World Oceans Prologue - ch. 1
Leif Eriksson
sailed west from Greenland in 1002 and reached North America roughly 500 years before Columbus.
Erik the Red
sailed west from Iceland in 982 and discovered Greenland.
In 1991, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) recommended the development of a Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) to include _____________, ______________ and ______________. The goal of this program is to ____________________________________________________.
satellites, buoy networks, and research vessels; enhance our understanding of ocean phenomena so that events such as El Niño and its impact on climate can be predicted more accurately and with greater lead time
As long ago as 1200 B.C. or earlier, _________________________.
dried fish were traded in the Persian Gulf
Ridge Interdisciplinary Global Experiments
driven by the discovery of hydrothermal vents
Global Ocean Observing System
enhances understanding of ocean phenomena such as El Nino events to predict events, provide greater accuracy in understanding their potential impact, and give a greater lead time to those who might be impacted
physical oceanography
investigates the causes and characteristics of water movements such as waves, currents, and tides, and how they affect the marine environments
Sir John Ross
looking for the Northwest Passage, took bottom samples at over 1800 m (6000 ft) depth in Baffin Bay with a "deep-sea clamm," or bottom grab, and had found worms and other animals living in the mud.
challenges Portugal's expeditions faced
mariners believed that sea monsters would engulf the ships and the water temperatures at the equator were at the boiling point
Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate
measures sound waves over distances in the ocean to determine water temperature
to engineer and lay transantlantic telegraph cables, information on _________, ______, and ______ must be known
ocean bottom topography, ocean currents, marine organisms that might dislodge or destroy the cables
The ability to collect data by _________________ from ______________ has increasingly allowed researchers to observe the sea surface and ocean processes on a global scale.
remote sensing; satellites
chronometer
established a relationship between time and longitude; a high accuracy clock
Icelander Bjarni Herjolfsson
on his way to Greenland to join the colonists in 985-86, was blown off course, sailed south of Greenland, and is believed to have come within sight of Newfoundland before turning back and reaching Greenland.
Marine Meteorology
the study of heat transfer, water cycles, and air-sea interactions (often included in the discipline of physical oceanography)
in the Mediterranean, the ___________ caught, preserved, and traded fish, while the _________________ founded fishing settlements, such as "the fisher's town" Sidon, that grew into important trading ports.
ancient Greeks; Phoenicians
methods of making scientific measurements of the ocean that was not available in the early 19th century
automated wave detectors, echo sounder
Meteor expedition
best known for its first use of the echo sounder
Magellan's crew was the first to
circumnavigate the Earth
Ocean Observatories Initiative
collects data on climate variability, ocean circulation, and plate tectonics, provide up to 30 years of continuous ocean measurements
TOPEX/Poseidon
collects information on the surface height of the ocean
galaxies
composed of clumps of stars
voyage of the Fram
discovered the Arctic Ocean is a deep-ocean basin, not a shallow sea; great plankton blooms occur in the Arctic Ocean
WW2 caused the field of oceanography to
expand significantly in order to solve practical military problems
Challenger expedition
Sailed through all the major oceans with a team of scientists.
The Northwest Passage would have
allowed for a faster trading route from Europe to China
Navigators created a __________________ by dividing the horizon into thirty-two segments where their known stars rose and set.
"star structure"
The Austronesians, who first explored and populated the Pacific and Indian Ocean Basins, migrated from Asia to Taiwan and then to Luzon sometime bt _____________.
4500-2500 B.C.
Polynesians used careful observation and recording of where _____ rose and set on the horizon.
stars
Alexander Agassiz
designer of the deep sea sampling equipment aboard the Albatros research vessel
The Franklin-Folger chart of the ____ ______ current aimed to expedite sea travel between England and America
Gulf Stream
Beagle expedition
Included Charles Darwin as the expedition's naturalist.
World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE)
-1990-2002 -involved using chemical tracers to model circulation in the ocean and obtain data to help predict the response of seawater circulation to long-term changes in atmospheric circulation.
TOPEX/Poseidon
-1992-2005 -launched as a joint U.S.-French mission -was able to measure the surface height of 95% of the ice-free ocean to an accuracy of 3.3 cm (1.3 in).
Magellan timeline
-September 1519: left Spain with 270 men and five vessels in search of a westward passage to the Spice Islands -November 1520: discovered the Strait of Magellan and rounded the tip of South America -March 1521: arrived in the Philippines -April 1521: killed in a battle with the natives -November 1521: two of his ships sailed on and reached the Spice Islands -The Victoria continued sailing west and successfully crossed the Indian Ocean, rounded Africa's Cape of Good Hope, and arrived back in Spain on September 6, 1522, with eighteen of the original crew. *This was the first circumnavigation of Earth*
Matthew Maury
-began a systematic collection of wind and current data from ships' logs. -produced his first wind and current charts of the North Atlantic in 1847. -In 1855, he published The Physical Geography of the Sea.
Vikings
-highly accomplished seamen who engaged in extensive exploration, trade, and colonization for nearly three centuries from about 793 to 1066 -best known for their voyages across the North Atlantic Ocean. They sailed to Iceland in 871 where as many as 12,000 immigrants eventually settled.
The Challenger
-in the Marianas Islands, the vessel took its deepest sounding at 8180 m (26,850 ft) in what is now known as the Challenger Deep in the Marianas Trench. -Sailing across the Pacific to Hawaii, Tahiti, and through the Strait of Magellan, it returned to England on May 24, 1876.
NASA's NIMBUS-7 satellite
-launched in 1978 -carried a sensor package called the Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS), which *gave us the first truly global view of the ocean's chlorophyll distributions and productivity* -eventually replaced by the Sea-viewing Wide Field Sensor and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer
The Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate (ATOC) project
-measured the travel time of sound waves over distances of the order of 5000 km (3100 mi). -changes in heat content of the northeast Pacific (an important climate parameter) were monitored by acoustic transmission from sources off California and Hawaii to eleven receivers in the eastern Pacific over a ten-year period from 1996 to 2006 -proved to be very successful in measuring sound travel times with great accuracy, resulting in detailed models of temperature.
Ptolemy
-produced first world atlas -his atlas listed more than 8000 places by latitude and longitude, but his work contained a major flaw: accepted a value too small for Earth's circumference and led Columbus to believe that he had reached the eastern shore of Asia when he landed in the Americas.
Joint Global Ocean Flux Study
-resulted in over 3000 ship days of research and 343,000 nautical miles of ship travel before ending in 2003. -goal was to measure and understand on a global scale the processes controlling the cycling of carbon and other biologically active elements among the ocean, atmosphere, and land.
Alexander Agassiz
-served as the scientific director on the first ship built especially for scientific ocean exploration, the U.S. Fish Commission's Albatross (1882) -designed and financed much of the deep-sea sampling equipment that enabled the Albatross to recover more specimens of deep-sea fishes in one haul than the Challenger had collected during its entire three-and-a-half years at sea
middle ages
-shipbuilding imporved --> sailors could make longer voyages -knowledge of navigation increased. Harbor-finding charts, or portolanos, appeared.
Fridtjof Nansen's voyage on the Fram
-test his ideas about the direction of ice drift in the Arctic -departed with thirteen men from Oslo in June 1893. -The ship was frozen into the ice nearly 1100 km (700 mi) from the North Pole -the ship remained in the ice for thirty-five months.
Captain James Cook
-three voyages to chart the Pacific Ocean bt 1768 and 1779 -In 1768, he left England in command of the *Endeavour* on an expedition to chart the transit of Venus; he returned in 1771, having circumnavigated the globe, and explored and charted the coasts of New Zealand and eastern Australia. -bt 1772 and 1775, he commanded an expedition of two ships: 1. the Resolution and 2. the Adventure, to the South Pacific. On this journey, he charted many islands, explored the Antarctic Ocean, and, by controlling his sailors' diet, prevented vitamin C deficiency and scurvy, the disease that had decimated crews that spent long periods of time at sea. -Cook sailed on his third and last voyage in 1776 in the Resolution and Discovery. -discovered the Hawaiian Islands in 1778.
Austronesians
-traveled west into Indian Ocean, east into Pacific Ocean Basin -Sulawesi, Java, and Sumatra: 3000 B.C. -Madagascar: A.D. 400-1100 -Melanesia and Micronesia: 2000-1500 B.C. -Polynesia: 1000 B.C. -Easter Island: A.D. 300 -Hawaii Islands: A.D. 400 -New Zealand: A.D. 1280 -migrated from Asia into the far western Pacific by 2500 B.C.
Ridge Interdisciplinary Global Experiments
-twenty-year program started in 1989 -supported research into the physical, chemical, and biological processes that occur at the global mid-ocean ridge system -research was driven by the discovery of hydrothermal vents on mid-ocean ridges in 1977 and the discovery of black-smoker vents in 1979
earliest to most recent timeline
1. Austronesians migrate from Asia to Western Pacific 2. Middle Eastern people begin exploring the Indian Ocean 3. Polynesian culture begins 4. Greeks sail to England 5. Hawaiian Islands colonized 6. New Zealand colonized
Keeping accurate time at sea is necessary to make:
1. measurements of longitude 2. accurate maps
Large scale sea studies require that governments, universities, and national and international programs:
1. set common goals 2. have common priorities 3. share program results
In the ______, large Chinese junks with crews of _____ to _____ sailed the same routes (between China and the Persian Gulf) as the Arab dhows.
1100s; 200; 300
When did Chinese admiral Zheng He conduct seven epic voyages in the western Pacific Ocean and across the Indian Ocean as far as Africa?
1405 to 1433
In ________, German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller applied the name "America" to the continent in Vespucci's honor.
1507
Sir Martin Frobisher's Northwest Passage voyages
1576, 1577, and 1578,
Henry Hudson's Northwest Passage voyages
1607, 1608, 1609, and 1610
William Baffin's Northwest Passage voyages
1615 & 1616
John Harrison, built his first chronometer (high-accuracy clock) in _______, but not until _______ did his fourth model meet the test, losing only fifty-one seconds on the eighty-one-day voyage.
1735; 1761
Seagoing ships are derived from ________ vessels.
Egyptian
The mission of the TAO project is to monitor tropical conditions in the Pacific in order to better predict the occurrence of _________.
El Niño
The earliest recorded explorations of the sea took place in the _______________________.
Mediterranean Sea
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) combined
National Marine Fisheries Service, National Ocean Survey, National Weather Service, Environmental Data Service, National Environmental Satellite Service, and Environmental Research Laboratories
James Cook
Successfully tested the use of a chronometer in determining longitude at sea.
Who was the first of the European explorers to cross the Isthmus of Panama and thereby discover the Pacific Ocean?
Vaco Núñez de Balboa
Edward Forbes's contributions to oceanography
a proposed system of ocean depth zones, each characterized by specific animal populations; a systematic survey of marine life around the British Isles and in the Mediterranean and Aegean Seas; made a theoretical mistake regarding the presence of an azoic, or lifeless, zone in the ocean below 1800 ft
voyages of Zheng He
across the Indian Ocean, in the western Pacific Ocean, to Africa using a fleet of over 300 large treasure ships
joint global ocean flux study
complex ocean biogeochemical research program
Biological Oceanography
concerns marine organisms and the relationship between these organisms and the environment in the oceans.
5,000 B.C.
copper fishhooks in use
An Arab scholar was the first to describe
currents due to monsoon winds
Ocean Observatories Initiative
designed to provide up to thirty years of continuous ocean measurements to study such fundamental scientific problems as climate variability, ocean circulation, ecosystem dynamics, air-sea interaction, seafloor processes, and plate tectonics.
ways humans interacted with the oceans (oldest to youngest)
fishing with the use of a barbed spear or gorge attached to a string, fishing with the use of nets, use of rafts or boats for fishing, exploring , and trading dried fish
FLIP
floating instrument platform that studies acoustical signals in the oceans
Challenger expedition
found the Bathybius haeckelii was a chemical precipitate produced by the reaction of the sediment with alcohol and found one of the deepest depth soundings in the Marianas Trench
subdisciplines of oceanography
geological oceanography, marine meteorology, chemical oceanography
20th century impacts
has significantly increased the quantity and density of oceanographic data collected, especially as a result of satellites and remote sensing
statements about Ptolemy's world atlas
his atlas listed more than 8,000 places by latitude and longitude, it was the first documented world atlas
Paleolithic period
humans developed the barbed spear (harpoon) and the gorge (a double-pointed stick inserted into a bait and attached to a string).
kitchen middens
piles of the remains of shells and other refuse; found at the sites of ancient shore settlements
Arabs
preserved Greek and Roman knowledge and continued to build on it. The Arabic writer El-Mas'údé (d. 956) gives the first description of the reversal of the currents due to the seasonal monsoon winds. Using this knowledge of winds and currents, Arab sailors established regular trade routes across the Indian Ocean.
Benjamin Franklin
produced the first map of the Gulf Stream
Matthew Maury's accomplishments
publishing the first atlas of sea conditions and sailing directions, initiating a systematic collection of wind and current data from both U.S. and international ships' logs
International Geophysical Year (1957-8)
scientists made discoveries that changed the way geologists thought about continents and ocean basins; special research vessels and submersibles were built
Prince Henry's expeditions set out to
secure trade routes and establish colonies
Prince Henry the Navigator (of Portugal)
sent expedition after expedition south along the west coast of Africa to secure trade routes and establish colonies. These expeditions moved slowly due to the mariners' belief that waters at the equator were at the boiling point and that sea monsters would engulf ships.
geological oceanography
studies Earth at the sea's edge and below its surface, and the history of the processes that form the ocean basins
chemical oceanography
studies the composition and history of the water, its processes, and its interactions
Marine Biological Association became
the University of California's Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Neolithic period
the bone fishhook was developed and later the net.
Ocean Engineering
the discipline that designs and plans equipment and installations for use at sea.
William Dittmar's findings
the identification of the major elements present in seawater, confirmation that the relative proportions of the major dissolved elements in seawater are constant
Christian Ehrenberg concluded that
the sea was filled with microscopic life
Austronesian populations expanded southeast through the Philippines, and this movement was aided by
the short distances between islands and because the Austronesians could readily travel
how knowledge of oceanography was useful during WW2
to predict ocean and shore conditions for amphibious landings, to move personnel and materials by sea to remote locations, to chart beaches and harbors from aerial reconnaissance
world ocean circulation experiment
uses chemical tracers to model circulation in the ocean and to obtain data to help predict the response of seawater circulation to long-term changes in atmospheric circulation
ocean drilling program
utilized a large research vessel called the JOIDES Resolution and started drilling operations in 1985
deep sea drilling program
utilized a specially built drilling ship, the Glomar Challenger, for sampling Earth's crust beneath the sea
integrated ocean drilling program
utilized the JOIDES Resolution and the Chikyu for scientific drilling cruises
Viking's accomplishments
voyaging across the North Atlantic Ocean, discovering and establishing a colony on Greenland
James Cook
was known for being one of history's greatest navigators as scientist because he made soundings to depths of 1200 ft and carefully observed wind, currents, and water temperature, making him a founder of oceanography; voyages to Pacific Ocean from 1768-1779
