World Chapter 12

Julius II

"the warrior pope," led armies against his enemies

Canterbury

England, location of St. Thomas a Becket's tomb

instability

not steady; wavering

annul

marriage that is declared invalid

justification

the process of being justified, or deemed worthy of salvation

the elect

the saved

attain

to gain or achieve

Jesuits

pillar of the Catholic Reformation formed by Ignatius of Loyola to recognize the pope

secular

worldly

Baldassare Castiglione

wrote The Book of the Courtier which discussed the characteristics of a perfect Renaissance noble

Niccolò Machiavelli

wrote The Prince, an influential book on political power concerning how to acquire and keep political power

Geoffrey Chaucer

wrote the Canterbury tales in the English vernacular which consists of a collection of stories told by 29 pilgrims journeying to the tomb of St. Thomas a Becket

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor and Charles I, King of Spain who ruled an immense empire

2-5. How was humanism reflected in the works of Renaissance artists?

Humanism is reflected in the works of Renaissance artists because it was based off of Greek and Roman works. Humanists studied moral philosophy, grammar, rhetoric, poetry, and history. Many of these humanists were also the artists of the Renaissance or the artists implemented humanism into their works. These works included aspects of Greek and Roman works, such as idealism or realism.

1-4. Contrast the social structure of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

Middle Ages: society was divided into three social classes (clergy, nobility, and peasants/townspeople) Renaissance: society was divided into two classes (nobility and peasants/townspeople)

1-3. Summarize Machiavelli's view of human nature.

Niccolò Machiavelli believed that morality had very little to do with politics and that human nature was self-centered. For the state's sake, a leader must do good when possible and evil when necessary.

Christian humanism

Northern Renaissance humanism, its goal was to reform the Catholic Church

1-6. What would families of Renaissance Italy consider to be a good marriage for their child?

Parents during the Renaissance carefully arranged marriages to strengthen their businesses or family ties, as it was a great source of security. Renaissance families could be considered paterfamilias because the men managed finances and made the decisions that determined his children's lives.

2-2. Describe Petrarch's contributions to the development of humanism.

Petrarch looked for forgotten Latin manuscripts and set in motion a search for similar manuscripts in Greece and Rome. He also began the humanist emphasis on using pure classical Latin.

4-5. How effective was the Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation?

The Church's response to Protestantism was not effective in removing it, but was effective in strengthening the Catholic Church. The Catholic Reformation included reforming the papacy and the Council of Trent reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings.

Zürich

city whose council was strongly influenced by Ulrich Zwingli

Milan, Venice, and Florence

city-states in northern and central Italy that expanded and played crucial roles in Italian politics

Girolamo Savonarola

condemned the corruption and excess rule of the the Medici family

Francesco Sforza

conquered Milan and became the duke after the death of the last Visconti ruler

Bohemia and Hungary

countries that were part of the regions controlled by Charles V

Council of Trent

pillar of the Catholic Reformation that reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings in opposition to Protestant beliefs

Reform Commission

pillar of the Catholic Reformation that was formed to determine the Church's ills; blamed the Church's problems on the popes' corrupt policies

Ulrich Zwingli

priest in Zürich who sought alliance with Martin Luther and the German reformers

published

printed for distribution

renaissance

rebirth

Niccoló Machiavelli

rejected the idea that a "ruler ought to behave based on Christian principles" and believed that morality had little to do with politics, meaning that human nature is self-centered

indulgence

release from all or part of the punishment for sin

Venice

rich, republic city-state controlled by wealthy merchant-aristocrats for their benefit

Donatello

sculptor with realistic, free-standing figures like his St. George

burghers

shopkeepers, artisans, guild masters, and guild members

mercenaries

soldier who fought for the highest bidder

dowry

sum of money that a wife's family gave to the husband upon marriage

the reprobate

the damned

vernacular

the everyday language spoken in specific regions

Petrarch

the father of Italian Renaissance humanism; looked for forgotten Latin manuscripts and set in motion a search for similar manuscripts in monastic libraries throughout Europe

4-3. Explain why Henry VIII formed the Church of England.

Henry VIII reformed the Church of England so that he could divorce/annul Catherine of Aragon because she was unable to provide him with a male heir.

humanism

based on the study of the classics, the literary works of ancient Greece and Rome

predestination

"eternal degree" which meant that God has predestined some people to be saved (the elect) and other to be damned (the reprobate)

4-4. Contrast how the Calvinists and the Anabaptists differed in their attitudes toward church members participating in government activities.

Anabaptists believed that a true Christian Church was a voluntary community of adult believers and a complete separation of the church and state. Calvinists believed that they were doing God's work on Earth and the church and state were supposed to work together.

Thomas More

Christian humanist and devout Catholic, opposed the king's actions and was beheaded

2-3. Identify Christine de Pizan's main argument in The Book of the City of Ladies.

Christine de Pizan denounced many male writers in The Book of the City of Ladies who argued that women are unable to learn by their very nature. de Pizan said that women could learn as well as men if they could attend the same schools.

3-6. How did the views of Erasmus and the Church differ on the topic of religious relics?

Erasmus believed that relics, fasts, and pilgrimages were not all that important because he wanted to stress the inwardness of religious feeling.

2-6. How did the education of females differ from that of males in humanist schools?

Females were largely absent from humanist schools because they were designed for sons of aristocrats to prepare them for leadership roles. The females that did attend these schools studied the classics and were encouraged to know some history as well as how to ride, dance, sing, play the lute, and appreciate poetry.

Christine de Pizan

Frenchwoman who is best known for her works written in defense of women, such as The Book of the City of Ladies which denounces many male writers who argued that women were unable to learn

3-2. Sequence the actions of Luther that lead to the emergence of Protestantism.

From 1450 to 1520, a series of corrupt popes failed to meet the Church's spiritual needs, and a call for reform was needed. While the Church was failing to meet the spiritual needs within the Papal States, ordinary people desired meaningful religious expression and assurance of their salvation. Martin Luther was a monk and professor at the University of Wittenberg where he lectured the Bible. During his lifetime, Luther created and published his Ninety-five Theses, which he posted on the door of the Church of Wittenberg. By 1520, Luther had begun to move to a more definite break with the Catholic Church. By the Edict of Worms, Martin Luther was made an outlaw within the empire; therefore, his works were to be burned and he was to be captured and given to the emperor. However, Luther's ruler was unwilling to see his professor killed so he protected him. Luther's doctrines became known as Lutheranism and Lutheran churches were establish as the first Protestant faith.

Albrecht Dürer

German artist who was greatly affected by Italians; made two trips to Italy and absorbed most of what the Italians could teach on the laws of perspective

Wittenberg

Germany, location of the university attended by Martin Luther where he lectured the Bible

4-2. Describe how Calvin reformed the city of Geneva.

In 1536 Calvin began working to reform the city of Geneva by creating a church government that used both a clergy and a laity. Calvin also created the Consistory which oversaw the moral life of and doctrinal purity of the Genevans.

2-7. Examine the painting on page 407. What can you infer about Purgatory based on its location in this painting?

In the painting on page 407, Purgatory is depicted between Heaven and Hell, designating its location in life after death.

2-4. Summarize the accomplishments of Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo.

Leonardo da Vinci: mastered the art of realistic painting and dissected human bodies to better understand their workings Raphael: admired for his numerous madonnas where he achieved an ideal of beauty far surpassing human standards Michelangelo: worked with great passion and energy on a remarkable number of projects including his painting on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, depicting the ideal type of human beings

3-4. Explain why many German princes supported Luther.

Martin Luther called on the princes to overthrow the papacy in Germany and establish a reformed German church. Later, after the Edict of Worms, Luther was able to gain the support of German rulers who were motivated through politics and economics. The German rulers took control of Catholic churches in their territories and were able to form a church ruled by the government.

Lutheranism

Martin Luther's doctrine which created a religion and establish Lutheran churches, creating the first Protestant faith

4-6. How did "Bloody Mary's" actions affect the religious makeup of England by the end of her reign?

Mary, daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, was regarded as Bloody Mary because when she came to reign in 1553, she burned more than 300 Protestants at the stake as heretics to attempt to preserve Catholicism. As a result, Protestantism became stronger and more popular in England to fight against her teachings.

4-7. Compare the chart on page 422 to the map on page 419. Name one country which the dominant Christian faith included the seven sacraments.

Religions that had the seven sacraments only included Catholicism. Roman Catholics mainly resided in Spain, France, Portugal, Italy, Poland, and Ireland.

Ignatius of Loyola

Spanish nobleman who founded the Society of Jesus which was recognized by Pope Paul III in 1540

3-3. Discuss the impact of the Edict of Worms.

The Edict of Worms declared Martin Luther as an outlaw within the empire. Luther's works were to be burned and he was to be captures and sent to the emperor.

1-2. Explain why the Italian city-states were so prosperous.

The Italian city-states Milan, Venice, and Florence were so prosperous because they were the main centers of trade because of expansion during the Middle Ages. Events such as the Crusades allowed for merchants to sell more of their items, and this high demand enabled them to set up more trading ports.

1-5. Why has Leonardo da Vinci been viewed as a model Renaissance man?

The Renaissance Era believed that a well rounded person could achieve much in many areas. Leonardo da Vinci is a model of the Renaissance man because he was a sculptor, painter, architect, inventor, and mathematician.

1-7. Examine the image on page 401. What feeling do you get from this painting? What details in the painting create this feeling?

The painting depicted on page 401 looks powerful because the people within it are dressed in expensive clothing and are riding on horseback. They look like influential people and it is stated that it is the Medici family, one of the most influential leaders of Italy.

Rome

arrival place of Charles I of Spain and his mercenaries

3-5. How did Martin Luther's religious reform lead to conflict? To what extent were the conflicts resolved?

The religious reform carried out by Martin Luther also caused conflict because he called about German rulers to overthrow Papal States within Germany. The emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was angered by this and called for the Edict of Worms which made Luther himself an outlaw, as he was previously excommunicated from the Church.

3-7. Examine that map on page 416. Identify three cities where important events occurred in the rise of Lutheranism and explain they significance.

Wittenberg, Augsburg, and Worms are three cities that experienced important Lutheran events. Martin Luther himself was a professor and monk at the University of Wittenberg, the birthplace of his philosophies. The Edict of Worms stated that Martin Luther was an outlaw and his teachings were to be destroyed. Augsburg included the Peace of Augsburg, bringing the religious warfare in Germany to an end.

decline

a change to a lower state or level

Italian Renaissance

a period of european history that began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe

urban society

a system in which cities are the center of political, economic, and social life

salvation

acceptance into Heaven

Michelangelo

accomplished painter, sculptor, and architect; painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome which depict an ideal type of human being with perfect proportions which is meant to reflect divine beauty

Thomas Cranmer

archbishop of Canterbury, head of the highest church court in England, ruled in May 1553 that King Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine was "null and absolutely void"

Filippo Brunelleschi

architect, inspired by the buildings of classical Rome which is reflected in his design of the church of San Lorenzo and Florence

Martin Luther

began the reformation in the early 1500's

Desiderius Erasmus

best known Christian humanist who called his view of religion "the philosophy of Christ" which means that Christianity should show people how to live a good life on a daily basis; wrote The Praise of Folly which singles out the monks

Trent

border between Italy and Germany

Edict of Worms

declared that Martin Luther was an outlaw within the empire; his works were to be burned and Luther was to be captured and delivered to the emperor

Pope Leo X

did not take the Ninety-Five Theses seriously and said Luther was simply "some drunken German who will amend his ways when he sobers up"

Florence

dominated the region of Tuscany; ran by the Medici family before experiencing economic decline

Modern Devotion

downplayed religious dogma and stressed the need follow the teachings of Jesus

John Calvin

educated in France but was forced to flee Catholic France to Switzerland; published Institutions of the Christian Religion

Peace of Augsburg

ended the religious warfare and formally accepted the division of Christianity in Germany

precise

exact or sharply defined

Lorenzo de'Medici

grandson of the first leader of his family that helped dominate Florence while it was the cultural center of Italy by using money and influence

Flanders

home to one of the most important northern schools of art, one of the Low Countries

Geneva

home to the church government created by Calvin that used both clergy and laity in the service of the church

Leonardo da Vinci

mastered the art of realistic painting and even directed human bodies to better understand their workings

fresco

painting done on fresh, wet plaster with water-based paints

Raphael

one of Italy's best painters at age 25 and admired for his numerous paintings of the madonna, his School of Athens reveals a world of balance, harmony, and order

Jan van Eyck

one of the first painters to use and perfect the technique of oil and nut oils mixed with resin

Milan

one of the richest city-states in Italy, conquered by Francesco Sforza who created a generous tax system

Cosimo de'Medici

took control of Florence, their family ran the government from "behind the scenes"

Ninety-five Theses

topics posted by Martin Luther on the door of Castle Church that attacked the abuses in the sale of indulgences

ignorant

unaware; lacking knowledge of

King Henry VIII

wanted to divorce his first wife (Catherine of Aragon because he had a daughter but no male heir) but he was unable to because the pope was unwilling

Dante

wrote the Divine Comedy which entails the soul's journey to salvation