11.1 Religion and society

critic of exclusive approach to religion

-Critics of this approach question whether religion really does have unique and exclusive features. - These critics claim that exclusive approaches simply adopt a definition that fits neatly with conventional, mainstream world religions such as Christianity or Islam. -From this view (perspective), religion is defined as whatever these institutions say it is. This creates two problems: • Such organisations have a vested interest in ensuring that the product they are promoting (religious experience) is both unique and has limited competition. -To identify the unique characteristics of religion, the definition is drawn so narrowly that it excludes behaviours not conventionally seen as religious, as well as behaviour that has some characteristics of mainstream religion but not others. Scientology, for example, makes no distinction between 'the sacred' and the 'profane' and has no concept of 'god' as understood by conventional religions. It does, however, focus on ideas about spirituality that are religious in nature.

Durkheim (1912) religion two necessary functions

-Durkheim (1912) claimed that religion carried out (fulfilled) two necessary functions: 1 Social solidarity: This relates to how religion creates a feeling of belonging to a particular group by providing individuals with shared beliefs and values. It also acts as a source of personal and social identity, by giving a moral code to follow, such as the Ten Commandments. 2 Social integration: This relates to the specific ways in which social solidarity is created, through processes (mechanisms) such as shared practices and experiences. This might include things such as religious services and ceremonies.

Auguste Comte- stages in human understanding of the world

-Early sociologists expected that science would replace religion. -They saw religion as belonging to the pre- modern world. - Auguste Comte, often described as the founder of sociology, suggested that there were three stages in human understanding of the world. -In the first stage, the theological stage, phenomena are explained as being caused by gods, spirits or other supernatural beings. -In the metaphysical stage, the supernatural aspect of this is reduced and people start to investigate and explain phenomena by referring to natural or abstract forces such as the power of Nature. -Finally, in the scientific stage, rational scientific explanations based on observation, evidence and logic take over. -Comte saw the development of sociology as part of this, with human society investigated in a scientific way that would uncover the laws of human nature.

positives of exclusive approaches

-Exclusive approaches, therefore, define religion as behaviour that is both special and different. -In addition, substantive definitions make it possible to measure levels of religious behaviour in a society - to test, for example, whether society is becoming secularised or resacrilised.

religion offering an explanation for working class situation

-For sections of the working class, who are the victims of inequality and are treated as not important (marginalised), religion can offer an explanation of their situation and can promise that suffering now will be rewarded with a better future after death. -Weber suggested that sects offer members a theodicy of disprivilege, a world view that helps them cope with their lives. -This explains why members of the working classes may join sects or other religious organisations. In effect, the promise of salvation in the afterlife makes up (compensates) for poverty in this life.

Functional definitions of religion

-Functional definitions view religion in terms of the functions or roles it performs for individuals or society. -They focus on what religion does rather than what it is (Hamilton, 2001). J. Milton Yinger, for example, adopted a functional definition of religion as a system of beliefs and practices by means of which a group of people struggles with the ultimate problems of human life' (1970, quoted in Hamilton, 2001).

George Chryssides (1994)

-George Chryssides (1994) argues that, in Britain, the religions of immigrant groups and their descendants have had three main paths open to them: » Apostasy, when a particular set of religious beliefs is abandoned in a hostile environment. For example a Sikh might convert to Christianity. > Accommodation, when religious practices are adapted to take account of the changed situation. For example, a Sikh might remove his turban because he believes it could improve his chances at a job interview. » Renewed vigour, when the religion is reasserted more strongly as a response to actual or perceived hostility towards it. For example, parents might insist on strong religious orthodoxy from their children.

Hamilton criticism of functional definitions of religion

-However, Hamilton notes several problems with such a definition. -First, it is too broad. For instance, by this definition, a political belief system such as communism could be seen as a religion because of the function it performs, even though it explicitly rejects religious beliefs. -Second, phrases such as the ultimate problems of human life' are open to interpretation. Hamilton points out that for many people the ultimate problems of life might be simply how to enjoy it as much as possible, how to avoid pain and ensure pleasure. -Many other aspects of social life, apart from religion, address such issues - for example, medicine and leisure.

postmodern societies on religious affiliation

-In postmodern societies, religious affiliation relates more to individual, personal identities rather than the collective, social identities of the past. -The weakening of traditional class associations, along with increased consumer choice, explains why social class no longer correlates very closely with affiliation.

Evaluation of class and religion

-In the USA, detailed data are available on social class, religious belief and participation. However, there is a shortage of such data in many other countries. It is therefore difficult to assess the accuracy of claims about class and different religious organisations. -Consequently, most of the claims discussed here should be treated as hypotheses rather than as well-supported theories. -Furthermore, class intersects with other social divisions, particularly gender, ethnicity and age, in shaping religious belief and participation.

Cornwall et al. (1986) broad dimensions of religiosity

-In this respect, Cornwall et al. (1986) identified three broad dimensions of religiosity. Taken as a whole, these represent an overall level of religious commitment: -knowing or the 'belief dimension' -doing: an indicator of religious participation/membership -feeling: a specific measure of commitment to both an individual's beliefs and any religious organisation with which they identify. -These issues have given rise to pro- and anti-secularisation arguments. We can consider these issues in terms of problems that influence the debate.

Inclusive and exclusive definitions Alan Aldridge (2007)

-Inclusive and exclusive definitions Alan Aldridge (2007) distinguishes between more inclusive and more exclusive definitions of religion. -With inclusive definitions, it is relatively easy for a belief system to qualify as a religion if, for example, it promotes unity or reinforces social cohesion. -Religion is defined broadly and could include devotion to a soccer team or loyalty to a rock band or rap artist. Inclusive or broad definitions would also include political belief systems such as nationalism, fascism and communism. -For inclusive approaches, therefore, the key to understanding religion is to see it as a belief system, or ideology, based on faith: the uncritical and complete acceptance of a particular set of ideas.

McGuire (2002) problems of definitions of religion

-McGuire (2002) suggests that problems of definition arise because religion has a 'dual character' - it is both individual and social. -On an individual level, different religions encompass different beliefs and practices and teach a variety of ways to 'be religious'. -Some of these involve communal practices, such as attending religious ceremonies, others do not. It is possible, for example, to be a 'Christian' without ever setting foot inside a church.

men vs women in religiosity

-Men tend to have lower levels of religiosity than women, but they occupy the highest positions in religious hierarchies; it is mainly men who are priests and imams.

New Age Movements (NAMs)

-New age movements (NAMs) add a further dimension to the relationship between class and religion in terms of the argument that they involve 'meaning without motivation'. -Middle-class, disappointed and middle-aged people turn to NAMS that promise to help them live more harmoniously or successfully in a world that seems to largely pass them by.

churches becoming 'feminized'

-Church attendance among men declined and women became the majority of those involved in churches. -Churches became 'increasingly feminized or domesticized'. They placed more emphasis on 'love, care and relationships' and less on God as an all-powerful and punitive ruler. -However, they continued to reinforce male power through paternalistic images of God as a loving father! As churches became feminised, they lost prestige and became even less appealing to most men.

Older people and religion

-Older people tend to be more religious than young people. - Older people are more likely to say that they are religious or that they believe in a god, and more likely to belong to a religious organisation. -This is particularly true in Europe and developed nations in general. In the UK, the average age of church goers is high and increasing. The next age group in terms of religiosity, however, is the young - those under 35. -Part of the debate around age and religion is whether age differences reflect age or cohort, for example it may be that people who were born in a particular decade or period were socialised differently, affecting their commitment to religion later in their life. -Thus the period of the 1960s and 1970s, with a widespread rejection by young people of established beliefs and practices, may have led to those who were young at the time being less religious not only than their parents' generation but also than their children's generation.

There are generational differences among minority groups in how young and old classify themselves:

-Older, first-generation, immigrants are more likely to identify with their country of origin. -Younger, third-generation, individuals are more likely to classify themselves in terms of their country of birth.

Higher levels of religious beliefs in emergent nations

-On a global level, there are marked differences in religiosity across different nations. -Emergent nations in Africa, Asia and South America have higher levels of religious belief and practice than developed nations such as the UK and Germany.

Exclusive definition of religion

-One potential problem with using broad definitions is that they would result in religion being found everywhere. With narrower or exclusive definitions, the criteria are more restrictive. -The focus is on the content of religion - for example, a belief in a supernatural power such as a god or gods. Generally, functional definitions tend to be more inclusive and substantive ones tend to be more exclusive.

measures of religiosity are open to criticism

-Particular measures of religiosity are open to criticism. -For example, can church attendance figures be seen as a reliable indicator of religiosity? -Some people may attend a place of worship to meet up with friends or because it is the norm in their community to do so rather than because they hold religious beliefs. Others may see themselves as religious and practise in private, without engaging in socially recognised religious practices and rituals such as attending a place of worship

Cook (2003)

-The UK is an example of a developed nation with a low general level of religiosity. -Cook (2003) warned that 'collecting data on ethnicity is difficult because there is no consensus on what constitutes an ethnic group'. - However, British society reflects a range of ethnicities and religious affiliations, considered not just in terms of different ethnic groups associating themselves with different religions, but also in terms of the diversity of affiliation within some ethnic groups. Indian ethnicities, for example, involve a mix of Hindu, Sikh, Muslim and Christian religious affiliations.

Evaluation of miller and Hoffman

-The argument put forward by Miller and Hoffman that women have more time for church-related activities is highly debatable given that a great deal of research suggests that women spend more time on housework and childcare than men. -Furthermore, rates of female participation in the labour market are high in nations such as the USA and the UK, making it questionable whether women lack a sense of occupational identity.

what has the development of modern industrial societies lead to?

-The development of modern industrial societies has led to religion being challenged by different belief systems, particularly those centred around science such as the emergence of scientific explanations about the origin and nature of the world, that weaken the power of religious explanations. -There have also been political developments that question the traditional basis of secular power and authority, such as the 'divine right of monarchs' to rule in feudal societies because their authority comes directly from God.

exclusive approach

-The exclusive approach considers religion in a narrower way, in terms of things conventionally seen as religious: -belief in a god or the supernatural -behaviour such as prayer, collective worship and ceremonies.

science is what type of belief system?

-Unlike religion, science is an open belief system; this makes it different from all ideologies. -Scientific knowledge is based on continuous research and testing. -Theories are tested and will be rejected if they are found to be wrong. So, unlike religious beliefs, scientific knowledge is constantly being revised and moving closer to an accurate account of reality. -This does not mean that science is always right, or that it can explain everything. There are many questions that religions claim to offer definite answers to where science cannot provide answers, because evidence is not available. -Science can, however, show some religious beliefs to be false, for example the bible's account of creation taking place in seven days has been replaced by the theory of evolution.

relationship between ethnicity and religiosity: deprivation

-We can explore a range of explanations for the relationship between ethnicity and religiosity, starting with deprivation. - In the UK, the highest levels of religious affiliation are found among Pakistani (92%) and Bangladeshi (92%) minorities. Berthoud (1998) has shown that these ethnic groups are among the very poorest in British society. -This suggests a correlation between poverty/class and religiosity among some ethnic groups. While this correlation is interesting, deprivation itself is not enough explanation for higher levels of religiosity, measured in terms of both affiliation and practice.

Secularism in Europe

-While most of Europe has become secular with only a minority believing in a god or saying that they are religious, globally religion remains strong, so the replacement of religion by science expected by early sociologists has not happened. -Scientific ideas are widely accepted and guide much human activity, but even in secular societies many people still believe in spirits, ghosts, astrology (horoscopes) and so on. -Millions of people continue to follow the large world religions, and there has been a growth of religious fundamentalism (discussed later), interpreted by some as a reaction against globalisation

Miller and Hoffman (1995) note two main types of sociological explanation for women's greater religiosity: Differential socialisation

1. Differential socialisation According to the differential socialisation view, "females are taught to be more submissive, passive and obedient and nurturing than are males and these attributes are associated with higher levels of religiosity' (Miller and Hoffman, 1995). -These characteristics are more often found in traditional religious beliefs. For example, religions such as Christianity emphasise obedience to God and characteristics such as being loving, which are associated with female gender roles. -Male roles place less emphasis on these characteristics. This theory is supported by USA-based evidence discussed by Miller and Hoffmann which indicates that men who are submissive, passive, obedient and nurturing tend to be more religious than other men.

women are still more interested than men in religion and spirituality, for a number of reasons:

1. Women are still less involved in the public world of work than men. More women than men work part-time and women are still much more likely to have the main responsibility for childcare. 2. Religion remains relevant to those women whose lives are based in secondary institutions (associated with caring for others, including the family and religion). Given this women are still more likely than men to be involved in churches and denominations. 3. New Age beliefs also tend to be dominated by women. Woodhead argues that this helps to resolve a contradiction between 'traditional' female roles in the home and more 'masculine' roles in the workplace. -In paid work, your sense of self largely derives from your position or job, whereas in family roles your sense of self is more concerned with relationships with others (as wife, parent and so on).

how is religion expressed?

religion is expressed in many ways across three dimensions: 1 Historical - in the same society over time. 2 Contemporaneous - in the same society at the same time. 3 Cross-cultural - between different societies.

Religiosity

religiosity (the quality of being religious)

Differences with working class women and middle class women in terms of religion

-Bruce, within an overall pattern of decline, religion has declined less among women than men. However the type of religion that has retained an appeal for some women varies by social class. -Working-class women tend to retain a belief in forms of religion and spirituality in which they are more passive. -They believe in a powerful God, or in 'obscure forces beyond their control', such as fortune telling and superstition. - By contrast, middle-class women have more experience of controlling and improving their own lives. Consequently, they tend to follow religions that allow more individual autonomy, and forms of spirituality which facilitate personal development. -They are attracted to New Age beliefs that promote self-growth and development.

Abrams et al. (1985) valid way to understand religiosity

-Abrams et al. (1985) suggested that a more valid way to understand religiosity is to measure commitment - the extent to which people feel they belong to a particular religion using a scale that measures and combines four main commitments: 1 Disposition: the philosophical dimension to religiosity through questions about spiritual ideas and experiences, such as whether people 'draw comfort from prayer'. 2 Orthodox belief: the extent to which people believe in ideas like god or the soul. 3 Moral values: how these are influenced by religious values and teachings. 4 Institutional attachment: the frequency with which people attend religious services, meetings and ceremonies.

Marx (1844) - Religion and Alienation

-According to Marxists, religious participation and social class are closely related. -Marx (1844) described religion in capitalist societies as the 'opium of the people. He saw it as acting like a drug by giving its followers a false sense of well-being and distorting reality. - Marx argued that religion started in the subject classes as a way of coping with oppression, but it was later adopted by the ruling classes as a way of justifying their advantaged position in society. -Marx, therefore, argued that all classes believed in religion, although for different reasons. -As the subject class (the proletariat in capitalist societies) developed greater class consciousness, they could potentially lose some of their religious beliefs. -This leaves open the possibility that higher classes (particularly the ruling class, or the bourgeoisie under capitalism) might become more religious than subject classes.

understanding of the relationship between class and beliefs is complicated by two ideas:

-Any understanding of the relationship between class and beliefs is complicated by two ideas: 1 Definitions and measurements of class vary both historically and cross-culturally, which makes both long- term (longitudinal) and comparative studies difficult. 2 Measuring people's belief is similarly complicated, not least because, as Navone (2002) argues 'just because people say they are religious, does not make it so, no more than if they say they are intelligent or moral'.

ideologies and religions are identified as what?

-Both ideology and religions are closed belief systems. That is, they cannot be disproved because they rely on faith and beliefs, and their followers will find ways to reject or explain away evidence that challenges their beliefs. -Over the last few hundred years, scientific and rational ways of understanding the world have grown in influence and have challenged religious understandings

Bruce (1996) suggests that religion tends to have an affinity with aspects of femininity:

-Bruce (1996) suggests that religion tends to have an affinity with aspects of femininity that make women "less confrontational, less aggressive, less goal oriented, less domineering, more cooperative and more caring: -This affinity applies to traditional religion and is particularly strong with New Age spiritual beliefs. Many women are attracted to the healing, channelling and spirituality' side of New Age beliefs because these are more in keeping with female gender roles. -The minority of men involved in the New Age tend to be more interested in the paranormal than in the more feminine aspects of the movement.

why does bruce argue that minority ethnic groups are more likely to engage in religious activity than the ethnic majority?

-Bruce argues that minority ethnic groups are more likely to engage in religious activity than the ethnic majority, mainly due to social reasons. -The vitality of religion is largely a response to the social situation of minority ethnic groups rather than an expression of deep religious commitment. -Bruce sees the strength of minority ethnic religions as caused by either: 1. cultural defence, where an ethnic group is protecting its sense of identity and maintaining ethnic pride through religion; or 2. cultural transition, where an ethnic group uses religion to cope with the upheaval of migration. -These two processes can work together as immigrant minority ethnic groups try to both adapt and defend their religious/cultural heritage.

According to bruce, why are women attracted to traditional religions than men

-Bruce argues that women are more attracted to traditional religions than men because 'the churches have always been interested in the control of sexuality and in the instruction of the next generation, both matters which are concentrated on the domestic hearth and in which women have a major role to play.

What do postmodernists link the declining religiosity of young people to?

-Postmodernists link the declining religiosity of young people to a wider decline in religious thinking and growing disenchantment. -Older religious explanations of the world no longer hold. This is part of the wider decline of the power of metanarratives (explanations) to influence how people think about the world. -Associated with this is the much wider range of religions from which young people can now choose. -There is a religious and spiritual marketplace, which young people are increasingly aware of through the internet and other media. -In Britain, for example, as well as older religions from other parts of the world such as Buddhism and Islam, there are new religious movements, New Age spiritual ideas and subcultural groups offering a sense of belonging. - Even when young people have been socialised into a religion, there are many opportunities to move away, or to reject religion entirely. -Also, religious socialisation is weaker - Sunday schools, through which Christian churches in the United Kingdom have traditionally passed on their messages, have declined dramatically, and many schools have very limited religious content in assemblies.

Postmodernism challenging science

-Science has itself been challenged by postmodernism. -Postmodernists argue that science, or at least the application of science, has created problems as much as solved them. -Science has lost some of its authority because of a reaction against its role in some of the problems of modern societies, such as pollution, climate change, weapons of mass destruction and new forms of disease. -Scientists are supposed to be objective, yet some have clearly put their knowledge in the service of corporations or governments who have used them for suspicious purposes. -Postmodernists see science as another metanarrative, in a period when all metanarratives have been discredited.

religion and ideology

-Sets of ideas and values shared by a social group are ideologies. - Ideologies provide a way of interpreting the world, and they explain and justify the interests of a social group. For example, patriarchal ideologies justify (legitimise) the interests of men. -Religions can be seen as ideologies, although not all meet the principle of being based on the interests of a social group. Political ideologies focus on how society should work and how power should be exercised. Some political ideologies can be combined with religious beliefs.

relationship between class and religiosity

-Similarly, religious practice shows a closer correlation between class and areas such as attendance at services. -Regular attendees (weekly or monthly) are more likely to be middle or upper class, while those who never attend church, except for weddings and funerals, are more likely to be working class. -The relationship between class and religiosity varies across different societies with different levels of economic development and claimed beliefs. - In developed nations, religion was historically a source of status for both the upper and middle classes. Members of the upper class used their positions within powerful religious institutions such as the church to exert power over their society. -Members of the middle class used church attendance as a measure of social respectability and acceptance. These religious functions may no longer apply in industrial societies, but they still do so in some developing nations.

Social constructionist approaches to the study of religion

-Social constructionist approaches are sometimes referred to as 'definitions in use' (Giddens and Sutton, 2013). -James Beckford (2003), for example, focuses on the uses that individuals, groups and agencies such as the mass media, schools and the state make of religion in everyday life. -Research in this area explores what people say and mean when they talk about religion and participate in practices that they consider to be religious. -This approach places more emphasis on whatever passes for religion in society and the meanings that people give to it rather than on questions about what religion is or what it does.

problems in measuring religious belief

-Sociologists do not agree on a single definition of religion. The definition they adopt (for example, an inclusive rather than an exclusive one) will influence what they class as religious belief, how they measure it and how many people they count as holding such beliefs. -Beliefs differ between religions (for instance, between Buddhism and Christianity), which can make direct comparisons difficult. -The lack of reliable evidence about the extent of religious belief in earlier periods makes historical comparison difficult when researching changes in religiosity over time. -Reliable data may not be available to allow international comparisons of the nature and extent of religious belief. -Surveys of social attitudes are often used to measure the extent of religious belief but there are problems in relying on evidence from such surveys. For example, some people might be reluctant to admit that they have religious beliefs in contemporary secular societies. Others might be reluctant to deny religious belief in societies where religion remains a major social force.

young people are 'very religious'

-Some young people are very religious. In the UK, this applies to some young Muslims, who are often more religious than their parents' generation. This may be a reaction against the perceived decline of their religion and a rejection of aspects of Western culture. -Some young people in the UK are strongly Christian but not in enough numbers to challenge the overall impression of declining religiosity. -It may be though, that young people may be 'believing without belonging', so that their religiosity may not be being picked up in statistics such as those on church attendance, or that they will turn to religion later in life

Stephen Hunt (2004) social class and social mobility

-Stephen Hunt (2004) notes that generally sociologists argue that upwardly mobile groups and individuals tend to belong to religious organisations with more liberal beliefs - for example, about sexuality. -However conservative or fundamentalist beliefs are likely to be supported by those who feel that their stake in society might be threatened by upwardly mobile social groups. -Lower social classes who feel excluded tend to support sects that offer some religious compensation for their low status and reject mainstream norms and values.

Substantive definitions of religion

-Substantive definitions focus on the substance or content of religion and are concerned with what religion is. -A substantive definition, for example, might define religion in terms of a belief in the supernatural, in divine forces, powers or spiritual beings such as a god or gods that are above the laws of nature.

Why fewer young people are religious

-The fact that religion tends to be associated with older people may be a main reason why fewer young people are religious. -Established, mainstream religious organisations can seem very old-fashioned and not attractive to young people. Churches have also struggled to amend their positions over issues such as birth control (contraception), abortion, gay rights and marriage and female priests, where they seem outdated and out of step with the values and beliefs of most young people today. - They have also been linked to child abuse, with claims that senior figures have covered up the extent of abuse. -More generally, churches have been affected by the widespread rejection of authority and tradition, which has also affected, for example, political parties. At the same time, both work and leisure take up a lot of young people's time and may reduce the time available for religion. -For young adults, starting in a career may require a lot of energy and time, including long working hours, to become established, while leisure has expanded through the range of activities available and longer hours for shopping and socialising.

what does the focus on function mean?

-The focus on function means that the content of religious beliefs is not important - it does not matter who, what or how people worship. There is, for example, no difference between worshipping in a Christian church, a Muslim mosque in front of a totem, or at a personal shrine. Nor does it matter if people pray to one god, many gods or no gods at all. -What is important is the fact that people act in specific, often collective ways, and that they hold certain types of belief that influence their behaviour.

understanding levels of ethnic group religiosity

-The key to understanding levels of ethnic group religiosity, both majority and minority, is found in two areas: 1 Inter-group relationships - how, for example, different minority groups relate to both other minorities and to the ethnic majority. 2 Intra-group relationships - differences, for example, within ethnic minority groups, such as class, gender and age, that relate to how these groups interact with the ethnic majority. -These different experiences, therefore, relate to questions of identity, considered in terms of both the self- perception of different ethnic groups and the various social factors that go into the 'constructive mix' of such identities. -We can illustrate this idea by contrasting the experiences of the white British majority ethnic group in the UK, following a mainly Christian faith, with those of the Pakistani minority following a mainly Muslim faith.

explanation of relationship between ageing and religiosity

-The relationship between ageing and religiosity is usually explained by the greater concern that people have with thoughts about death as they approach the end of their lives and, often, suffer declining health. Religion can offer comfort and support. - In addition, belonging to a church or other religious organisation can offer older people a network of support and opportunities to socialise and feel a sense of purpose. This may be particularly important for those who have lost partners and whose adult children have moved away, or those who relied on their colleagues at work for socialising. -Older people today may also have been socialised into a religion as children, and may return to religion as they age after not being actively religious during the busy periods of their adult lives, working and raising children.

closer relationship between class and religious groups with fewer followers.

-There is a closer relationship between class and religious groups with fewer followers. -Stark and Bainbridge argue that cults draw their members from the higher social classes, whereas Kelly (1992) has suggested that new religious movements (NRMs, discussed in section 7.1) are founded and populated by the educated middle classes. -Adler's (1979) research has drawn attention to the fact that, in the USA, members of witch covens mainly come from the professional middle classes. -Bader (2003) also notes that two thirds of those who claim to have been abducted by aliens previously held middle-class occupations.

Miller and Hoffman (1995) note third explanation for women's greater religiosity: attitude to risk

-They argue, therefore, that a third factor, attitude to risk, is also important. There is nothing to lose by being religious. However, not being religious can be seen as risk-taking behaviour because it risks condemnation to hell after death. -Using survey-based research from the USA, Miller and Hoffman show that men tend to be less averse to risk than women. Furthermore, both men and women who are more risk averse have higher levels of religiosity. -They conclude that women's greater concern about risk is an important additional factor. alongside socialisation and structural location, in explaining women's greater religiosity.

inclusive approach criticism

-This inclusive approach has been criticised for seeing religion 'everywhere and nowhere'. -For example, we can see 'religious-type' behaviour in everything from football to shopping to church attendance, yet we cannot identify precisely which aspects of that behaviour are uniquely religious. -As a result, there is no way of knowing whether societies are becoming less religious (secularisation) or more religious (resacralisation).

reliability problems in measuring religious beliefs and solution

-Uncovering religious beliefs also presents reliability problems. For example, do 'religious beliefs' mean the same thing to everyone? -One way around this problem is, as Hughes and Church (2010) note, to use a proxy indicator of belief, such as whether people believe in a 'higher being'. If they do, this indicates that they hold some form of religious belief. If they do not, this suggests that they are unlikely to hold further beliefs that could be classed as religious.

Miller and Hoffman (1995) note two main types of sociological explanation for women's greater religiosity: The structural locations of women and men

2. The structural locations of women and men (their location in the social structure) -According to this view, women are less involved in the labour force than men and more involved in raising children. -Not only do women have more time for church-related activities but their lower-level involvement in paid work also gives them a greater need for the sense of personal identity which religion can provide. -Some US research suggests that religion is seen as a household activity. Socialising children by taking them to church can be regarded as an extension of female childcare roles.

Pentecostalism

5. Some minority ethnic groups might also have strong religious beliefs because it helps them cope with oppression. - Disadvantaged minority ethnic groups tend to be working-class, and their religious beliefs can be seen as a response to their position in the social structure. -Bird suggests that Pentecostalism might perform a dual function for British African Caribbeans. First, it can be 'a way to adjust to a society in which (they) face discrimination and social injustice. -Pentecostalism can act as the 'opium of the people' (see Unit 7.2.2). Second, it can also help people to combat disadvantage by improving their social and economic position. -For example, Ken Pryce (1979) pointed out that Pentecostalism encouraged hard work and thrift, which could result in Pentecostalists gaining greater economic security.

Bird (1999) identifies five important reasons for the higher levels of religiosity among minority ethnic groups in Britain:

Bird (1999) identifies five important reasons for the higher levels of religiosity among minority ethnic groups in Britain: 1. Many ethnic groups 'originate in societies with high levels of religiosity. For example, Bangladesh and Pakistan have high levels of religious observance and belief. First generation Immigrants tend to bring these high levels of religiosity to the UK. 2. For minority ethnic groups, religion can 'act as a basis for community solidarity: Solidarity based on religious affiliation can perform important social functions for new migrants, giving them 'a point of contact in a new country, a source of marriage partners, social welfare and so on. 3. Bird argues that Maintaining a religious commitment is also a way to maintain other aspects of cultural identity such as language, art, patterns of marriage, cooking and so on: Religion and minority ethnic cultures can be mutually reinforcing. 4. The importance of religion can be maintained through socialisation and 'there is often strong family pressure to maintain religious commitment'

Bruce (1995)

Bruce (1995) argued that the general attraction of NAMs to the middle classes is based on the idea that 'spiritual growth appeals mainly to those whose more pressing material needs have been satisfied. -Unmarried mothers raising children on welfare tend to be too concerned with finding food, heat and light to be overly troubled by their inner lights and when they do look for release from their troubles they prefer the bright outer lights of bars and discotheques'.

Lynch (2008)

Lynch (2008) has suggested that the feelings that might once have led young people to religion are being diverted into areas that have always been seen as non-religious. -For some people, the non-religious becomes 'sacred', in Durkheim's terms their energies are diverted to football, music, social activities such as clubbing or to commitment to a cause such as feminism or environmentalism. -From this view, religiosity has not disappeared but has been channelled into new, almost unrecognisable, forms.

Malcolm Hamilton (2001) criticism of substantive definitions

Malcolm Hamilton (2001) argues, however, that such definitions are problematic because some belief systems that are commonly regarded as religions. such as forms of Buddhism, do not necessarily include a belief in supernatural beings. -This highlights the potential problem of defining and using the concept of religion from a Western perspective

McGuire (2002)

McGuire (2002), for example, suggests that religion has a 'dual character' that involves measurement across two dimensions: 1 Individual indicators, such as whether someone holds religious beliefs and whether these are orthodox (such as believing in a single all-powerful deity) or unorthodox (such as believing in witchcraft or more vaguely 'spirituality'). 2 Social indicators that measure things like religious participation, such as attendance at religious services and membership.

religions perform certain functions for society

On a social level, religions perform certain functions for society: -Socialisation into a range of moral beliefs and values. -Social solidarity - giving people a sense that they have things in common. -Social control, both direct, such as Islamic codes defining what people may wear or eat, and indirect: moral values that provide a template for how the individual is expected to lead their life 'in accordance with God'.

essential characteristics of exclusive approach

Religions as seen from this approach have essential characteristics: -The sacred, something Maguire (2001) defines as 'that which is utterly and mysteriously precious in our experience' and which is frequently represented through objects. -Moral codes with a sacred origin, such as the Ten Commandments, believed to have been given to Moses by God in Judaism and Christianity, or Shari'ah in Islam. -Communication with the supernatural, through mechanisms such as prayer.

problems with measuring religiosity

When measuring religiosity, we have to take into account the fact that it is possible to: -Believe without belonging: people can hold religious beliefs while showing little or no commitment to religious organisations or practices. They can believe in 'God' without collectively practising their belief or linking that belief to any particular religious organisation. -Belong without believing: this involves those who attend religious services without having any strongly developed sense of religious belief. Religious practice may have secular functions, with people attending services for reasons such as friendship, social status, custom or tradition.