WorldHistory chpt 1,2,3,4

Polis (greece)

Greek city-state. The central meeting place in the polis was usually a hill. At the top of the hill was a fortified area called an acropolis that served as both a fortress and religious center. Below the acropolis was an agora, an open area that served both as a place where people could assemble and as a market. City-states varied greatly in size, and population. Athens had a population of more than 300,000 by the fifth century b.c., but most city-states were much smaller, consisting of only a few hundred to several thousand people. The polis was, above all, a community of people who shared a common identity and common goals. As a community, the polis consisted of citizens with political rights (adult males), citizens with no political rights (women and children), and noncitizens (including agricultural laborers, slaves, and resident aliens). All male citizens had rights, such as the right to vote and participate in government, but these rights were coupled with responsibilities, like military service. The Greek philosopher Aristotle argued that a citizen did not belong just to himself or herself: "We must rather regard every citizen as belonging to the state." However, the loyalty that citizens had to their city-states had a negative side. City-states distrusted one another, and the division of Greece into fiercely patriotic, independent units helped bring about its ruin.

Early India

Harappan civilization around Indus river valley falls Nomadic Aryans invade and become the fore-fathers of all IndiansRig Veda was an early Epic in Indian society.Caste system of warriors on top then priest, traders, farmers, laborers and then untouchables. Revolution in 5th century where caste system was challenged. The oldest male held legal authority over the entire family unit. ancient Indian civilization gave males a place of prominence. Only males could inherit property, except in cases where there were no sons. Women could not serve as priests, and generally only males were educated. In upper-class families, young men began their education with a guru, or teacher, and then went on to study in one of the major cities. These young men were not supposed to marry until they completed 12 years of study. Although divorce was usually not allowed, husbands could take a second wife if the first was unable to bear children. Marriage, arranged by the parents, was common for young girls. Parents supported each daughter until marriage and then paid a dowry to the family of the man she married.

The writing of history

History, as we know it—a systematic analysis of past events—was created in the Western world by the Greeks. Herodotus (hih • RAH • duh • tuhs) wrote History of the Persian Wars, often seen as the first real history in Western civilization. Its central theme is the conflict between the Greeks and the Persians, which Herodotus viewed as a struggle between Greek freedom and Persian despotism. Herodotus traveled widely and questioned many people as a means of obtaining his information. He was a master storyteller. Many historians today consider Thucydides (thoo • SIH • duh • deez) the greatest historian of the ancient world. Thucydides was an Athenian general who fought in the Great Peloponnesian War and later wrote its history. Unlike Herodotus, he saw war and politics as caused by the activities of human beings, not gods. He examined the Peloponnesian War clearly and fairly, placing much emphasis on the accuracy of his facts. Thucydides also provided remarkable insight into the human condition. He believed that the study of history was of great value in understanding the present.

Pastoral Nomads

People who occasion overran settled communities and then created empires. Domesticated animals for food and clothing. Followed regular migratory routes to provide food for their animals. Carried products between civilized centers. In this way, nomads often passed on new technology that helped strengthen civilizations. When overpopulation or drought disrupted the pastoral nomads' normal patterns, however, they often attacked the civilized communities to obtain relief.

Greek Philosophy

Philosophy refers to an organized system of thought. The term comes from Greek roots that mean "love of wisdom." Early Greek philosophers focused on the development of critical or rational thought about the nature of the universe. Greek philosophy influenced scholars in the ancient world and continues to influence people to the present day. Socrates was a sculptor whose true love was philosophy. Because Socrates left no writings, we know about him only through what we have learned from the writings of his pupils, such as Plato. Socrates taught many pupils, but he accepted no pay. He believed that the goal of education was only to improve the individual.

Aristole

Plato established a school in Athens that was known as the Academy, one of the first institutions of learning in Western civilization. His most famous pupil was Aristotle. Aristotle did not accept Plato's theory of ideal forms. He thought that by examining individual objects (trees), we could perceive their form (treeness). However, he did not believe that these forms existed in a separate, higher world of reality beyond material things. Rather, he thought of forms as a part of things themselves. (In other words, we know what treeness is by examining trees.) Aristotle's interests, then, lay in analyzing and classifying things based on observation and investigation. Aristotle's line of inquiry formed the basis for the scientific method we use today—a method characterized by empirical observation, measurement, and experimentation. He defined entire categories of scientific study, such as logic, biology, and physics, and wrote about a range of subjects, including ethics, politics, poetry, and the sciences. Until the seventeenth century, science in the Western world remained largely based on Aristotle's ideas. Like Plato, Aristotle wanted an effective form of government that would rationally direct human affairs. Unlike Plato, he did not seek an ideal state but tried to find the best form of government by analyzing existing governments. In his Politics, Aristotle discussed three good forms of government: monarchy, aristocracy, and constitutional government. He slightly favored constitutional government, which can be democratic, as the best form for most people.

Religon (Greece)

Religion affected every aspect of Greek life. Greeks considered religion necessary to the well-being of the state. Temples dedicated to gods and goddesses were the major buildings in Greek cities. Homer described the gods worshiped in the Greek religion. Twelve chief gods and goddesses were thought to live on Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece. Among the 12 were Zeus, the chief god and father of the gods; Athena, goddess of wisdom and crafts; Apollo, god of the sun and poetry; Artemis, the sister of Apollo, who was goddess of the moon and of the hunt; Ares, god of war; Aphrodite, goddess of love; and Poseidon, brother of Zeus and god of the seas and earthquakes. Festivals developed as a way to honor the gods and goddesses. Certain festivals were held at special locations, such as those dedicated to the worship of Zeus at Olympia or to Apollo at Delphi. Numerous events, including athletic games, took place in honor of the gods at the Greek festivals. The first such games were held at the Olympic festival in 776 b.c. Today's Olympic games reflect the cultural influence of ancient Greece on the modern world. The Greeks also had a great desire to learn the will of the gods. To do so, they made use of the oracle, a sacred shrine where a god or goddess was said to reveal the future through a priest or priestess. The most famous was the oracle of Apollo at Delphi. Here a priestess, thought to be inspired by Apollo, listened to questions. Her responses were then interpreted by priests and given to the persons asking the questions. The responses provided by the priests and priestesses were often puzzling and could be interpreted in more than one way. For example, Croesus (KREE • suhs), a king of Lydia known for his incredible wealth, sent messengers to the oracle at Delphi asking "whether he shall go to war with the Persians." The oracle replied that if Croesus attacked the Persians, he would destroy a mighty empire. Overjoyed to hear these words, Croesus made war on the Persians but was crushed. A mighty empire—that of Croesus—was destroyed! Ancient Greek religion influenced most Greek drama and art. Although the ancient Greek religion is no longer practiced, it heavily influenced the Romans who adopted the Greek gods. Additionally, many stories and references to Greek gods appear in European and American literature.

Akkaidian Empire

Ruled by Lord Sargon. They spoke a semetic language. Overran the Sumerian city-states and set up the first empire in world history. , Sargon used the former rulers of the conquered city-states as his governors. His power was based on the military, namely his army of 5,400 men. Sargon's empire included all of Mesopotamia as well as lands westward to the Mediterranean. Sargon was later remembered in chronicles in ancient Mesopotamia as a king who "had no rival or equal, spread his splendor over all the lands, and crossed the sea in the east." One of Sargon's successors, his grandson Naram-Sin, who ruled from 2260 b.c. to 2223 b.c., continued the greatness of the Akkadian empire. Like his grandfather, Naram-Sin waged numerous military campaigns. His successes led him to boast that he was "King of the Four Corners of the Universe," and he declared himself a god. The Akkadian empire, however, did not last. Attacks from neighbors caused the Akkadian empire to fall by 2150 b.c. The end of the Akkadian empire brought a return to independent city-states in Mesopotamia. Finally, after a long period of warfare among the city-states, a new empire arose.

The persian empire

The Persians were Indo-Europeans who lived in what is today southwestern Iran. Primarily nomadic, the Persians were eventually unified by one family, the Achaemenids, leading to the development of the classical civilization of Persia. One member of this family, Cyrus, created a powerful Persian state that stretched from Asia Minor to India. Cyrus ruled from 559 b.c. to 530 b.c. In 539 b.c. he captured Babylon. His lenient treatment of Babylonia showed remarkable restraint. He also allowed the Jews held captive by Babylon to return to Israel. In addition to a centralized government, the Persian civilization was notable for efficient transportation and communication systems that sustained the empire. Officials easily traveled through the empire on well-maintained roads. The Royal Road stretched from Lydia in Asia Minor to Susa, the empire's chief capital. Like the Assyrians, the Persians set up way stations that provided shelter and supply, as well as fresh horses, for the king's messengers. In the Persian monarchy the Persian king—the "Great King"—held an exalted position of tremendous authority, and he held the power of life and death over his subjects. Government was centralized in the person of the king, who was supported in his rule by a large professional army and a bureaucratic administration of civil service officers. This method of governing proved effective and would influence empires created by the Greeks and Romans.

Sophists

The Sophists were a group of traveling teachers in ancient Greece who rejected speculation. They argued that it was simply beyond the reach of the human mind to understand the universe. It was more important for individuals to improve themselves. The Sophists stressed the importance of rhetoric (the art of persuasive speaking necessary for winning debates and swaying audiences). This skill was especially valuable in democratic Athens.

Spartan Politics (greece)

The Spartan government was an oligarchy headed by two kings, who led the Spartan army on its campaigns. A group of five men, known as the ephors (EH • fuhrs), were elected each year and were responsible for the education of youth and the conduct of all citizens. A council of elders, composed of the two kings and 28 citizens over the age of 60, decided on the issues that would be presented to an assembly made of male citizens. This assembly did not debate; it only voted on the issues.

Ten commandment (Judaism)

The Ten Commandments establish both religious and moral (concerned with the standards of right and wrong conduct) rules. The religious commandments required Israelites to worship only their God and not the gods of other peoples. They were forbidden to make images or statues for worship and were commanded not to use God's name in an offensive way. They were also required to observe a day of rest free from labor of any kind.They stressed proper family relationships by ordering children to respect their parents and by banning adultery. They outlawed murder and theft and prohibited false testimony. These laws we're applied to everyone, and allowed for everyone to be equal, and for there to be more safety for the falsely accussed. the Ten Commandments also helped shape political systems in the Western world. For example, the English political philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) argued that the covenant provided a model for the proper relationship between kings and their subjects. He used the relationship between God and Israel to illustrate how an ideal ruler provides security in exchange for obedience. Likewise, the Puritans who settled New England in the seventeenth century used the legal and political ideas in the Ten Commandments.

Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age)

The age in which humans lived as nomads in small communities, hunting and gathering fruits for food and using fire and crude stone implements.

Women (Greece)

Women were citizens who could take part in most religious festivals but otherwise were excluded from public life. They were expected to remain at home, out of sight in special quarters, unless attending funerals or festivals. If they left the house, women had to have a companion. An Athenian woman was expected to be a good wife. Her chief obligation was to bear children, especially male children who would preserve the family line. She was also expected to take care of her family and her house. She either did the housework herself or supervised the slaves who did the work. Women were strictly controlled. They could not own property beyond personal items. They always had a male guardian: if unmarried, a father; if married, a husband; if widowed, a son or male relative. Because they married at 14 or 15, girls learned their responsibilities early. Their mothers taught them how to run a home, including how to spin and weave cloth. Although many learned to read and to play musical instruments, girls did not have any formal education. Women did not work outside the home unless they were poor. Then they could work only at unskilled jobs.

Zapotec

Zapotec peoples created a civilization that would flourish for several hundred years in the highlands overlooking the modern city of Oaxaca in central Mexico. Its center was Monte Alban. Like the Olmec sites, Monte Alban contains a number of temples and pyramids. However, they are located in much more awesome surroundings: a massive stone terrace atop a 1,200-foot- (365.8-m-) high mountain. Most of the estimated 20,000 people lived in terraces cut into the sides of the mountain. An elite class of nobles and priests ruled over a population composed chiefly of farmers and artisans. Like the Olmec, the Zapotec devised a written language that has not been deciphered. Zapotec society survived for several centuries after the collapse of the Olmecs. However, Monte Alban was abandoned in the late eighth century a.d. It is unclear why.

City-state

a city that with its surrounding territory forms an independent state.

hominid

a humanlike creature that walked upright

Empires

a large political unit or state, usually under a single leader, that controls many peoples or territories. Empires are often easy to create, but they can be difficult to maintain. The rise and fall of empires is an important part of history.

Mandate of Heaven

a political theory of ancient China in which those in power were given the right to rule from a divine source

Theocracy

a system of government in which priests rule in the name of God(s) or a god.

Hammurabi's Code

For centuries in Mesopotamia, laws had regulated people's relationships with one another. During his rule, Hammurabi laid out a set of laws known as the Code of Hammurabi. This collection of laws is one of the earliest examples of a written law code, and it carries ideas of both legal and political importance. The Code of Hammurabi was based on a system of strict justice. Penalties were severe, and they varied according to the social class of the victim. A crime against a noble by a commoner was punished more severely than the same offense against a member of the lower class. Moreover, the principle of retaliation (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth) was a fundamental part of this system of justice. The legal ideas in the Code of Hammurabi had a major impact on Mesopotamia and future legal codes. The largest category of laws in the code focused on marriage and the family. Parents arranged marriages for their children. After marriage, the two parties signed a marriage contract, which made the marriage legal. Mesopotamian society was patriarchal; that is, men dominated society. Hammurabi's code shows that women had far fewer rights in marriage than men had. A husband could divorce his wife if she failed to fulfill her duties, was unable to bear children, or tried to leave home to engage in business. Even harsher, a wife who neglected her home or humiliated her husband could be drowned. Fathers ruled their children as well. Obedience was expected: "If a son strike his father, his hands shall be hewn off." If a son committed a serious enough offense, his father could disinherit him. Hammurabi's laws clearly covered almost every aspect of people's lives. Hammurabi's code also included ideas that held a political impact. The code took the duties of public officials seriously. Officials who failed to solve crimes had to make personal restitution to the victims or their families. Judges could be penalized for ruling incorrectly on a case. Due to Hammurabi's connection with laws, images of him can be found in several government buildings in the United States. Hammurabi is one of the many "lawgivers" depicted in marble engravings in the United States Capitol building. There is also an engraving depicting the "great lawgivers of history," including Hammurabi, on an outside wall of the U.S. Supreme Court building.

Early China

Forbidding landscape is a dominant feature of Chinese life and has played an important role in Chinese history. Geographical barriers—mountains and deserts—isolated the Chinese people from peoples in other parts of Asia. In the frontier regions created by these barriers lived peoples of Mongolian, Indo-European, and Turkish backgrounds. The contacts of these groups with the Chinese were often marked by conflict. The northern frontier of China became one of the areas of conflict in Asia as Chinese armies tried to protect their land. Silk was important to trade here.

Covenant (Judaism)

God promised to protect them if they followed the tora.

"Out of Africa" Theory

also called the replacement theory; this theory refers to when Homo sapiens sapiens began spreading out of Africa to other parts of the world about 100,000 years ago and replacing populations of earlier hominids in Europe and Asia

Hatshepsut (The new kingdom)

an Egyptian queen even became pharaoh in her own right. This was Hatshepsut, who at first was regent for her stepson Thutmosis III but later assumed the throne herself. Hatshepsut's reign was a prosperous one, as is especially evident in her building activity. She built a great temple dedicated to herself at Deir el-Bahri, near Thebes. As pharaoh, Hatshepsut sent out military expeditions, encouraged mining, and sent a trading expedition up the Nile. Hatshepsut's official statues sometimes show her clothed and bearded like a king. She was addressed as "His Majesty." That Hatshepsut was aware of her unusual position is evident from an inscription that she placed on one of her temples. It read: "Now my heart turns to and fro, in thinking what will the people say, they who shall see my monument in after years, and shall speak of what I have done."

Mycenae

first Greek state. Mycenae was part of a Mycenaean Greek civilization that flourished between 1600 b.c. and 1100 b.c. The Mycenaeans were, above all, a warrior people who prided themselves on their heroic deeds in battle. Mycenaean wall murals often show war and hunting scenes. Archaeological evidence also indicates that the Mycenaean monarchies developed an extensive commercial network. Mycenaean pottery has been found throughout the Mediterranean area, in Syria and Egypt to the east, and Sicily and southern Italy to the west. However, some historians believe that the Mycenaeans, led by Mycenae itself, also spread outward militarily, conquering Minoan Crete and making it part of the Mycenaean world. The most famous of all their supposed military adventures is recounted in the poetry of Homer. According to Homer, Mycenaean Greeks, led by Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, sacked (plundered) the city of Troy on the northwestern coast of Asia Minor around 1250 b.c. Did this event really occur? Ever since the excavations of Schliemann, begun in 1870, scholars have debated this question. Many believe that Homer's account of the attack on Troy is based on fact. After the collapse of Mycenaean civilization, Greece entered a difficult period in which the population declined and food production dropped. Historians call the period from approximately 1100 b.c. to 750 b.c. the Dark Age because few records of what happened exist. Not until 850 b.c. did the basis for a new Greece begin to form.

Neanderthals

first to hunt in groups; care for the sick; have ritual burials

Phoenicians

located on the eastern Mediterranean coast; invented the alphabet which used sounds rather than symbols like cuneiform. Became the leading traders after the fall of Eygpt and Hittite.The Phoenicians built ships and became great international sea traders, eventually creating a trade empire. Set up a number of colonies in the western Mediterranean. Spoke a Semitic language, simplified their writing by using 22 different signs to represent the sounds of their speech. This was important because it was eventually passed on to the Greeks. From the Greek alphabet came the Roman alphabet that we still use today. He is best known for building the First Temple in Jerusalem, which the Israelites viewed as the symbolic center of their religion and of the Israelite kingdom itself. Under Solomon, ancient Israel reached the height of its power.

lndo-European

refers to a group of languages that have many similarities and are thought by most linguists to derive from a single parent tongue. Indo-European languages include Greek, Latin, and its derivatives such as Italian, French and Spanish, as well as Russian, Persian, Sanskrit, and Germanic languages such as English and German. Appeared between 4000BC-500BC

epic story

tells of the adventures of a heroes who in some way embody the values of their civilization

The Chavin people (South America)

the Chavin people in the coastal regions of modern-day Peru and Ecuador built a temple with stones gathered from nearby hills. Part of a larger ceremonial complex, the temple was surrounded by two pyramids and stone figures depicting different gods. The Chavin made objects of gold and silver. Their most impressive technological achievement was the building, around 300 b.c., of a solar observatory made up of thirteen stone towers on a hillside north of present-day Lima, Peru. There are even signs of a simple writing system. For unknown reasons, the Chavin culture declined around 200 b.c.

Suttee

the Hindu custom of cremating a widow on her husband's funeral pyre. Considered early on to be a voluntary form of female suicide. The dead were placed on heaps of material called pyres, which were then set on fire. Suttee allowed a wife to throw herself on her dead husband's funeral pyre. While suttee was voluntary in theory, a Greek visitor reported that "those women who refused to burn themselves were held in disgrace." Suttee did not, however, have any basis in the Vedas or Upanishads. In later centuries, there were instances of forced suttee, and it was condemned over many centuries by Indian religious leaders until it was banned in 1829.

dynastic cycles

the circle of change the chinese dynasties went through; establishing power, successful rule, decline, collapse, rise of a new dynasty

Anthropology

the study of human life and culture

Archeology

the study of past societies through analysis of what people left behind.

Homo sapiens sapiens

wise, wise humans

Kingdom of Isreal

"ten lost tribes" 10 of the original 12 tribes of Israel. Got overran by the Assyrians, and we're dispersed into different cultures

Homo habilis

(man of skill) first to make stone tools

Kingdom of Judah

2 of the original 12 tribes of Israel. Remained independent for a while, but when the Asyrian Empire was conquered by the Chaldeans, Judah was also conquered and Jerusalem was destroyed. People of Judah were sent as captives to Babylonia, inaugurating the period known as the Babylonian exile. Persians took over and allowed Judah to rebuild Jerusalem (ended Babylonian exile). The revived province of Judah was controlled by Persia until the conquests of Alexander the Great. The people of Judah survived, eventually becoming known as the Jews and giving their name to Judaism.

The middle kingdom

2055BC - 1650BC. Pharoah was now expected to be a man of the people and help them. Began expanding (took over Nubia), and began trading with other countries. Recognized as the most secure time in eyght history.

Old Kingdom

2700 BC- 2200 BC. Introduced Government Bureaucracy. (an administrative organization with officials and regular procedures—developed. In time, Egypt was divided into 42 provinces, (which were run by governors appointed by the pharaoh.) Built Pyramids, and started mummification.

Eygpt

A civilization built by the Nile River. Every year, the river overflows and put nutrient-filled silt on the soil. This is referred to as the blessing of the Nile. The river was the fastest way to travel there, and they grew lots of food around it. It was protected by natural barriers (Deserts, seas, etc.) Preist we're called "Sons of Re (Re is another name for Ra) and Egypt was polytheistic. The important part of Egyptian history starts when King Menes United Upper and lower Eygpt while creating the first-ever royal dynasty (a family of rulers whose right to rule is passed on within the family). He wore a double crown, representing unity between both upper and lower Egypt. Egyptians had an indefinite number system and an accurate 365 calendar.

Fertile Crescent

A geographical area of fertile land in the Middle East stretching in a broad semicircle from the Nile to the Tigris and Euphrates. People near it revolutionized farming using irrigation and drainage.

Aristocracy

A government in which power is in the hands of a hereditary ruling class or nobility. An upper class whose wealth is land-based and who passes power from one generation to the next.

Mesopotamia

A region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers that developed the first urban societies. In the Bronze Age this area included Sumer and the Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian empires, In the Iron Age, it was ruled by the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian empires.

Pharoh

A ruler of ancient Egypt. Means "Great house". Held absolute power and was bought to be a living god on earth.

Civilization

A society with cities, a central government, job specialization, and social classes

The Dark Age (greece)

A time when food production and population decreased. Two other major groups of Greeks settled in established parts of Greece. The Aeolian Greeks of northern and central Greece colonized the large island of Lesbos and the territory near the mainland. The Dorians established themselves in southwestern Greece, especially in the Peloponnese, as well as on some of the southern Aegean islands. There was a revival of some agriculture, trade, and economic activity during the Dark Age. The use of iron was central to this revival. Iron replaced bronze in weaponry, making weapons affordable for more people. Furthermore, iron farming tools helped reverse the decline in food production. At some point in the eighth century b.c., the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet to give themselves a new system of writing. By reducing all words to a combination of 24 letters, the Greeks made learning to read and write simpler. The work of Homer, one of the great poets of all time, appeared near the end of the Dark Age.

thermoluminescence

A way to date an object, by looking at the light given of by the dirt around it.

Zoroastrianism (Persia)

According to tradition, Zoroaster, revered as a prophet of the "true religion," was born in 628 b.c. His teachings were recorded in the Zend Avesta, the sacred book of Zoroastrianism. Zoroastrianism was influential in the development of the concepts of free will and a final judgment of humanity. Zoroaster taught that Ahuramazda gave all humans the freedom to choose between right and wrong. Zoroaster also taught that Ahuramazda would triumph in the struggle between good and evil. At the end of the world, individuals would be judged. Those who had performed good deeds would achieve paradise, whereas those who had performed evil deeds would be thrown into an abyss to experience torment and misery.

The Athenian Empire

After the defeat of the Persians, Athens took over the leadership of the entire Greek world. In 478 b.c., the Athenians formed a defensive alliance against the Persians known as the Delian League. Its main headquarters was on the island of Delos. However, its chief officials, including the treasurers and commanders of the fleet, were Athenian. Under Athenian leadership, the Delian League pursued the attack against the Persian Empire, eventually liberating virtually all of the Greek states in the Aegean from Persian control. In 454 b.c., the Athenians moved the treasury of the league from the island of Delos to Athens on the mainland. By controlling the Delian League, Athens had created an empire. Under Pericles, a dominant figure in Athenian politics between 461 b.c. and 429 b.c., Athens expanded its empire abroad while democracy flourished at home. This period of classical Athenian and Greek history, which historians have called the Age of Pericles, saw the height of Athenian power and brilliance. By the fifth century b.c., Athens had the largest population of the Greek city-states. Because of the number of people and the lack of fertile land, Athens had to import from 50 to 80 percent of its grain, a basic item in the Athenian diet. Trade was highly important to the Athenian economy.

The Great Peloponnesian War

After the defeat of the Persians, the Greek world divided into two main camps: the Athenian Empire (Athens and the Delian League, which it controlled) and Sparta and its supporters (Peloponnesian League). Athens and Sparta had very different societies, and neither was able to tolerate the other's system. Sparta and its allies feared the growing Athenian Empire, and a series of disputes finally led to the outbreak of the Great Peloponnesian War in 431 b.c. At the beginning of the war, both sides believed they had winning strategies. The Athenians planned to remain behind the city's protective walls and receive supplies from their colonies and navy. The Spartans and their allies surrounded Athens, hoping that the Athenians would send out their army to fight beyond the walls. Pericles knew, however, that the Spartan forces could beat the Athenians in open battles. The Athenians had a better navy, but the Spartans had a stronger army. Pericles also believed that Athens was secure behind its walls, so the Athenians stayed put. In the first winter of the war, the Athenians held a public funeral to honor those who had died in combat. Pericles spoke about the greatness of Athens and the strength of its political system. In the second year of the war, a plague broke out in the overly crowded city of Athens. The plague killed more than a third of the people. Pericles himself died the following year (429 b.c.). Despite these severe losses, the Athenians fought on for about another 25 years. A crushing blow to the Athenians came in 405 b.c., when their fleet was destroyed at Aegospotami (ee • guh • SPAH • tuh • mee) on the Hellespont. Within the next year, Athens surrendered. Its walls were torn down, the navy disbanded, and the Athenian Empire was destroyed. The great war was over, but the age of classical Greek culture and government was also. The Great Peloponnesian War weakened the major Greek states and ruined any possibility of cooperation among them. During the next 67 years, Sparta, Athens, and Thebes (a new Greek power) struggled to dominate Greek affairs. In continuing their petty wars, the Greeks ignored the growing power of Macedonia to their north. This oversight would cost them their freedom.

Hammurabi

Amorite ruler of Babylon (r. 1792-1750 B.C.E.). He conquered many city-states in southern and northern Mesopotamia and is best known for a code of laws, inscribed on a black stone pillar, illustrating the principles to be used in legal cases. After his death in 1750 b.c., however, a series of weak kings was unable to keep the empire united, and it finally fell to new invaders.

Minoans

Another civilization in the eastern Mediterranean that had been established on the island of Crete. Minoans were not Greek, but they influenced the peoples of the Greek mainland. Arthur Evans, the English archaeologist who first discovered the civilization, named it after Minos, the legendary king of Crete, because some of its structures were similar to the labyrinth that King Minos was said to have built. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Evans discovered an enormous palace complex on Crete at Knossos (NAH • suhs). The remains of this complex revealed a rich culture, with Knossos as the center of a far-ranging sea empire based on trade. The ships of the Minoans took them to Egypt as well as southern Greece. Trade also helped the Minoans improve the goods they produced: They drew inspiration from techniques and designs from objects from other lands. Although the Minoans built palaces on several sites in Crete, the palace at Knossos was the royal seat of the kings. The centers of Minoan civilization on Crete suffered a sudden and catastrophic collapse around 1450 b.c. Some historians believe that a tidal wave triggered by a powerful volcanic eruption on the island of Thera THIHR • uh) was responsible for the devastation. Most historians, however, believe that the destruction was the result of invasion by mainland Greeks known as the Mycenaean.

Olmec Society (Early Mesoamerica)

Archaeologists first discovered the Olmec society in the 1940s. They called these people the Olmec, or rubber people, because of the rubber trees that grew in the area where they lived. The Olmec, the first known civilization in Mesoamerica, appeared around 1200 b.c. They farmed along riverbanks in the hot, swampy lowlands along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico south of Veracruz. They traded with other peoples of Mesoamerica for jade and obsidian to make their tools, jewelry, and monuments. The Olmec had large cities that were centers for their religious rituals. The oldest city was San Lorenzo, which contained pyramids and other stone monuments. In La Venta, a 30-foot- (9-m-) high pyramid towered above the city. Skilled Olmec artisans also carved a series of colossal stone heads, probably to represent their gods or rulers. These huge heads, 10 feet (3 m) high and weighing 20 tons (18 t), are especially remarkable because the Olmec had no metal tools. Carving them with instruments of stone must have taken a great deal of time. Around 400 b.c., for reasons not yet fully understood, the Olmec civilization declined and eventually collapsed. However, some aspects of their tradition influenced later Mesoamerican societies.

Harappa/Indus civilization

Early civilization in India emerged in river valleys. Between 3000 b.c. and 1500 b.c., the valleys of the Indus River supported a civilization that extended hundreds of miles from the Himalaya to the Arabian Sea. Archaeologists have found the remains of more than a thousand settlements in this region. Two of the ruins were the sites of the cities of Harappa (huh • RA • puh) and Mohenjo Daro (moh • hehn • joh DAHR • oh). An advanced civilization flourished in these cities for hundreds of years. Historians call it the Harappan or Indus civilization. Public wells provided a regular supply of water for all the inhabitants. Bathrooms featured an advanced drainage system. Wastewater flowed out to drains located under the streets and then was carried to sewage pits beyond the city walls. A system of chutes took household trash from houses to street-level garbage bins. Only a well-organized government could have maintained such carefully structured cities. Harappan rulers based their power on a belief in divine assistance.The Harappan economy was based on farming. How the Indus Valley civilization ended continues to be a mystery. They we're replaced by Aryans somehow

Heroglyphics

Egyptian writing system. Means "Priest Carving"

Filial Piety (China)

Filial refers to a son or daughter. Filial piety, then, refers to the duty of members of the family to subordinate their needs and desires to those of the male head of the family. More broadly, the term describes a system in which every family member had his or her place.

The Hitties

First Indo-Europeans to use iron. They were destroyed by the "Sea peoples"

Neolithic Revolution

The switch from nomadic lifestyles to a settled agricultural lifestyle is this revolution. Also domesticated animals

Great Pyramid/Great sphinx

The tomb of King Khufu. The Great Sphinx stands over it as a gaurdian.

Homo erectus

Upright Man, first to use fire

Spartan women (greece)

While their husbands lived in the barracks, Spartan women lived at home. Because of this separation, Spartan women had greater freedom of movement and greater power in the household than was common elsewhere in Greece. Spartan women were expected to remain fit to bear and raise healthy children. Many Spartan women upheld the strict Spartan values, expecting their husbands and sons to be brave in war. The story is told of a Spartan mother who, as she handed her son his shield, told him to come back carrying his shield or being carried on it. In other words, he was not to drop his shield in retreat but to be victorious or to die bravely.

Cyrus "The great"

Cyrus ruled from 559 b.c. to 530 b.c. In 539 b.c. he captured Babylon. His lenient treatment of Babylonia showed remarkable restraint. He also allowed the Jews held captive by Babylon to return to Israel. The people of his time called Cyrus "the Great." He demonstrated wisdom and compassion in the conquest and organization of his empire. He won approval by installing not only Persians but also native peoples as government officials in their own states. Unlike the Assyrian rulers, Cyrus had a reputation for mercy. Medes, Babylonians, and Jews all accepted him as their ruler. Cyrus had a genuine respect for other civilizations. For example, he used Assyrian, Babylonian, and Egyptian designs for building his palaces. After Darius, the Persian kings became isolated at their courts, surrounded by luxuries. As the kings increased taxes, loyalty to the empire declined. Persian kings were polygamous (having many wives) and had many children. Artaxerxes II, for example, who ruled in the fourth century b.c., had 115 sons. Of course, the sons had little real power. However, that made them even more willing to engage in plots to gain the throne. Of the nine rulers after Darius, six were murdered as a result of court intrigue. Struggles for the throne weakened the empire and led to its conquest by the Greek ruler Alexander the Great during the 330s b.c.

Darius (Assyria)

Cyrus's successors sought to extend the territory of the Persian Empire. His son Cambyses (kam • BY • seez) successfully invaded Egypt. Then Darius (duh • RY • uhs), who ruled from 521 b.c. to 486 b.c., added a new Persian province in western India that extended to the Indus River. He then conquered Thrace in Europe, creating the world's largest empire to that time. Contact with Greece led Darius to invade the Greek mainland. Darius strengthened the Persian government. He divided the empire into 20 provinces, called satrapies (SAY • truh • pees). A governor, or satrap, literally a "protector of the kingdom," ruled each province. Each satrap collected taxes, provided justice, and recruited soldiers.

Greek Dramas

Drama as we know it in Western culture was created by the Greeks. Plays were presented in outdoor theaters as part of religious festivals. The first Greek dramas were tragedies, which were presented in a trilogy—a set of three plays—built around a common theme. The only complete trilogy we possess today, called the Oresteia, was composed by Aeschylus. This set of three plays relates the fate of Agamemnon, a hero of the Trojan War, and his family after his return from the war. In the plays, evil acts are shown to breed more evil acts and suffering. In the end, however, reason triumphs over the forces of evil. Another great Athenian playwright was Sophocles, whose most famous play was Oedipus Rex. In this play, the oracle of Apollo foretells how Oedipus will kill his own father and marry his mother. Despite all attempts to prevent this, Oedipus does commit these tragic acts. A third outstanding Athenian dramatist, Euripides, tried to create more realistic characters in real-life situations. Euripides was controversial. He questioned traditional values, portraying war as brutal and barbaric. Greek tragedies dealt with universal themes still culturally relevant today. They examined problems such as the nature of good and evil, the rights of the individual, the nature of divine forces, and the nature of human beings. In the world of the Greek tragedies, striving to do the best thing may not always lead to success, but the attempt is a worthy endeavor. Greeks took great pride in their accomplishments and independence. Greek comedy developed later than tragedy. Comedies were used to criticize politicians and intellectuals and were meant both to entertain and to provoke a reaction. Aristophanes, a good example of a Greek comedian, filled his plays with puns and satire.

Prophets (Judaism)

Jews also believe that God sent additional religious teachers, or prophets, to serve as his voice to his people. The prophets declared that faithlessness to God would bring catastrophe, but turning from evil would bring God's mercy. Later prophets embraced a concern for all humanity. All nations would find peace with the God of Israel. prophets also cried out against social injustice within the context of the Torah. They criticized violations of God's covenant, often attacking the wealthy, political elites. They condemned mistreatment of the poor, denounced excessive luxuries, and warned Israelites of punishments for their sins. They said that God's command was to live justly, to share with others, and to care for the poor and the unfortunate. These words influenced the development of social justice for Jews, Christians, and many others.

Sparta (Greece)

Like other Greek city-states, Sparta needed more land. Instead of starting new colonies, as some states did, the Spartans conquered the neighboring Laconians. Later, beginning around 730 b.c., the Spartans undertook the conquest of neighboring Messenia despite its larger size and population. After their conquest, the Messenians and Laconians became serfs and were made to work for the Spartans. These captured people were known as helots, a name derived from a Greek word for "capture." To ensure control over the conquered helots, the Spartans made a conscious decision to create a military state. Between 800 b.c. and 600 b.c., the lives of Spartans were rigidly organized and tightly controlled—thus, our word spartan, meaning "highly self-disciplined." Males spent their childhood learning military discipline. Then they enrolled in the army for regular military service at age 20. Although allowed to marry, Spartan males continued to live in the military barracks until age 30. All meals were eaten in public dining halls with fellow soldiers. Meals were simple: the famous Spartan black broth consisted of a piece of pork boiled in animal blood, salt, and vinegar. A visitor who ate some of the black broth once remarked that he now understood why Spartans were not afraid to die. At 30, Spartan males were allowed to vote in the assembly (discussed later). They could live at home, but they stayed in the army until the age of 60.

Zhou Dynasty

Longest lasting Chinese dynasty. The Zhou dynasty continued the political system of the rulers it had overthrown. At the head of the government was the Zhou king, who was served by an increasingly large and complex bureaucracy. The Zhou dynasty continued the Shang practice of dividing the kingdom into territories governed by officials. The officials of these territories were members of the aristocracy. They were appointed by the king and were subject to his authority. Like the Shang rulers, the Zhou king was in charge of defense and commanded armies throughout the country. The Zhou dynasty claimed that it ruled China because it possessed the Mandate of Heaven. It was believed that Heaven, which was an impersonal law of nature, kept order in the universe through the Zhou king. The king was the link between Heaven and Earth. Thus, the king ruled by a mandate, or authority to command, from Heaven. The concept of the heavenly mandate became a basic principle of Chinese government. The Mandate of Heaven, however, was double-edged. The king, who was chosen to rule because of his talent and virtue, was then responsible for ruling the people with goodness and efficiency. He was expected to rule according to the proper Way, called the Dao (DOW). It was the Zhou king's duty to keep the gods pleased to protect the people from natural disaster. If the king failed in his rule, he could be overthrown and replaced. This theory has political side effects. It sets forth a right of revolution to overthrow a corrupt ruler. It also makes clear that the king, though serving as a representative of Heaven, is not divine himself. In practice, each founder of a new dynasty would say that he had earned the Mandate of Heaven. Who could disprove it except by overthrowing the king? After almost 800 years, the Zhou dynasty collapsed when the Zhou ruler was challenged by powerful states. In 403 b.c., civil war began an age known in Chinese history as the Period of the Warring States.

Caral (south america)

Oldest major city in the Americas. Had advanced irrigation systems, and was abandoned between 2000 b.c. and 1500 b.c.

Plato (Greek)

One of Socrates' students was Plato, considered by many the greatest philosopher of Western civilization. Unlike Socrates, Plato wrote a great deal. He was fascinated with the question of reality: How do we know what is real? According to Plato, a higher world of eternal, unchanging Forms has always existed. These ideal Forms make up reality, and only a trained mind—the goal of philosophy—can become aware of or understand these Forms. To Plato, the objects that we perceive with our senses (trees, for example) are simply reflections of the ideal Forms (treeness). They (the trees) are but shadows. Reality is found in the Form (treeness) itself. Plato explained his ideas about government in an influential work entitled The Republic. Plato had come to distrust the workings of democracy in Athens. To him, individuals could not achieve a good life unless they lived in a just and rational state. In Plato's ideal state, people were divided into three basic groups. At the top was an upper class of philosopher-kings. The second group were warriors, and the third group contained all the rest—people driven not by wisdom or courage but by desire. The third group were society's producers—artisans, tradespeople, and farmers. When each of these groups performed its appropriate role in society, society would function smoothly. Contrary to Greek custom, Plato also believed that men and women should have the same education and equal access to all positions.

Sumerian

The first Mesopotamian civilization. A city state. Polytheistic (Multiple gods) and believed the gods owned the cities and could do whatever they pleased to them (Built temples like the Ziggurat, elaborate houses for the priest, etc. Belived in theocracy, even kings we're believed to be personal servants of the gods. Invented the wheel. Used slave labor. Created Cuneiform ( first form of writing). Made the first wagin wheel as well, and wrote "the epic of Gilgamesh", a epic story

Teotihuacán (Place of the Gods.) (Mesoamerica)

The first major city in Mesoamerica. City was the capital of an early kingdom that arose around 250 b.c. and collapsed around a.d. 800. Along its main thoroughfare, known as the Avenue of the Dead, were temples and palaces. All of them, however, were dominated by a massive Pyramid of the Sun. Most of the people of Teotihuacán were farmers. Fertile soil made their valley one of the richest farming areas in Mesoamerica. Teotihuacán was also a busy center for trade. In scores of workshops throughout the city, skilled artisans made tools, weapons, pottery, and jewelry. Especially famous were their obsidian tools. Obsidian, a volcanic glass, was prized in Mesoamerica. It was used in tools, as mirrors, and in the razor-sharp knives that were used in human and animal sacrifices. The goods made in Teotihuacán were shipped to Central America, Mexico, and southwestern North America. In return, the city's inhabitants received luxury items and the raw materials used in their crafts. Sometime during the eighth century, for reasons yet unknown, the city's power declined. Eventually, the ruling class left the city and around a.d. 800, the city was destroyed and abandoned.

Assyrian Empire

The first of the new empires was formed in Assyria, located on the upper Tigris River. The Assyrians were a Semitic-speaking people who exploited the use of iron weapons to establish an empire by 700 b.c. The Assyrian Empire included Mesopotamia, parts of the Plateau of Iran, sections of Asia Minor, Syria, Israel, and Egypt down to Thebes. In less than 100 years, however, internal strife and resentment of Assyrian rule began to tear the Assyrian Empire apart. In 612 b.c., the empire fell to a coalition of Chaldeans and Medes (people who lived in the east). Seven years later, the rest of the empire was finally divided between the two powers. At its height, the Assyrian Empire was ruled by kings whose power was seen as absolute. Under their leadership, the Assyrian Empire became well organized. Local officials were directly responsible to the king. The Assyrians also developed an efficient system of communication to administer their empire more effectively. A network of staging posts was established throughout the empire that used relays of horses (mules or donkeys in the mountains) to carry messages. The system was so effective that a governor anywhere in the empire could send a question and receive an answer from the king within a week. The Assyrians had the first large armies equipped with iron weapons. The Assyrians were good at conquering others. Through many years of practice, they developed effective military leaders and fighters. They were able to enlist and deploy troops numbering in the hundreds of thousands, although most campaigns were not on such a large scale. The Assyrian army was well organized and disciplined. A force of infantrymen was its core, joined by cavalrymen and horse-drawn war chariots that were used as platforms for shooting arrows. Another factor in the army's success was its ability to use different military tactics. The Assyrians could wage guerrilla warfare in the mountains and set battles on open ground, as well as lay siege to cities. They were especially known for their siege warfare. They used battering rams and siege towers to hammer at the city's walls. Then they would tunnel under them, making them collapse. Used terror as an instrument of warfare and were also known for committing atrocities on their captives. The Assyrians took over much of Mesopotamian civilization. They saw themselves as guardians of Sumerian and Babylonian culture. One of the last Assyrian kings, Ashurbanipal, established one of the world's first libraries at Nineveh. This library has provided abundant information concerning ancient Southwest Asian civilizations. After the collapse of the Assyrian Empire, the Chaldean king Nebuchadnezzar (neh • byuh • kuhd • NEH • zuhr) II made Babylonia the leading state in western Asia. He rebuilt Babylon as the center of his empire and gave it a reputation as one of the great cities of the ancient world. The city was most famous for its Hanging Gardens, known as one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world. However, the splendor of Chaldean Babylonia proved to be short-lived. Babylon fell to the Persians in 539 b.c.

The period of the warring states

The period in Chinese history (403-221 BCE) in which many different states emerged and were fighting for control of China. Advanced weapons to Iron, and the crossbow was made. Eventually, one of the warring states—the Qin (CHIHN)—took control and created a new dynasty in 221 b.c.

Macedonia

The Greeks viewed their northern neighbors, the Macedonians, as barbarians. The Macedonians were rural people organized in groups, not in city-states like the Greeks. By the end of the fifth century b.c., however, Macedonia emerged as a powerful kingdom.

Atheians vs. Persia

As the Greeks spread throughout the Mediterranean, they came into conflict with the Persian Empire to the east. By the mid-sixth century b.c., the Persian Empire controlled the Ionian Greek cities in western Asia Minor. In 499 b.c., these Ionian cities attempted a revolt, assisted by the Athenian navy. They were unsuccessful, but their attempt prompted the Persian ruler Darius to seek revenge. It is said that Darius ordered one of his slaves to say to him at every meal, "Sire, remember the Athenians." In 490 b.c., the Persians landed on the plain of Marathon, only 26 miles (42 km) from Athens. There, an outnumbered Athenian army attacked and defeated the Persians decisively. The Persians returned to Asia. According to legend, news of Persia's defeat was brought by an Athenian runner named Pheidippides (fy • DIHP • uh • deez), who raced from Marathon to Athens. With his last breath, he announced, "Rejoice! We win!" before dropping dead. Today's marathon race is based on this heroic story. Although the Battle of Marathon was a minor defeat to the Persians, to the Athenians, it proved that the Persians could be beaten and gave them new confidence in their city-state. After Darius died in 486 b.c., Xerxes (ZUHRK • seez) became the new Persian monarch. Xerxes vowed revenge and planned to invade Greece. In preparation for the attack, some of the Greek states formed a defensive league under the Spartans. The Athenians, however, followed a new military policy insisted on by Themistocles, one of the Athenian leaders, and built a navy. By the time the Persians invaded in 480 b.c., the Athenians had a fleet of about 200 vessels. Xerxes led a massive invasion force into Greece. His forces included about 180,000 troops and thousands of warships and supply vessels. In spite of their differences, Athenians, Spartans, and other Greeks were united by a common goal of defeating the Persian invaders. The Greeks tried to delay the Persians at the pass of Thermopylae, along the main road into central Greece. A Greek force of about 7,000 held off the Persian army for two days. The 300 Spartans in the Greek army were especially brave. When told that Persian arrows would darken the sky in battle, one Spartan responded, "That's good news, we will get to fight in the shade." Unfortunately for the Greeks, a traitor told the Persians how to use a mountain path to outflank the Greek force. The Athenians, threatened by Persian forces, abandoned their city. Near the island of Salamis, the outnumbered Greek fleet defeated the Persians. A few months later, early in 479 b.c., the Greeks formed the largest Greek army of the time and defeated the Persian army at Plataea (pluh • TEE • uh), northwest of Athens. The Greeks had won the war and were free to pursue their own destiny.

Army (greece)

As the polis developed, so too did a new military system. By 700 b.c., the Greek military system had shifted from nobles on horseback to a system based on hoplites. Hoplites were heavily armed foot soldiers equipped with a round shield, a short sword, and a thrusting spear about nine feet long. Hoplites went into battle as a unit, marching shoulder to shoulder in a rectangular formation known as a phalanx. This close formation created a wall of shields to protect the hoplites. As long as they kept their order, it was difficult for enemies to harm them.

greek expansion

Between 750 b.c. and 550 b.c., large numbers of Greeks left their homeland to settle in distant lands. Overpopulation at home, a desire for good farmland, and the growth of trade were important factors in deciding to settle new places. Each Greek colony became a new polis, independent of the polis that had founded it. Across the Mediterranean, new Greek colonies were established along the coastlines of southern Italy, southern France, eastern Spain, and northern Africa west of Egypt. At the same time, to the north, the Greeks set up colonies in Thrace, where they sought good farmland to grow grains. The Greeks also settled along the shores of the Black Sea, setting up cities on Hellespont and the Bosporus straits. The most notable of these cities was Byzantium (buh • ZAN • shuhm), the site of what later became Constantinople and is now Istanbul. In establishing these colonies, the Greeks spread their culture and political ideas throughout the Mediterranean. Colonization in these prime port locations also led to increased trade and industry. The Greeks on the mainland sent their pottery, wine, and olive oil to these areas. In return, they received grains and metals from the west, and fish, timber, wheat, metals, and slaves from the Black Sea region. The expansion of trade and industry created a new group of wealthy individuals in many of the Greek city-states. These men wanted political power but found it difficult to gain because of the power of the ruling aristocrats.

Athens (Greece)

By 700 b.c., Athens had become a unified polis on the peninsula of Attica. Early Athens was ruled by a king. By the seventh century b.c., however, Athens had become an oligarchy under the control of its aristocrats. These aristocrats owned the best land and controlled political life. There was an assembly of all the citizens, but it had few powers. The ruling Athenian aristocrats reacted to this crisis in 594 b.c. by giving full power to Solon, a reform-minded aristocrat. Solon canceled all land debts and freed people who had fallen into slavery for debts. He refused, however, to take land from the rich and to give it to the poor. Despite Solon's reforms, aristocrats were still powerful and poor peasants could not obtain land. Internal strife finally led to the very thing Solon had hoped to avoid—tyranny. Peisistratus (pih • SIHS • truh • tuhs), an aristocrat, seized power in 560 b.c. He then aided Athenian trade as a way of pleasing the merchants. He also gave aristocrats' land to the peasants in order to gain the favor of the poor. The Athenians rebelled against Peisistratus's son, who had succeeded him, and ended the tyranny in 510 b.c. Two years later, with the backing of the Athenian people, Cleisthenes (KLYS • thuh • neez), another reformer, gained the upper hand. Cleisthenes created a new council of 500 that supervised foreign affairs, oversaw the treasury, and proposed the laws that would be voted on by the assembly. The Athenian assembly, composed of male citizens, was given final authority to pass laws after free and open debate. Because the assembly of citizens now had the central role in the Athenian political system, the reforms of Cleisthenes created the foundations for Athenian democracy.

Chinese language

By Shang times, the Chinese had developed a simple script—an ancestor of today's complex written language. Its form was primarily pictographic and ideographic. (Pictographs are characters, or picture symbols, that represent an object, like a mountain or the sun. Ideographs are characters that combine two or more pictographs to represent an idea—the word east symbolizes the sun rising behind the trees.) There was a sound associated with each Chinese character when read aloud. In other cultures, people eventually stopped using pictographs and ideographs and adopted phonetic symbols that represented speech sounds. The Chinese, too, eventually began to attach phonetic meanings to some of their symbols. However, although the Chinese language has evolved continuously over a period of 4,000 years, it has never entirely abandoned its original format.

The age of Pericles

By creating a direct democracy, Pericles expanded the responsibilities and involvement of Athenian citizens in their government. In this system, every male citizen participated directly in government decision making by attending the assembly, where they voted on all major issues. In the mid-fifth century B.C., the assembly consisted of about 43,000 male citizens older than 18 years old. Every 10 days, the assembly met on a hillside east of the Acropolis. Not all attended, and the number present seldom reached 6,000. The assembly passed all laws, elected public officials, and made decisions concerning war and foreign policy. Anyone could speak, but usually only respected leaders did so. By making lower-class male citizens eligible for public office and by paying officeholders, Pericles made it possible for poor citizens to participate in civic affairs. Pericles believed that all Athenian citizens were equal before the law and that they should be proud of their democracy. An assembly of citizens, active in self-government, would prove to be a central institution and a fundamental idea of Western civilization. This would prove to be the beginning of the development of democratic-republican government. Athenians devised the practice of ostracism. Members of the assembly could write on a pottery fragment (ostrakon) the name of a person they considered harmful. A person named by at least 6,000 members was banned from the city for 10 years. Athenians also had a system of justice called dikastaí, similar to a trial by jury of peers. In minor cases the dikastaí included up to 500 citizens, and up to 1500 citizens in major cases. Under Pericles, Athens became the center of Greek culture. The power and prosperity of Athens allowed classical Greek civilization to further develop. Because war had destroyed much of the city, Pericles began a great rebuilding program. New temples, like the Parthenon, and statues signified Athens' greatness. Art, architecture, and philosophy flourished. Pericles proudly boasted that Athens had become the "school of Greece."

Greek architecture and sculptures

In architecture, the most important form was the temple, dedicated to a god or goddess. At the center of Greek temples were walled rooms that housed both the statues of deities and treasuries in which gifts to the gods and goddesses were safeguarded. These central rooms were surrounded by a screen of marble columns that made Greek temples open structures rather than closed ones. Some of the finest examples of Greek classical architecture were built in Athens in the fifth century b.c. The most famous building on the Acropolis, the Parthenon is regarded as the greatest example of the classical Greek temple. Built between 447 b.c. and 432 b.c., it is a reflection of the classical culture of the Greek city-states. Dedicated to Athena, the patron goddess of Athens, the Parthenon was an expression of the Athenians' pride in their city-state. Indeed, it was dedicated not only to Athena but also to the glory of Athens. The Parthenon exemplifies the principles of classical architecture: the search for calmness, clarity, and freedom from unnecessary detail. Greek sculpture also developed a classical style. Lifelike statues of the male nude, the favorite subject of Greek sculptors, showed relaxed attitudes. Their faces were self-assured, their bodies flexible and smooth muscled. Classical Greek sculptors did not seek to achieve realism, however, but rather a standard of ideal beauty. Polyclitus (pah • lih • KLY • tuhs), a fifth-century sculptor, wrote down systematic rules for proportions that he illustrated in a work known as the Doryphoros. His theory maintained that the use of ideal proportions, based on mathematical ratios found in nature, could produce an ideal human form.

Indo-Aryans

Indo-European tribes who moved in slow waves into India in about 1750 B.C. Although there is evidence of writing in the Indus Valley, no one has yet been able to translate those symbols. Like most nomadic peoples, early Aryans had no written language. Around 1000 b.c., they started writing in Sanskrit, an Indo-European language. Having a written language enabled them to record the legends and religious rituals that had been passed down orally from earlier generations.

Family (china)

It was almost considered as a symbol of the entire social order. It was very important. Children were essential to the family because they worked in the fields. Later, sons were expected to take over the physical labor on the family plots and provide for their parents.

The new kingdom (Egypt)

It was the pharaoh Ahmose I who managed to defeat and expel the Hyksos from Egypt. He reunited Egypt and established the New Kingdom, which lasted from 1550 b.c. to 1070 b.c. Ahmose also launched the Egyptians along a new militaristic path. A more professional army was developed. During the period of the New Kingdom, Egypt created an empire and became the most powerful state in the ancient Near East. Thutmosis I expanded Egypt's border to the south by conquering the African kingdom of Nubia. Thutmosis III led 17 military campaigns into Canaan and Syria and even reached as far east as the Euphrates River. His forces occupied Canaan but allowed local native princes to rule. Egypt now pursued an active political and diplomatic policy. The new Egyptian imperial state reached its height during the reign of Amenhotep III (c. 1412-1375 b.c.). The achievements of the empire were made visible in the construction of magnificent new buildings and temples. Especially famous were the temple centers at Karnak and Luxor and the 70-foot-high (21.33 m) statues of Amenhotep III in front of temples along the Nile. By the end of his reign, Amenhotep III faced a growing military challenge from the Hittites. His son, Amenhotep IV, proved to be even less able to deal with this threat. In large part, this was because of a religious upheaval that he began in Egypt. The upheavals associated with Amenhotep's religious revolution led to a loss of Egypt's empire. Preoccupied with religious affairs, the pharaoh ignored foreign affairs and lost both Syria and Canaan. Under Ramses II, who reigned from c. 1279 b.c. to 1213 b.c., the Egyptians went back on the offensive. They regained control of Canaan but were unable to reestablish the borders of their earlier empire. New invasions in the 1200s b.c. by the "Sea Peoples," as the Egyptians called them, destroyed Egyptian power in Canaan and drove the Egyptians back within their old frontiers. The days of the Egyptian Empire ended. The New Kingdom collapsed in 1070 b.c. For the next thousand years, Egypt was dominated periodically by Libyans, Nubians, Persians, and, finally, Macedonians after the conquest of Alexander the Great. In the first century b.c., the pharaoh Cleopatra VII tried to reestablish Egypt's independence. Her involvement with Rome led to her defeat and suicide, and Egypt became a province in Rome's empire.

Shang Dynasty

Second Chinese dynasty. Based on agriculture, and ruled by an aristocracy that was war focused. Archaeologists have found evidence of impressive cities in Shang China. Shang kings may have had five different capital cities before settling Anyang (AHN • YAHNG), just north of the Huang He in north-central China. Excavations reveal huge city walls, royal palaces, and large royal tombs. The Shang king ruled from the capital city, Anyang. His realm was divided into territories governed by aristocratic military leaders, called warlords, but the king had the power to choose or remove these leaders. The king also defended the realm and controlled large armies, which often fought on the fringes of the kingdom. The king's importance is evident in the ritual sacrifices that were undertaken at his death. Early Chinese kings were buried in royal tombs accompanied by the corpses of their faithful servants. The royal family occupied the top of Shang society; the aristocracy came next. The aristocrats, the chief landowners, waged war and served as officials. The majority of people were peasants who farmed the aristocracy's land. In addition to the aristocrats and peasants, Shang society also included a small number of merchants and artisans, as well as slaves. The Chinese believed in supernatural forces that could help the rulers in worldly affairs. To communicate with the gods, the priests made oracle bones. These were bones on which priests scratched questions asked by the rulers, such as: Will the king be victorious in battle? Heated metal rods were stuck into the bones, causing them to crack. The priests interpreted the shapes of the cracks as answers from the gods and recorded the answers on the bones. The early Chinese believed in life after death. From this belief came the veneration of ancestors commonly known in the West as ancestor worship. The practice of burning replicas—exact copies—of physical objects to accompany the dead on their journey to the next world continues to this day in many Chinese communities. The early Chinese believed that it was important to treat the spirits of their ancestors well because the spirits could bring good or bad fortune to the living family members. The Shang are perhaps best remembered for their mastery of bronze casting. Thousands of bronze objects have been found in tombs from the Shang period and are among the most admired creations of Chinese art. last of the Shang rulers was a wicked tyrant who swam in ponds of wine. This decadence caused the ruler of the state of Zhou (JOH) to revolt against the Shang and establish a new dynasty. The Zhou dynasty, the longest lasting dynasty in Chinese history, ruled for almost 800 years

Heratic script

Simplified Hieroglyphics used for daily life.

Socrates (Greek)

Socrates was a sculptor whose true love was philosophy. Because Socrates left no writings, we know about him only through what we have learned from the writings of his pupils, such as Plato. Socrates taught many pupils, but he accepted no pay. He believed that the goal of education was only to improve the individual. Socrates used a teaching method that is still used today and which carries his name. The Socratic method of teaching uses a question-and-answer format to lead pupils to see things for themselves by using their own reasoning skills. Socrates believed that all real knowledge is already present within each person. Only critical examination is needed to call it forth. This is the real task of philosophy, because, as Socrates said, "The unexamined life is not worth living." This belief in the individual's ability to reason was an important contribution of the Greeks. Socrates questioned authority, which soon led him into trouble. Athens had had a tradition of free thought and inquiry, but defeat in the Peloponnesian War changed the Athenians. They no longer trusted open debate. Socrates was accused and convicted of corrupting the youth of Athens by teaching them to question and think for themselves. An Athenian jury sentenced him to die by drinking hemlock, a poison.

The Hyksos

The Hyksos used horse-drawn war chariots to overwhelm the Egyptian soldiers, who fought from donkey carts. For almost 100 years, the Hyksos ruled much of Egypt. The presence of the Hyksos was not entirely negative for Egypt, however. The conquered Egyptians learned a great deal from their conquerors. From the Hyksos, the Egyptians learned to use bronze in the making of their farming tools and their weapons. The Egyptians also mastered many of the military skills of the Hyksos, especially the use of horse-drawn war chariots. Eventually, a new dynasty of pharaohs used the new weapons to drive out the Hyksos and reunite Egypt.

Religous change in the New Kingdom

The pharaoh Amenhotep IV introduced the worship of Aten, god of the sun disk, as the sole god. He pursued the worship of Aten with great enthusiasm. Amenhotep changed his name to Akhenaten, "Servant of Aten," and closed the temples of other gods. He even set up a new capital called Akhetaten ("Horizon of Aten"), a new city located at modern Tell el-'Amârna, 200 miles (321.87 km) north of Thebes. Akhenaten's attempt at religious change failed. In a society that had always been tolerant of many gods, Akhenaten's actions in destroying the old gods meant to many Egyptians the destruction of Egypt itself. Akhenaten's changes were soon undone after his death by the boy-pharaoh Tutankhamen, who restored the old gods.

Kush (aka Nubia)

South of Egypt is an area known as Nubia. By 2000 b.c., a busy trade had arisen between Egypt and Nubia. Egyptian merchants traveled to Nubia to obtain ivory, ebony wood, frankincense (a fragrant tree resin), and leopard skins. Nubia was subject to Egyptian control for many centuries. However, the collapse of the New Kingdom enabled it to free itself and become the independent state of Kush around 1000 b.c. In 750 b.c., Kush conquered Egypt. In 663 b.c., however, the Kushites, still using bronze and stone weapons, were overwhelmed by the Assyrians, who were armed with iron spears and swords. The Kushites, driven out of Egypt, returned to their original lands in the upper Nile valley. The economy of Kush was based at first on farming. Kush soon emerged, however, as one of the major trading states in the region with its center at the city of Meroë. Well-located at the point where a newly opened land route across the desert to the north crossed the Nile River, Meroë was also blessed with a large supply of iron ore. Having learned iron smelting from the Assyrians, the Kushites made iron weapons and tools that were sent abroad. For the next several hundred years, Kush was a major trading empire that had links to other states throughout the region. In addition to its own quality iron products, Kush provided goods from Central and East Africa for the Roman Empire as well as Arabia and India. The major exports of Kush were ivory, gold, ebony, and slaves; in return, the Kushites received luxury goods, including jewelry and silver lamps from India and Arabia. Not much is known about Kushite society. It seems likely that it was mostly urban. At first, state authorities probably controlled foreign trade, but the presence of extensive luxury goods in the numerous private tombs in the area indicates that at one time material prosperity was relatively widespread. This suggests that a fairly large merchant class carried on trading activities. Indeed, the merchants of Meroë built large houses with central courtyards. Like the Romans, they also built public baths. Kushite prosperity was also evident in the luxurious palaces of the Kushite kings. Like the Egyptian pharaohs, these kings were buried in pyramids, although theirs were considerably smaller than those of their Egyptian models. The state of Kush flourished from about 250 b.c. to about a.d. 150 and then began to decline, possibly because of the rise of a new power in the region. Known as Axum, it was located in the highlands of modern-day Ethiopia. Axum owed its prosperity to its location along the Red Sea, on the trade route between India and the Mediterranean Sea.

The Israelites

Spoke Semitic. Much of the Israelites' history and religious beliefs eventually were written down in the Hebrew Bible, which is known to Christians as the Old Testament. Israelites were descendants of the patriarch Abraham. Ancestors migrated from Mesopotamia to Canaan. Because of drought, the Israelites moved to Egypt, where they were enslaved until Moses led them out. Lived in the desert for forty years until they returned to Canaan. They then organized in tribes and established a united kingdom known as Israel. King David, who ruled from about 1000 b.c. to 970 b.c., the Israelites established control over all the land that came to be called Israel and made the city of Jerusalem its capital. David's youngest son, King Solomon, expanded the government and army and encouraged trade. Solomon. After Solomon's death, tension among Israel's tribes led to the creation of two separate kingdoms. Isreal, and Judah. Both tribes kept they're capital as Jerusalem.

Economy (Athens)

The Athenian economy was largely based on farming and trade. Athenians grew grains, vegetables, and fruit for local use. Grapes and olive trees were cultivated for wine and olive oil, which were for local use and for export. Athenians raised sheep and goats for wool, milk, and dairy products. Because of the number of people and the lack of fertile land, Athens had to import from 50 to 80 percent of its grain, a basic item in the Athenian diet. This meant that trade was highly important to the Athenian economy. The building of a port at nearby Piraeus (py • REE • uhs) helped Athens become the leading trade center in the fifth-century b.c. Greek world. The family was an important institution in ancient Athens. It was composed of a husband, wife, and children, although Athenians also regarded other dependent relatives and even slaves as parts of their families. The family's primary role was to produce new citizens by having children.

Homer (greece)

The Iliad and the Odyssey were the first great epic poems of early Greece and would serve as major cultural influences throughout history. An epic poem is a long poem that tells the deeds of a great hero. The Iliad and the Odyssey were based on stories that had been passed down from generation to generation. Homer used stories of the Trojan War to compose the Iliad and the Odyssey. The Iliad is not so much the story of the war itself, however, as it is the tale of the Greek hero Achilles (uh • KIH • leez) and how the anger of Achilles led to disaster. The Odyssey recounts the journeys of one of the Greek heroes, Odysseus, after the fall of Troy, and his ultimate return to his wife. It has long been considered Homer's other masterpiece. Homer proved to be of great value to later Greeks. He did not so much record history; he created it, and it serves as a reflection of the warlike history of ancient Greek culture. The Greeks looked on the Iliad and the Odyssey as true history and as the works of one poet, Homer. These masterpieces gave the Greeks an ideal past with a cast of heroes. The epics came to be used as basic texts for the education of generations of Greek males. As one ancient Athenian stated, "My father was anxious to see me develop into a good man . . . and as a means to this end he compelled me to memorize all of Homer." Homeric poetry taught the values of courage and honor. These values were relevant not just for ancient Greeks but for many cultures, making them universal themes. A hero strives for excellence, which the Greeks called arete (ahr • ah • TEE). Arete is won in a struggle or contest. Through his willingness to fight, the hero protects his family and friends, preserves his own honor and that of his family, and earns his reputation. Homer gave to later generations of Greek males, and males of later cultures, a model of heroism and honor.

Judaism

The Jews are monotheistic (believe in one god). Creator of the world and everything in it. Traditional Jews believe God is all powerful, all knowing, and present everywhere. God created nature but is not identified with it. The sun, the wind, and other natural phenomena are not gods, but God's creations to be admired but not worshiped. The growth of Judaism, as well as Christianity and Islam, each inspired by Judaism, influenced the development and spread of monotheism within the Western world. Creator is not removed from the life he created. God is just and good, and demands goodness from people. God is also 'compassionate, slow to anger, and rich in love.' God took an active interest in creation, promising the Israelites, "You will thrive and it will go well with you" if they kept his Torah (Religion's book(A bunch of laws(Most famous laws are the ten commandments))). Judaism requires concern for all humanity because Jews believe that all people are made in God's image.

Greece

The ancient Greeks also lived on a number of islands to the west, south, and east of the Greek mainland. Surrounded by water, it was no accident that the Greeks became seafarers. They sailed out into the Aegean Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Black Sea, making contact with the outside world. Later they established colonies that spread Greek civilization throughout the Mediterranean world.Geography contributed to the development of classical Greek civilization. Compared with the landmasses of Mesopotamia and Egypt, Greece occupies a small area. It consists of a mountainous peninsula and numerous islands. The mountains and the sea played especially significant roles in the development of Greek history. Two peninsulas make up much of the Greek landmass. The Isthmus of Corinth connects the Peloponnesian peninsula to the mainland. About 80 percent of Greece is mountainous. Much of Greece consists of small plains and river valleys surrounded by mountain ranges. mountains isolated Greeks from one another, causing different Greek communities to develop their own ways of life. Over a period of time, these communities became fiercely independent and only too willing to fight one another to gain an advantage. The city-state—or what the Greeks called a polis— became central to the development of classical civilization in Greece. By 750 b.c. the polis became the focus of Greek life. Our word politics is derived from the Greek word polis. In a physical sense, the polis was a town, a city, or even a village, along with its surrounding countryside. The town, city, or village served as the center of the polis where people could meet for political, social, and religious activities.

tyranny/tyrants (greece)

The creation of this new group of rich men fostered the rise of tyrants in the seventh and sixth centuries b.c. Tyrants were not necessarily oppressive or wicked, as our word tyrant implies. Greek tyrants were rulers who seized power by force from the aristocrats. Support for the tyrants came from the newly rich who were hungry for the social prestige and political influence that aristocrats had denied them. Poor peasants who were in debt to landholding aristocrats also supported the tyrants. Both the newly rich and the peasants were tired of aristocratic domination of their city-states. The tyrants gained power and kept it by using hired soldiers. After they were in power, the tyrants tried to help the poor and launched public works projects. These efforts glorified the city but, more importantly, increased the tyrants' popularity. Despite their achievements, however, tyrants had fallen out of favor by the end of the sixth century b.c. Greeks believed in the rule of law, and tyranny was an insult to that ideal. Tyranny played an important role in Greek history and in the development of classical Greek civilization. The rule of the tyrants ended the rule of the aristocrats in many city-states. The end of tyranny then allowed many new people to participate in government. In some Greek city-states, this led to the development of democracy, which is government by the people or rule of the many. Other city-states remained committed to government by an oligarchy, rule by the few. Democracy, a fundamental idea of Western civilization, remains one of the most lasting political influences of ancient Greece.

Xia dynasty (China)

The first Dynasty in china. Not much is known about them. Was replaced by the Shang dynasty