection between the source and the message, becoming equally persuaded by both types of sources. The sleeper effect tends to occur only when the source of the message is introduced after the message itself and explains why a low-credibility source (e.g., the National Enquirer) can be just as persuasive as a high-credibility source (e.g., the New York Times) in the long run.
Identify and explain the process whereby the source of a message gradually loses its impact over time.
b
Impression management theory suggests that people change their attitudes to match their behaviors in an effort to a. be consistent. b. appear consistent. c. reduce physiological arousal. d. restore a positive self-image.
b
Jerri thinks gossiping is wrong, but she chooses to engage in it anyway because she doesn't believe any harm that could come from it. Why does Jerri not feel personal responsibility for the negative consequences that ultimately come from her gossiping? a. She is forced to gossip. b. She doesn't foresee the negative consequences. c. She lacks the necessary physiological arousal. d. She can't attribute the arousal she has to her own gossiping behavior.
d
Josie listened to a speech on the radio advocating the increased use of automobiles that are not reliant on fossil fuels. One would expect the sleeper effect to be greatest if Josie found out about the background of the speaker ____ the speech and was asked about his views about the issue ____. a. before; that same day b. after; that same day c. before; a few weeks later d. after; a few weeks later
c
Kirk is a strong Republican who voted for Mitt Romney in 2012. Based on research by Regan and Kilduff (1988), when should Kirk have felt most confident about Romney's chances for winning the 2012 election? a. right before voting b. in the voting booth c. right after voting d. months before the election
d
Leo has always believed strongly that fidelity in a marriage is very important. After he has an extramarital affair with Annette, he says to himself, "How could I stop myself? Annette was my soul mate. This was meant to be." Which dissonance-reducing technique is Leo using? a. changing his attitude b. changing his perception of the behavior c. minimizing the importance of the conflict d. reducing perceived choice
c
Marcia has two boyfriends, Davie and Mickey, both of whom she likes very much. She has decided that dating both of them is making her life too complicated and, after careful deliberation, has decided to stop seeing Davie and continue dating only Mickey. According to cognitive dissonance theory, which of the following should happen next? a. Marcia will develop an intense dislike for Mickey. b. Davie will seem more attractive than ever, making Marcia regret her decision. c. Mickey will seem more attractive than ever, convincing Marcia that she made the right choice. d. Marcia, Davie, and Mickey will appear on a reality show.
a
Marge believes rather strongly that more money should be devoted to environmental concerns. However, she is agitated because she just signed a petition for a friend advocating the logging of a local forest in order to create new jobs. She then seems to soften her stance about the environment. This is best explained by a. cognitive dissonance theory. b. self-affirmation theory. c. the inoculation hypothesis. d. self-perception theory.
a
Research by Aronson and Carl smith (1963) shows that severe punishment a. is less likely than mild punishment to inspire cognitive dissonance. b. leads to attitude change only when a self-affirmation is possible. c. causes dissonance-induced physiological arousal to increase. d. changes behavior only when attitudes change as well.
b
Sam hates Celine Dion with a passion. One day, he meets Celine at a party. She tries to win him over by giving him her new CD. In which of the following scenarios would Sam's attitudes toward Celine be most likely to change after hearing the CD, according to dissonance theory? a. She holds a gun to his head, forcing him to listen to it. b. She offers him a free coupon for his next dry cleaning order in exchange for listening to it. c. He decides to read suggestive passages aloud from a romantic novel while listening to it. d. She tells him to suppress his negative thoughts about her while he listens to it.
a
Shaniqua plans to use a self-report measure in which people indicate their agreement or disagreement with a list of statements using a multi-point scale. She is using a. a Likert scale. b. the luncheon technique. c. a categorical matrix. d. an agreement index.
d
Shawna wants to join a sorority. This sorority has recently decided to put incoming members through various forms of initiation. Based on the findings of Aronson and Mills (1959), which type of initiations is most likely to lead Shawna to identify strongly with the sorority and to value her membership in the group in the effort to avoid cognitive dissonance? a. a mildly pleasant initiation b. a neutral initiation c. a mildly unpleasant initiation d. a severely unpleasant initiation
b
Sleeper effects can be reduced by reminding people that the source of a persuasive message was not credible. This supports which explanation of sleeper effects? a. the inoculation hypothesis b. the discounting cue hypothesis c. psychological reactance theory d. cognitive dissonance theory
c
Source credibility is determined by a. competence alone. b. trustworthiness alone. c. both competence and trustworthiness. d. competence, trustworthiness, and likeability.
b
Steele's research on self-affirmation and cognitive dissonance indicates that when self-affirmations fail, dissonance a. is reduced. b. returns. c. goes away permanently. d. becomes much greater than it ever was.
c
The basic prediction of ____ theory is that attitude change occurs when people infer how they feel by observing themselves and the circumstances of their own behavior. a. cognitive dissonance b. the "new look" at cognitive dissonance c. self-perception d. elaboration likelihood
c
The findings of the classic Fastinger and Carl smith (1959) experiment indicate that a. participants paid $20 to lie about how fun a boring task was come to believe they actually enjoyed the task more than participants paid $1 to lie. b. participants in the $20 condition experience insufficient justification for lying, and therefore are more likely to exhibit attitude change. c. participants in the $1 condition experience greater discomfort and agitation when lying about how fun the task was than do participants in the $20 condition. d. participants are only willing to lie to a fellow student when they are compensated generously for doing so.
b
The idea that people are more likely to be influenced by messages that match their frame of mind is known as a. self-verification. b. regulatory fit. c. the matching hypothesis. d. the affect congruency effect.
b
The idea that we infer our own attitudes by coolly observing ourselves and the circumstances of our behavior is most consistent with a. planned behavior theory. b. self-perception theory. c. cognitive dissonance theory. d. elaboration-likelihood theory.
c
The main factor(s) influencing source likeability is/are a. similarity alone. b. physical attractiveness alone. c. both similarity and physical attractiveness. d. similarity, physical attractiveness, and proximity.
b
The more products a celebrity endorses, the a. more competent she becomes in the eyes of consumers. b. less trustworthy she becomes in the eyes of consumers. c. more likeable she becomes in the eyes of consumers. d. less likely an audience member is to use to peripheral route to persuasion.
a
The most common approach to persuasion is a. through communication from others. b. through subliminal perception. c. to persuade ourselves. d. imagery-induced.
c
The most direct and straightforward way to assess an attitude is through the use of a. covert measures. b. implicit measures. c. self-report measures. d. behavioral observation.
b
The primary difference between the models of persuasion proposed by Hovland and McGuire and that proposed by Greenwald is that Greenwald's model a. does not allow for central route processing. b. emphasizes the role of elaboration in producing persuasion. c. does not include reception as one of the information-processing steps in persuasion. d. proposes that memory of message content is the most important determinant of persuasion.
d
The process by which a person carefully about a communication and is influenced by the strength of its arguments is called a. psychological reactance. b. theory of planned behavior. c. the peripheral route to persuasion. d. the central route to persuasion.
c
The process by which a person is persuaded by cues in the persuasion context rather than thinking critically about the content of a persuasive message is called a. psychological reactance. b. theory of planned behavior. c. the peripheral route to persuasion. d. the central route to persuasion.
a
The process by which attitudes are changed is called a. persuasion. b. dissonance. c. conditioning. d. elaboration.
a
The process by which we form an attitude toward a neutral stimulus because of its association with a positive or negative person, place, or thing is called a. evaluative conditioning. b. central persuasion. c. insufficient justification. d. psychological reactance.
b
Tristan had to choose between two potential mates, Charlie and Ryan, on the final episode of the original The Bachelorette. In the end, she chose Ryan. Several weeks later, a reporter interviewed Tristan about her feelings toward the two men. How will she mostly likely express her feelings at the time of the interview if she is trying to avoid post-decision dissonance? a. Tristan says that her attitudes about both men have become more negative with the benefit of hindsight. b. Tristan suggests that she was impressed by his career ambitions at first, but has come to realize that Charlie's busy work schedule would have been an obstacle to a successful relationship. c. Tristan has come to notice a variety of "little things" about Ryan that are starting to annoy her, including his penchant for writing really lousy poetry. d. Tristan reports that she believes Charlie to be one of the most attractive men she has ever met in person.
c
Wells and Petty (1980) videotaped students as they listened to a speech. The results of this study indicated that a. students revealed the intensity, but not the direction, of their attitudes through their body language. b. students' self-reported attitudes did not agree with their observed attitudes. c. students signaled their attitudes by nodding or shaking their heads. d. horizontal head movements indicate agreement, whereas vertical head movements indicate disagreement.
b
When she first joined the Army, Stephanie was not entirely sure she would like it, but was excited about the thought of traveling around the world. By the end of the grueling basic training program, she absolutely loves Army life and is totally committed to it, despite the fact that she had been stationed in New Jersey and never got to leave the country. Stephanie's attitude toward the Army is most likely the result of a. self-monitoring. b. effort justification. c. insufficient deterrence. d. psychological reactance.
a
Which factor has the biggest impact on whether or not there will be a primacy or regency effect in persuasion? a. time b. source credibility c. source likeability d. number of sides presented
c
Which indicator is not used to distinguish weak attitudes from strong ones? a. how much the attitudes affect one's self-interests b. the attitude's relationship to deeply held philosophical, political, and religious values c. the amount of perceived behavioral control d. how much the attitude impacted family, friends, and social inter groups
a
Which is not one of the four steps in the dissonance process? a. elaboration b. physiological arousal c. negative consequences d. attribution
d
Which means of persuasion is least obvious to a person who is unfamiliar with social psychology? a. persuasion via newspaper editorials b. persuasion on websites c. persuasion based on the central route d. persuasion from within
a
Which of the following concerning the use of facial electromyography (EMG) to assess attitudes is true? a. Facial EMG can detect muscular changes not observable to the naked eye. b. Facial EMG does not provide information about the direction of attitudes. c. One problem with using facial EMG is that the same pattern of activity could be interpreted as happiness or sadness. d. Facial EMG is only an accurate measure of attitudes if people know their attitudes are being assessed, so it is susceptible social desirability biases.
d
Which of the following has not been demonstrated in research on role-playing? a. People show greater attitude change after giving a persuasive speech than after listening to one. b. Self-generated arguments are better remembered than arguments provided by others. c. Expecting to have to present a persuasive communication to another person increases the impact of the communication. d. Role-playing effects are stronger among those low in need for cognition than those high in need for cognition.
c
Which of the following situations should prompt the least cognitive dissonance? a. Though he would rather be playing football with his friends, Wyatt decides to start his 20-page philosophy paper rather than his 25-page history paper. b. Elmer likes both duck and rabbit, but he decides to order the rabbit for dinner. c. Audrey doesn't like cats much, so she decides that her new pet will be a dog. d. Tuvin would like to spend his vacation in both Italy and Greece, but can only afford to travel to one place, so he decides to go to Greece.
d
Which of the following would not be considered an attitude? a. Darnell likes to play chess. b. Daphne hates liver. c. Daisy strongly favors universal health insurance. d. Dalton drives a silver minivan.
c
Which source characteristic best explains why a company might recruit a supermodel to endorse its products? a. similarity b. credibility c. likeability d. trustworthiness
a
Which statement concerning the impact of body movements on persuasion is true? a. People who nod their heads up and down express greater agreement with a persuasive message than those who shake their heads side to side. b. Stimuli associated with stretching the arms outward are rated more positively than those associated with flexing the arms inward. c. Nodding the head side to side makes people more likely to engage in central route processing than does nodding the head up and down. d. Stretching the arms outward makes people less likely to engage in central route processing than does flexing the arms inward.
b
Which statement concerning the use of fear appeals is not supported by research? a. Fear appeals may motivate change by increasing the incentive to think carefully about the arguments in the message. b. Fear appeals are generally less effective than messages that do not provoke fear. c. Fear appeals are most effective when they include specific information on how to avoid the threat. d. Fear arousal may reduce the ability of already fearful message recipients to carefully process a message.
a
Which statement regarding LaPeer's (1934) study of attitudes is false? a. Even though respondents who were asked self-report questions claimed that they would not be racially prejudiced, their behavior showed clear discrimination. b. The study examined racial attitudes at a time when prejudice was much more overt and blatant than it currently is. c. LaPeer was not a psychologist. d. Over 90 percent of the respondents claimed that they would not offer service to a Chinese patron.
a
Which strategy for resisting persuasion is exemplified by the statement, "I doubt that anyone could change my viewpoint"? a. an assertion of confidence b. counter arguing c. attitude bolstering d. source derogation
a
Which theory suggests that intentions to perform a behavior are best predicted by attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control? a. theory of planned behavior b. cognitive dissonance theory c. self-perception theory d. self-affirmation theory
d
While shopping at the local mall, Ithon is approached by a man who asks her to sign a petition for stricter gun control laws. If Ithon uses the central route to decide whether to sign the petition, then she will be more likely to sign if the man who approaches her a. is physically attractive. b. is a member of the National Rifle Association. c. is a police officer. d. presents strong arguments.
b
While watching the presidential debate on television, Matilda critically evaluated the arguments made by each candidate and was persuaded to support a particular candidate because of the quality of her arguments. Matilda exhibited a. psychological reactance. b. central route persuasion. c. peripheral route persuasion. d. insufficient justification.
a
Wilkin and others (2010) conducted a study where American and Japanese participants were asked about their favorite musical artists, TV shows, and restaurants, among other preferences. They found that a. the Japanese participants reported liking their favorites for a shorter time than the Americans did. b. Americans were more impacted by the preferences of their friends than were the Japanese participants. c. Japanese participants reported more discomfort in identifying their favorites than did the Americans. d. Americans were more likely to report that they had a wide variety of favorites at one time, while Japanese participants selected only one or two favorites at a time.