120A Final Exam

verb phrase (also called _________)

(predicate); A sentence containing at least one verb and whatever the verb acts on.

PICTURE VS WORDS Pictures tend to be relatively ___________ (similar) to real world object it represents; no arbitrary rules. In contrast, words like "cat" are a Symbolic representation. What is a Symbolic representation?

1. Analogous 2. Symbolic representation means relationship between the word and what it represents is simply arbitrary; no relationship what-so-ever. Example: 木 -- what did I think of when looking at this word? Nothing. There is no relationship between this word and the real world "tree". In the contrary, pictures are relatively analogous to real world objects it represents. Looking at a picture of a cat drawn on Pyramids from 5,000 years ago has no language barrier; pictures have some relationship.

What are some important properties of a language?

1. communicative 2. arbitrarily symbolic 3. regularly structured 4. structured at multiple levels (sounds ,meaning units, words) 5. generative and productive 6. dynamic

denotation and connotation

1. denotation is the strict dictionary definition of a word 2. connotation is the word's emotional overtones, presuppositions, and other non-explicit meanings. Together, they form the meaning of a word. For example, the word snake has different meaning depending on who is thinking it: average citizen vs snake biologist.

noun phrase

A sentence containing at least one noun; often the subject of the sentence

TRACE model

According to this model, speech perception works like the semantic network spread activation and it begins with three levels of feature detection. 1. acoustic features 2. phonemes 3. words

Motor theory of special speech perception

According to this theory, we use movements of the speaker's vocal tract to perceive what he says. Observing the speaker's lips is a good example of it.

thematic roles

According to this view, syntax nd semantics are linked in the various syntactical slots by corresponding roles; it is the ways in which lexical items can be used in the context of communication. apbilsg e.g. the beach can have a role of "going to", the kitchen can have a role of "cooking at"

According to Paivio, mental images are Analog Codes. What does it mean by Analog code? What are some of the limitation and criticisms of Analogical mental representation?

Analog code form of mental imaging resembles the objects they are representing; Visual images are analogous (similar) to the pictures we create inside our minds. Limitations 1.Lack of precision - in Ambiguous figures with more than one interpretation, we can only remember only one figure after looking at the picture without knowing that the figure has more than one possible meaning 2. How do we create an analogous code of abstract ideologies like "justice"?

Propositional Representation Fill the blank inside the predictive calculus [ elements ] ( [ element ], [ element ] )

As imaginal representation and word representation exists, we have a Propositional Representation of a thought. Propositional theory suggests that we do not store mental representations in the form of images or mere words -- But rather in abstract-manner-of-thought that exists inside our mind that underlies a particular relationship amongst concepts. In logician methodology of predictive calculus, proposition representation linguistic is transcribed as: [Relationship between elements] ( [Subject element], [Object element] )

ILL defined problem

A person needs an insight to solve a problem in which the goal and rules for solving problems are underspecified and unclear.

What does Functional-equivalence hypothesis say about visual imagery and visual perception?

Although they are not identical, it is functionally equivalent to it -- accomplish the same goals

Verbal stimulus interferes with Verbal memory process Image stimulus interferes with Image memory process If verbal and image stimulus DO NOT interfere each other in their memory process (verbal do not interfere image and vise versa), this indicates two kinds of tasks draw two different systems. In 1968, Brooks validated this hypothesis in his study, thus supporting the __________ theory. The two distinct codes for mental representation are: Imaginal (________) code and Verbal (________) code

Dual-code theory Two codes are Image = "Analogous" code and Verbal = "Symbolic" code

Knowledge of knowing THAT is ______________ Knowledge of knowing HOW is ______________

Knowing That: Declarative Knowing How: Procedural

According to the book, Knowledge can be represented in which three (3) ways inside our minds? ______________ picture ______________ ______________ propositions

Mental picture Words Abstract propositions

expected utility theory

People are rational decision-makers and have well specified preferences expected utility = probability x utility

autism

Poor in language but excellent in math

Principles of conventionality

Principle that state words have a meaning upon which people agree

reproductive thinking

Problem solving based on existing knowledge associations involving what is already known

linguistics

Study of language structure and change?

prescriptive grammar

grammar that prescribes the correct ways in to structure the use of written and spoken language

word-superiority effect

letters are read more easily when they are embedded in words than when they are presented either in isolation or with letters that do not form words e.g. letter VS tletre

Basic level of categorization

- 'instinctive' categorization - "Neither too coarse nor too specific" - Has its own word - Not fixed: knowledge & context might influence what is the basic level

false belief task (Sally & Ann task)

A dramatic setting designed to test whether tester has an understanding of theory of mind

When Paivio saw that participants... ... recalled pictures better with free recall and ... recalled words better in sequence recall this supports the possibility of two different system for recall. Which is also called __________ theory And what is this theory?

Dual-code theory According to Dual-code theory, we use both pictorial and verbal codes for representing information in our minds.

Procedural knowledge Give some examples of Procedural knowledge

Knowledge of procedures that can be implemented. - Tying shoelaces - Driving - Adding column and rows

Modus Ponens [?]

P1: P -> Q P2: P C: Q

syntactical priming

Tendency to spontaneously to use syntactical structures and read faster sentences that parallel the structures of sentences we have just heard. e.g. producing passive sentence after hearing a passive sentence.

Theory of mind

the ability to think that other people have thoughts

Negative trasnfer

when our experience disrupts our problem solving

McGurk effect

Given that visual information of lip movement changes, Given that auditory sound does stays the same, Result is that speaker's sound perceived differently.

Conditional Reasoning

If and Then clauses

Describing details about celebrities is a form of a mental representation called __________________.

Knowledge Representation The form for what we know in our mind about things, ideas, events outside of the word

computational linguistics psycholinguistics

Studies of language via computational methods

semantics

The study of meaning in a language. A person studying this would be concerned with how words and sentences express meaning.

phonemics

The study of particular phonemes of a language

Mental Image Scanning - what is it. Also, which theory of mental-process does scanning mental image test refute?

b. Shorter distance will produce a shorter response time. Mental image scanning test refutes the Propositional theory, because if we did not use a spatial representation but a code based propositional theory, then the recall response time would not have been affected.

William's Syndrome

excellent language, extremely impaired math cognition

Fundamental propositional representations are in a pure ___________________ that is neither verbal nor pictorial, which cognitive psychologist often represent in simple format of predicate calculus.

mentalese

acquired dyslexia

normal person who acquired dyslexia through brain damage

PICTURE VS WORDS Symbolic representations like the word cat, have abstract information. However, Pictures do not convey abstract information. What does it mean by this?

Cat: (1) A carnivorous mammal long domesticated as a pet and for catching rats and mice (Merriam Dictionary) Above definition of cat leads to thousands of imagery of a cat. It's because words are abstract, no matter the how specific or how many number of adjectives are attached. Pictures are somewhat concrete in its information. It shows definitive representation of a cat; the location of its head, legs, shape, relative size, color and so on.

Propositional theory is also called ______________ theory

Conceptual-propositional theory

Functional fixedness

Inability to realize that something that has a certain use might also be used for performing other functions

In flamingo and bat experiment, children are likely to infer to in making a decision of making a designation of a category? visual-percept similarity or information?

Information

Insight problems vs Non-Insight problems

Insight problems are problems where the routine or algebraic algorithm is not known. E.g. A prisoner in the tower finds a rope half as long as the and ...

In classical experiment of using 3-D geometric forms to study Mental Rotation, psychologists rotated the 3D figures in ____________ function. At every increase in angles of rotation, there was a corresponding ( increase , decrease ) in response time. Upon observing the reaction time, there ( is , is not ) a difference between picture plane and rotations in depth. When we observe that there is no difference between plane rotation and depth, this supports __________________ hypothesis

Linear function As angle rotation increases, response time increases. functional-equivalent hypothesis (analogous; this is how book describes)

Gestalt approach of Insight problems

Occurs during productive thinking when the problem is suddenly restructured and the solution becomes clear.

sentential complements

Once understanding the syntax methodology, theory of mind becomes possible. e.g. John said that [...] Mary thinks that [...]

Modus Tollens [?]

P1: P -> Q P2: ~Q C: ~

Principles of contrast

Principle that state different words have different meanings

coarticulation and why is it important

Pronouncing more than one sound at the same time. e.g. "palace" or "pool" both start with /p/ sound but /Ah/ or /OO/ is pronounced at the same time. this is important because it is viewed as necessary for the effective transmission of speech information.

In Ambiguous figure test results show mental representation image is different from the actual percept of the figure presented. This notion supports what kind of code? and Why? a. proposition code b. symbolic representation c. analogue code d. dual-code e. ambiguous figure

Proposition code

To test functional-equivalent hypothesis, 3D geometric form rotation method is used. In validating this successful experiment other methods ranging from 2D formats such as alphabets and numbers to body parts has been used to rotate. What significance do we find in response time, when using degraded stimuli - blurry or incomplete visual information -, unfamiliar and complex materials?

Response time significantly increases as rotation increases

According to Propositional Theory, we may experience our mental representations as images, but these images are epiphenomena. What is epiphenomena?

Secondary and derivative phenomena that occur as a result of other more basic cognitive process

Dual-code hypothesis In 1968, Brooks showed participants either a sentence inside a box or a map of a "F" and told them to make a mental map using those figures. He also made the participants read a sentence. What was he trying to prove?

Similar representation are more likely to interfere with each other

phonemic-restoration effect

Similar to/ auditory version of Gestalt visual perception principle that says we fill in the incomplete auditory information to best suit in a sentence.

Probabilistic theory are based on which idea? What are the two ways of approaching this idea?

Similarity: Based on the idea of similarity, concepts are organized around characteristics of TYPICAL of category members but they do not have to be in presence or true at all. (features are probability of existence). Two approaches to assessing similarity are: 1. Prototype theory 2. Exemplar theory

Natural vs. Artifact categories Stable vs. Ad-hoc

Stable: natural/artifact are typically stable because people generally agree on what goes into them, and what are the criteria of inclusion. Ad-hoc: Unstable; things to write on

socialinguistics

Study of relationship between social behavior and language?

neurolinguistics

Study of the relationships among the brain cognition, and language

When performing a geometric form rotation exercise, which age group takes longer to present a response? Younger adults or Older adults? How about children? Is the performance of mental-rotation task impaired as a function when engaging in simultaneous task involving memory recall?

The Older age group seem to have more difficulty with this task than do younger adults. Children and young adults show speedier response times in mental rotation tasks when given opportunities for practice. In simultaneous task involving memory recall, the mental-rotation task performance is not impaired. Suggesting that mental-rotation task is an automatic process for children and young adults.

Declarative knowledge Give some examples of Declarative knowledge

The facts that can be stated; - Date of my birthday - Best friend's name - Description of a rabbit

morpheme

The smallest unit of meaning within a particular language e.g. recharge: "re-" "charge"

phoneme

The smallest unit of speech sound that can be used to distinguish one utterance in a give language from another e.g. consonant or vowels like: /a/,/i/,/s/, and /f/

phonetics

The study of how to produce or combine speech sounds or to represent them with written symbols.

referent

The thing or concept in the real word that a word refers to in language

syntax

The way in which we put words together form a sentence

content morphemes

The words that convey the bulk of the meaning of a language e.g. sentence: The cow lives in a barn and sleeps content morphemes: cow, live, in, barn, sleep

interactive-activation model

This model of language distinguishes lexical access into three structures: (1) feature level (2) letter level (3) word level We use both bottom level distinguish features and top level knowledge features to distinguish a letter

phonetic refinement theory

This theory says that we start with an analysis of auditory sensations and shift to higher-level processing like the components being analyzed for patters and matched to a prototype or a template in our memory.

(A) phrase structure grammar

This type of structure analyze the sequences of words in a sentence e.g. The girl looked at the boy with the telescope has two meanings 1. The girl looked the boy using a telescope, or 2. The girl looked at the boy who was holding a telescope This can be divided into Det/ NP-Det-N/ VP-DET-V=PP-P/

transformational grammar What are the differences between A and B

This type of structure has rules guiding the ways in which an underlying proposition can be arranged into a sentence by looking at the interrelated [deep structure] and [surface structure]. e.g. following differ in phrase structure but is identical meaning 1. Susie greedily ate the crocodile 2. Crocodile was greedily eaten by Susie

speech perception as ordinary

This view suggests that auditory view is like template-matching or feature-detection processes, where sound is analyzed into their components and matched to a prototype or a template.

categorical perception in special speech perception

Understanding the variation sound wave-form of speech sound in categories. e.g. The /ba/ we said yesterday differs from /ba/ we say today. But it is not perceived as different.

Imagery is a mental representation of things that are not currently seen or sensed by the organ; We get an imagery of our past or experiences that we have never experienced before like a trip to the Amazon river. In cognitive science, most research on imagery has been focused on which type of imagery? a. auditory b. haptic c. visual d. taste

Visual

Image Scaling How about in Non-imagery conditions (asked to answer questions without telling them to create an mental imagery in their mind)? Which feature report faster response? How are these response time differs in children? Seeing how the ways of response differs amongst two conditions above, we can see this supports the notion of __________ code

When the imagery is questioned in Larger size, the responding answer is faster. ( Cat's head vs Cat's claws ) In non-imagery condition, questions are answered faster based on distinctiveness characteristics for the animal. Children respond faster about larger attributes in both conditions. But children report that they use mental imagery even when told not to do so. Dual-code view

Family resemblance theory states members form a category by family resemblance Explain what this means

Wittegenstein proposed that members of a category have a "family reassembly" to each other. May have but not necessary; For example. family members might have family characteristics like dark hair, glasses, a big mustache, big nose. These characteristics may be "typical' for this family but do not "define" the family

PICTURE VS WORDS Words capture ________ and _______ information Pictures aptly capture ________ and _______ information

Words capture - Abstract - Categorical Pictures aptly capture - Discrete - Spatial

function morphemes

Words that add detail and nuance to the meaning of the content morphemes e.g. sentence: The cow lives in a barn and sleeps f-morphemes: The, (s), a, and, (s)

deductive reasoning

[non-productive inference] about certainty; absoluteness; general -> particular

inductive reasoning

[productive inference] about probability; the likelihood of chance processed in manner of if-then clause; particular -> general

Near transfer

beneficial effect of previous problems on problems in a similar context

Far transfer

beneficial effects of previous problem solving on different context

expertize

expertise have extensive knowledge about a particular domain and they use it to organize, represent and interpret the information and thus affecting their abilities to remember and solve problems

productive thinking

insights that go beyond the bounds of existing knowledge

developmental dyscalculia

intact language and poor arithmetic

Affirming the consequent

invalid argument P1: P -> Q P2: Q C: P

Denying the antecedent

invalid argument P1: P -> Q P2: ~P C: ~Q

dyslexia

people who have difficulty in deciphering, reading, and comprehending text

developmental dyslexia

person who had trouble reading since childhood carrying on trouble reading continually to adult life

Well defined problems

problems in which the goal and methods rules for solving problems are clearly stated; chess, maze

descriptive grammar

psycholinguist interested it in; an attempt made to describe the structures, functions and relationship in a language

three requirements for transfer

task similarity, context similarity, and time interval

macro-propositions

text that are thematically central to the understanding of the text remains in working memory longer than the text that are irrelevant to the theme of the passage

lexicon

the entire set of morphemes in a given language or in a given person's linguistic repertoire

lexical processes/ access

the identification of a word that allows us to gain access to the meaning of the word from memory.

discourse

units of language larger than individual sentences e.g. lectures, stories, essays and textbooks

In Ambiguous figure experiment, we see that people are only able to reproduce image-percept that is related to the primed semantic (verbal) information. This shows that mental representation image is influenced by the ______ labels.

verbal labels

Dual-code theory

we use both pictorial and verbal codes for representing information inside our mind. These two codes organize information into knowledge that can be acted on, stored somehow and later be retrieved for subsequent use.

Positive transfer

when our experience allows for faster and more efficient problem solving