WW1 History

Triple Alliance

A prewar alliance among Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, formalized in 1882. At the start of World War I, Italy dropped out of this alliance, initially maintaining a neutral position in regard to the war.

Triple Entente

A vaguely defined prewar alliance among Russia, France, and Britain, finalized in 1907. The Triple Entente was not a formal treaty and had little real substance.

The End of the War and Armistice

Although both sides launched renewed offensives in 1918 in an all-or-nothing effort to win the war, both efforts failed. The fighting between exhausted, demoralized troops continued to plod along until the Germans lost a number of individual battles and very gradually began to fall back. A deadly outbreak of influenza, meanwhile, took heavy tolls on soldiers of both sides. Eventually, the governments of both Germany and Austria-Hungary began to lose control as both countries experienced multiple mutinies from within their military structures. The war ended in the late fall of 1918, after the member countries of the Central Powers signed armistice agreements one by one. Germany was the last, signing its armistice on November 11, 1918. As a result of these agreements, Austria-Hungary was broken up into several smaller countries. Germany, under the Treaty of Versailles, was severely punished with hefty economic reparations, territorial losses, and strict limits on its rights to develop militarily.

Central Powers

An alliance during World War I that originally consisted of Germany and Austria-Hungary. Other nations, including Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire, joined later.

Allied Powers

An alliance during World War I that originally consisted of Russia, France, and Britain. Many other countries, including Belgium, Canada, Greece, Italy, Japan, and Romania, joined later as associate powers. Although the United States never joined the Allied Powers—preferring on principle to fight the Central Powers independently—it cooperated closely with the Allied Powers once it joined the war in 1917.

Austria's Ultimatum to Serbia

An ultimatum that Austria issued to Serbia on July 23, 1914, escalating tensions between the two nations. The ultimatum demanded that Serbia crack down on anti-Austrian propaganda in the Serbian press and that Serbia allow Austria to participate directly in judicial proceedings to prosecute the parties guilty of assassinating Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

The United States' Entrance and Russia's Exit

Despite the stalemate on both fronts in Europe, two important developments in the war occurred in 1917. In early April, the United States, angered by attacks upon its ships in the Atlantic, declared war on Germany. Then, in November, the Bolshevik Revolution prompted Russia to pull out of the war.

Events of the war

June 28, 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated in Sarajevo July 5 Austria requests and receives Germany's "blank check," pledging unconditional support if Russia enters the war July 23 Austria issues ultimatum to Serbia July 25 Serbia responds to ultimatum; Austrian ambassador to Serbia immediately leaves Belgrade France promises support to Russia in the event of war July 28 Austria declares war on Serbia July 30 Russia orders general mobilization of troops August 1 Germany declares war on Russia France and Germany order general mobilization August 3 Germany declares war on France August 4 Britain declares war on Germany August 3, 1914 German troops enter Belgium August 4 German troops enter Poland (Russian territory) and take three towns August 5 Germans encounter first serious fighting at Liege, Belgium August 10 France declares war on Austria-Hungary August 12 First British troops cross English Channel into France Britain declares war on Austria-Hungary Austrian troops enter Serbia at Sabac August 15 Liege falls August 17 Russian troops enter East Prussia (Germany) August 18 Russian troops enter Austria-Hungary August 20 Germans enter Brussels, completing occupation of Belgium August 23 Japan declares war on Germany August 26 Battle of Tannenberg begins on eastern front August 30 Russian forces under Samsonov defeated at Tannenberg September 9 Battle of the Masurian Lakes begins September 14 Russian forces retreat after defeat at Masurian Lakes August 23, 1914 Battle of Mons; British and French troops begin 120-mile retreat September 4 Allied retreat halted at the river Marne September 5 Battle of the Marne begins September 9 Germans begin forty-five-mile retreat back to the river Aisne August 28, 1914 Battle of the Bight September-October Several British cruisers are sunk by German U-boats October 29-30 Goeben and Breslau attack Russian ports on Black Sea November 1 Battle of Coronel Russia declares war on Ottoman Empire November 4-5 France and Britain declare war on Ottoman Empire December 8 Battle of the Falkland Islands November 5, 1914 British forces launch attack on Basra, Mesopotamia March 18, 1915 Britain and France attack the Dardanelles May-June British forces in Mesopotamia advance up the Tigris June 27 British forces begin attack on Nasariya April 25 Invasion of Gallipoli begins September 28 British forces occupy Kut November 22 British forces attack Ctesiphon November 25 British forces retreat after major defeat at Ctesiphon December 10 British begin evacuation of Gallipoli January 9, 1916 Last British troops leave Gallipoli April 29 British forces surrender to Turks after being driven back to Kut April 26, 1915 Italy signs secret "London Pact" May 23 Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary February 21, 1916 Battle of Verdun begins July 1 Battle of the Somme begins August 18 Romania signs treaty with Allied Powers August 27 Romania declares war on Austria-Hungary, invades Transylvania September 1 Bulgaria declares war on Romania September 5 Bulgarian invasion of Romania reaches Danube just south of Bucharest November 18 Battles of Verdun, the Somme end June 7, 1917 Battle of Messines Ridge July 2 Greece declares war on Central Powers July 31 Battle of Passchendaele begins November 6 Canadian forces capture Passchendaele October 21, 1916 French renew attack on Verdun November 7 Wilson reelected on antiwar platform; begins diplomatic initiatives February 1, 1917 Germany begins unrestricted submarine warfare February 3 German U-boat sinks U.S. cargo ship Housatonic United States breaks off diplomatic relations with Germany February 24 United States learns of Zimmermann telegram March 1 Zimmermann telegram published in American press April 2 Wilson asks Congress to declare war April 6 United States declares war on Germany May 24 First U.S. convoy to protect shipping to Europe departs July 4 U.S. troops march through central Paris to Lafayette's tomb September 4 First U.S. war fatalities November 2-3 First U.S. combat mission January 8, 1918 Wilson gives "Fourteen Points" speech before U.S. Congress March 8, 1917 Riots in Petrograd develop into the beginning of the February Revolution March 15 Tsar Nicholas II abdicates April 16 Lenin arrives in Petrograd from Germany July 1 New Russian offensive opens on eastern front Antiwar riot in Petrograd November 6-7 Bolshevik (October) Revolution November 8 Lenin declares peace, though sporadic fighting continues November 26 Bolsheviks call for end to hostilities on all fronts December 15 Russian cease-fire declared March 21, 1918 Germany launches spring offensive March 23 German long-range guns begin shelling Paris March 24 German forces cross the Somme March 25 Allied front line is broken March 30 Germans are stopped at Moreuil Wood April 9-29 Battle of Lys May 2 General Pershing compromises on sending U.S. troops to the front May 7 Romania signs peace treaty with Central Powers May 12 Germany and Austria sign pact to exploit the Ukraine May 21 Mutinies begin in Austrian army May 28 U.S. victory at Cantigny July 18 Allies begin major counteroffensive July 26 Allies foil German attack at Château-Thierry September 19 Turkey defeated at Megiddo September 29, 1918 Wilhelm II pressured into accepting parliamentary government Bulgaria surrenders, signs armistice October 3 Wilhelm II hands Parliament authority on military decisions Prince Max von Baden named chancellor of Germany October 7 Poland declares itself an independent state October 12 Germany agrees to withdraw forces from France, Belgium October 14 Provisional government formed in Czechoslovakia Ottoman sultan requests peace terms for Turkey October 25 Hungarian National Council established in Budapest Allied leaders meet at Senlis to establish formal armistice terms October 29 Yugoslavia proclaims itself an independent state October 30 Germany announces end to submarine warfare Turkey signs armistice November 3 Austria signs armistice, begins to withdraw forces November 9 German delegation begins formal armistice negotiations at Compiègne Max von Baden announces abdication of Wilhelm II November 11 Germany signs armistice, formally ending the war June 28, 1919 Treaty of Versailles signed

The Ottoman Empire

Late in 1914, the Ottoman Empire was brought into the fray as well, after Germany tricked Russia into thinking that Turkey had attacked it. As a result, much of 1915 was dominated by Allied actions against the Ottomans in the Mediterranean. First, Britain and France launched a failed attack on the Dardanelles. This campaign was followed by the British invasion of the Gallipoli Peninsula. Britain also launched a separate campaign against the Turks in Mesopotamia. Although the British had some successes in Mesopotamia, the Gallipoli campaign and the attacks on the Dardanelles resulted in British defeats.

Germany After the War

Many historians, in hindsight, believe that the Allies were excessive in their punishment of Germany and that the harsh Treaty of Versailles actually planted the seeds of World War II, rather than foster peace. The treaty's declaration that Germany was entirely to blame for the war was a blatant untruth that humiliated the German people. Furthermore, the treaty imposed steep war reparations payments on Germany, meant to force the country to bear the financial burden of the war. Although Germany ended up paying only a small percentage of the reparations it was supposed to make, it was already stretched financially thin by the war, and the additional economic burden caused enormous resentment. Ultimately, extremist groups, such as the Nazi Party, were able to exploit this humiliation and resentment and take political control of the country in the decades following.

Battle of the Somme

One of the largest battles of the war, fought in northern France from July 1 to November 18, 1916, simultaneously with the Battle of Verdun. The Battle of the Somme was the result of an Allied offensive along a twenty-five-mile front. Although it ended up as a small victory for the Allied Powers, it cost them 146,000 lives in order to advance less than six miles.

Franz Ferdinand

The archduke of Austria, nephew of Emperor Franz Joseph, and heir to the Habsburg throne. Franz Ferdinand's assassination on June 28, 1914, by Serbian militant Gavrilo Princip, is widely considered the unofficial start of World War I.

The Western and Eastern Fronts

The first month of combat consisted of bold attacks and rapid troop movements on both fronts. In the west, Germany attacked first Belgium and then France. In the east, Russia attacked both Germany and Austria-Hungary. In the south, Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia. Following the Battle of the Marne (September 5-9, 1914), the western front became entrenched in central France and remained that way for the rest of the war. The fronts in the east also gradually locked into place.

Trench Warfare

The middle part of the war, 1916 and 1917, was dominated by continued trench warfare in both the east and the west. Soldiers fought from dug-in positions, striking at each other with machine guns, heavy artillery, and chemical weapons. Though soldiers died by the millions in brutal conditions, neither side had any substantive success or gained any advantage.

The Start of the War

World War I began on July 28, 1914, when Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. This seemingly small conflict between two countries spread rapidly: soon, Germany, Russia, Great Britain, and France were all drawn into the war, largely because they were involved in treaties that obligated them to defend certain other nations. Western and eastern fronts quickly opened along the borders of Germany and Austria-Hungary.