19th Century Europe

Franco-Prussian War

1870-1871. This war followed the war between Prussia and Austria, which Austria lost. Bismarck was gaining popularity, but still concerned with France and Napoleon III. When the Queen of Spain was overthrown in a coup, Leopold of Germany was candidate for throne. This infuriated the French, leading to Leopold retiring his candidacy. The Ems dispatch showed King Wilhelm's refusal to accept the demands of France, under what appeared to be threat of war. It was made to appear as if the King had insulted the Ambassador and that the Ambassador was rude with the King. This led to the outbreak of war between Prussia and France, which France lost at the Battle of Sedan. Napoleon III was defeated and his monarchy ended.

Gavrilo Princip

A member of the nationalist group, the Serbian Black Hand (a terrorist organization). Princip assassinated the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife when their carriage was stopped in the streets of Sarajevo, Bosnia. This specific act is considered to be the start marker of the First World War.

Heart of Darkness

A novel written by Joseph Conrad showing the true nature of New imperialism, especially concerning colonization in the Congo. This novel can be taken with many interpretations such as pro-imperialist or anti-imperialism.

abstract expressionism [=Kandinsky's non-representational art]

A term first used in connection with Kandinsky in 1919, but more commonly associated with post-war American art. The term was used to refer to all types of non-geometric abstraction. There are two distinct groups within the movement: Colour Field artists (Rothko, Newman, Still) worked with simple, unified blocks of colour; and gestural painters like Pollock, De Kooning and Hofmann who made use of Surrealist techniques of automatic art.

id/ego/superego

According to Freud, the psyche was NOT unified. On one hand was the id, our source of desires. The superego was the source of morality. The ego (kind of in the middle) was the conscious self. Freud believed the ego was a necessary mediator between the two because he believed although we have these innate desires, we should keep them in check.

William Gladstone-

Another extremely important figure of the Victorian Era. He was an English politician, who made his way into the upper classes through his marriage with an aristocratic woman. He was a very well educated man, he was known to go into the city and help the lowest elements of society. He would attempt to convince prostitutes to change jobs and give up their ways. He was a member of parliament and after 1860 he became the leader of the Liberal Party in England.

Socialism

Belief there should be greater economic equality and property equality within the people, controlled by the government. Came to rise during the Industrial revolution.

Cartel

Cartels appeared in the period following the Vienna crash of 1873. Corporations and businesses selling almost homogeneous products decided to set prices together in order to maximize profits on the basis of mutual advantage.

Boccioni, "Unique Forms of Continuity in Space"

Created in 1913, featured the new artistic form of futurism.

Antisemitism

Enlightenment and imperialist eras led to a series of increasingly non-religious expressions of anti-Semitic phobias and outrages in the continent, even as much of the continent had experienced significant political reformations. By the time that a number of republican and other non-monarchical systems were established, romantic ethnic nationalism and labor movements had begun to provide a main conduit and motivator for expressions of anti-Semitism. This was most evidenced in the anti-Semitic acts pursued by the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany in the early-to-mid-20th century.

Ravachol

He was a French anarchist, who was mainly a loner and didn't join anarchist groups. Ravachol was very interested in violence and destruction; he was the perpetrator of 3 dynamite attacks on representatives of the judiciary. Publically guillotined.

Socialist Law (Germany)

Following several attempted assassinations of the Kaiser, Bismarck initiated several acts to diminish the power of the Socialist Party in Germany. Socialists were marked as the attempted assassins, and socialists were identified as king-killers. Socialists were no longer allowed to campaign, print, organize political events, but they were still allowed to run for office. The party adopted Marxism as political ideology. Yet Bismarck was unable to put down the Socialist Party. Bismarck feared a socialist revolution like the Paris Commune (1871).

Le Bon Marche

Following the Haussmannization process in Paris, there was an emergence of large department stores. Le Bon Marchè is an example of one of these huge department stores which gained much popularity. Department stores changed shopping into a sensory experience, through the creative use of shop windows and in-store decorations. It was unique because it was the first building actually designed for a store in Paris.

Women's Social and Political Union

Founded in 1903, this women's pro-suffrage group was very radical. This Union was led by Emmeline Pankhurst and her two daughters, Sylvia and Christabel. This union did radical protests and sometimes acts of violence (smashing shop windows, setting buildings on fire, etc). Many of the members of this group were arrested, and when they were in jail, they went on hunger strikes.

Sigmund Freud

Freud was a physician by the age of 30 and believed that hysteria could be relieved through repressed memories coming to the surface, which was done by free association. Freud believed that desires not accepted by society were repressed into the unconscious and that humans had desires that were murderous and destructive. He also believed that the psyche was at war with itself because of the id, ego, and superego.

Kulturkampf

German term which literally means "struggle for civilization/ culture struggle". In reality it was a series of policies initiated by Bismarck against the Catholic Church. Priests were forced to take state examinations, Jesuits were banned and political speeches from the pulpit were also banned. Catholics then gained force to oppose these policies through the Centre Party, by which Bismarck felt politically threatened. It was essentially a failure.

Albert Einstien

He developed the Theory of Relativity and concluded that light had properties like a wave. He discovered the speed of light and found that the speed of something mattered on the observer's location. He also made a General Theory of Relativity.

Vassily Kandinsky

He was a Russian artist that started the transition from "representation" to "abstraction". He formed a group of artists called "The Blue Rider" and argued that art inspired music. He said that paintings shouldn't try to portray something, but instead use its OWN language to express something. Kandinsky argued that, by turning away from external reality, a new reality could be created. He labeled his works "compositions" like they were works of music.

Charles Darwin

He was an English scientist and naturalist, who documented his experiences from travels with the HMS Beagle. He is most famous for developing his theory of evolution and the theory of natural selection. He believed that all species developed from common ancestors, and that evolution occurred through natural selection or what is better known as the "struggle for existence" (survival of the fittest). His most famous publication is "On the Origin of Species". He is one of the main reasons why science became such a strong field, which led to many conflicts with the Church

Herbert Spencer

He was an English sociologist and an important figure of the Victorian 3Era. He was the first to use the term "survival of the fittest". He was opposed to social programs for the poor because he said it was for the good of society that some flourish and others do not, and that we should not interfere with this natural process. He applied Darwin's theories to social and political life and to the economy.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

He was an Italian patriot, general and soldier. He was the single most important figure of the process of Italian unification. He gathered an army of so called "red shirts" and fought to liberate parts of Italy from foreign rule. His most famous action of the Risorgimento was the "Spedizione dei Mille" (The Thousand). He and around one thousand soldiers went to Sicily and fought to liberate Sicily and Naples from the Bourbon rule. This was the first major step towards the unification of Italy.

Mohandas Gandhi

He was the author of "Home Rule", which talked about how India needed to (and could) rule itself instead of being ruled by the British. Ghandi was an anti-colonialist and he was involved in the Indian National Congress. In "Home Rule", Ghandi really questions if the Brits are bringing civilization to the Indians or vice versa.

Ernst Mach

He was the author of The Science of Mechanics in 1883, in which he advocated a radicalized version of empiricism (which says that all our knowledge comes from experiences). He argued that the only thing scientists can do is describe our experiences. For Mach, reality was forever inaccessible, even to the most exacting scientist.

Dreyfus Affair

In 1894, a letter of French military secrets was found that was going to be sent to the Germans. The perpetrator was thought to be a Jewish captain named Alfred Dreyfus. They couldn't prove that he did it, but he was eventually sentenced to life in prison. However, French military secrets kept flowing to the Germans, which led a man to re-investigate the Dreyfus Affair. This man thought that the real culprit was Ferdinand Esterhazy. Eventually after about 5 trials, Dreyfus was finally exonerated.

Boxer Rebellion

In the late 1800s, Japan was modernizing and emerging as a world power, and they also imposed their power upon China. Because China was powerless (after being forced to import opium from the Brits), some Chinese people developed anti-foreigner sentiment and formed the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, which were commonly known as "the Boxers". They launched a rebellion in 1900, attacking foreign interests in China (cutting railway lines and even killing some foreign people). Eventually, the rebellion was crushed.

Contagious Diseases Acts

It was an attempt by the British government to stop the proliferation of venereal diseases, especially in the city of London. They ordered all female prostitutes to be tested for diseases, however the male customers were not subject to these tests. Therefore, the diseases kept spreading and soon female activists spoke out against these discriminatory tests.

The Great Exhibition

It was the exhibition of a glass palace, described as the crystal palace, organized by Prince Albert of England. He wanted to show the world the wonders of industrialized England. It brought in people from all over, who wanted to see the works in the palace.

Ottoman Empire

Known as the "sick man of Europe" because it was once a very rich, large and powerful empire that was declining due to economic and political setbacks. Russia was a major enemy of the empire, and also a major player in its decline. The Ottoman Empire stretched from eastern Europe, to parts of northern Africa and parts of the Middle East. During the late 1800's and early 1900's, many nationalist uprisings in the many territories controlled by the Empire proved to be too difficult to overcome, which led to the Empires fall.

Piedmont-Sardinia

Known as the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, it was governed by the House of Savoy. Its King in 1860 was Victor Emmanuel II, who played an extremely important role in the unification of Italy. Camillo di Cavour was the prime minister of the kingdom and later became the first Prime Minister of Italy, with Victor Emmanuel as its monarch.

"The horror, the horror"

Last words of Kurtz in Conrad's Heart of Darkness. Ambiguous interpretation; Kurtz could be crying out over the horrors of this dark, savage civilization (as opposed to the light, civilized Europe), or the horrors of European invasion in imperialism.

Marxism

Looks at history as a series of revolutions of class struggle. The belief that all human actions are controlled by class systems and that they should be abolished so everything can be commonly owned. This differs from socialism because in socialism the government is in control and in Marxism, the government is the people. Also, there is no private property because of the belief of communal collectivism where everything is shared.

Napoleon III

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, renamed Napoleon III when he became emperor of the French. He was elected president of France in 1848, but took authoritative power with a coup in 1851. All enemies of Napoleon were either put on trial, executed or deported. In 1852 he proclaimed the Second Empire with him as emperor. He took a free market approach to the economy, but put limitations on freedom of speech and had a weak legislature. His political affiliation is uncertain, he did what he felt necessary to remain in power. His rule ended after his defeat in the Franco-Prussian War.

F.T. Marinetti

Marinetti was a famous futurist who wrote The Futurist Manifesto. He later advocated the fascist movement.

Anarchism

Roughly equal with that of Marxist Socialism. Was critical of capitalism, rejected a proletarian state because it would be just as oppressive and would consist of smaller autonomous communities.

Theory of natural selection

Natural selection is the gradual, non-random process by which biological traits become either more or less common in a population as a function of differential reproduction of their bearers. It is a key mechanism of evolution. The term "natural selection" was popularized by Charles Darwin who intended it to be compared with artificial selection, what we now call selective breeding.

Lourdes

Now an important and popular pilgrimage spot, in France. It is said to be the location where the Immaculate Conception appeared before Bernadette Soubirous and asked her to make a chapel in her honor there. The water spring at Lourdes has been a popular attraction for sick people, because the water is said to have healing powers.

Bernadette Soubirous

Now known as Saint Bernadette, she was the young lady who experienced the apparition of the Immaculate Conception on multiple occasions. She saw the Virgin Mary in a cave in Lourdes, France. A shrine now stands in the spot where the Virgin Mary is said to have appeared. Lourdes became an important pilgrimage spot under Pope Pius IX, when he allowed the veneration of Virgin Mary there.

Pablo Picasso

Pablo Picasso was a cubism artist who was one of the founders of cubism. One of his most famous works was "Les Demoiselles d'Avignon."

Picasso, "Man With a Guitar"

Painted in 1912, "Man With a Guitar" demonstrated a new art form, Cubism. "I paint objects as I think them, not as I see them."

"God is dead" (Nietzsche)

Quote taken from Nietzsche's The Gay Science. A Madman is mocked by townspeople after crying "I seek God!" The madman replies that "God is Dead. God remains dead. And we have killed him." In this excerpt, Nietzsche is criticizing the effects of science on religion. During the 19th century, science was replacing theistic beliefs and according to Nietzsche science dealt mostly with things that do not exist(lines, planes, bodies, atoms, divisible time spans, and divisible spaces). He claimed that explanations can not be found when we first turn everything into an image, -our own image.

Victoria & Albert

Respectively, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of England. The period from 1830-90 is known as the Victorian Era in England because she was the queen during this time. Both were against slavery, and fought for the values of the middle class. Their marriage was seen as an example for the nation, as a symbol of middle class values. They had 9 children. Prince Albert held the Great Exhibition to demonstrate to the world the works of industry of all nations, especially Great Britain.

Josephine Butler

She was a woman in England who was concerned with the lives of working class women, especially prostitutes. Butler was AGAINST the Contagious Diseases Act, which required prostitutes to undergo medical exams (and if they refused, they were put in jail). Butler argued that this was an overreach into the prostitutes' lives and that it was unfair that the prostitutes customers didn't have to undergo medical exams as well. Butler said that the only thing that could improve the prostitute situation was moral and religious reform.

unconscious

Sigmund Freud believed that children have sexual desires about their mother/fathers (depending on gender), but since these notions obviously aren't accepted in society, the desires are repressed into the unconscious. Freud also said that the unconscious was revealed when you laughed at certain things and what you accidentally said when your tongue slipped (This was known as the Freudian slip). He also believed that art and literature were ways to get into the unconscious mind.

Nationalism

Strong pride and feeling of connectedness with people who share the same ideas, beliefs, culture and language. Usually refers to vigorous support and enthusiasm for one's own country. See: Nazi Party, Serbian Black Hand.

Social question

The "Social Question" arose during the first Industrial Revolution and the rise of socialist ideals(Utopian Socialism and Marxism). The question referred to exploitation of workers, child labor, crime and poverty in cities.

Third Republic

The 3rd Republic was created following the ousting of Adolphe Thiers as President of France. The monarchists in the N.A. were divided amongst themselves and there was a dispute over adopting the "tricolore" as the flag of France. Lacking a King in 1875, laws were enacted creating a Chamber or Commerce, Deputies, a Senate, and a President. This essentially established the 3rd Republic.

Free State of Congo

The Congo was a territory controlled by Belgium, whose King was Leopold II. He enslaved much of the population, and many were mutilated for not being productive enough and it was known that Belgian soldiers were killing children with the butt of their rifles. The world eventually found out, and widespread protest began against Belgium and Leopold II. The Congo was just an example of the new much more aggressive imperialism which took place in the late 1800's.

Second Industrial Revolution

The First Industrial Revolution, which began in the 18th century, merged into the Second Industrial Revolution around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered ships, railways, and later in the 19th century with the internal combustion engine and electrical power generation. The period of time covered by the Industrial Revolution varies with different historians.

New Woman

The New Woman didn't accept the traditional path of going directly from her father's house to her husband's house. Women in many parts of Europe gained the right to own property on their own (which meant they weren't dependent upon their fathers or husbands). The Women's Movement also increased women's access to secondary education. In the 1880s and 1890s, there was a higher demand for women in public jobs (typists, secretaries, department store workers). In fact, women were sought out for these jobs because they could be paid at a lower wage than men. Also, more and more women were beginning to delay marriage and get a job to support themselves. There was an increase in the use of birth control both inside AND outside the marriage. Also, people began to discuss the women's role in sex. People also began to openly discuss homosexuality.

Papal Infallibility

The Vatican Council under Pius IX established the Dogma Papal Infallibility. This dogma stated that when the Pope was speaking of religion, morals or any teaching of the church he was speaking with divine possession and was therefore infallible. The document did not state that the Pope himself was infallible, but that he was infallible when addressing certain religious topics.

Samuel Smiles

The author of the well-known book: "Self Help". He is one of the better known figures of the Victorian Era. He was an advocate of parliamentary reform and universal suffrage. In his book he urges people to persevere in what they are doing, that nobody is going to hand them success but that they must achieve it on their own.

Theories of relativity

The first one that Einstein developed explored time and space distortion. In his General Theory of Relativity, he stated that gravity was not a force, as Newton had believed. Instead, he argued that gravity reflected what he called "the space-time curvature".

Balkan Wars 1912-1913

The first war was ethnic populations in Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria and Montenegro who were still under Ottoman rule. They formed a Balkans League and attacked the Ottoman Empire in 1912. They won and divided the spoils. However, the second Balkan war in 1913 broke out because Bulgaria was unsatisfied with their share and decided to attack Serbia and Greece. They retaliated and to add on, Romania and the Ottoman empire also attacked Bulgaria and regained lost territory.

Otto von Bismark

The most important figure in the process of German unification, Bismarck was also the Prime Minister of Prussia. He was born of a noble family, and was known for his expediency, shrewdness and realpolitik. As Prime Minister he got Prussia involved in several wars which he believed to be fundamental to the unification of Germany. He was a dominant figure in European political affairs from 1860 onward, possible its most prominent figure. Despite his wishes for a unified Germany, as a true conservative he believed it was best to keep the power in the hands of few, mainly nobles and aristocrats, himself included.

Reform Bill of 1867

This is the legislation issued by the British government in 1867 which finally gave the right to vote to all men who were householders. This essentially gave the middle class its right to vote. The Reform also got rid of the remaining rotten boroughs and gave only one MP representation to most other boroughs. Main part of the act is that it enable the middle class to vote.

Great Depression

This depression began with the collapse of the Vienna Stock Exchange in 1873. It affected all of Europe and also the US. During the depression countries faced low prices, slow growth rates and stagnant profits. Many countries reacted to the Depression by enacting protectionist policies, through tariffs, and the effectiveness of free trade was being doubted.

Cubism

This is the dissection of an image into various angles and light sources that led to the collapse of perspective. Two main cubism artists were Picasso and Braque. Cubism, along with futurism, were two aspects of "The New Art."

Theodor Herzl

This man was a huge advocate of Zionism. He argued that Jews would never have peace until they had their own homeland. Herzl said that a separate homeland must be created and said it would be Palestine. He organized a Zionist Congress in 1897 and was the guiding spirit that led the gradual movement of Jews back to Palestine, which only gained serious momentum after WWII.

Futurism

This movement was founded by Marinetti, who wrote The Futurist Manifesto. Futurists celebrated power, violence, danger, speed, and other bold emotions / actions. Futurism emerged right before World War I and collapsed right after World War I. Cubism and futurism showed that time and space were no longer absolute.

Hausmannization

This refers to the policies enacted by then prefect of Paris, Baron Haussmann. This was the name given to the restructuring process of the city of Paris. Haussmann created new parks, tore down old streets and replaced them with new broader avenues and new bridges. Homes were improved and rents went up. This led to many working class families relocating to the outskirts of Paris, leaving only the wealthier in the city. This created the "red belt" surrounding the city of Paris, because of its working class residents who tended to be socialist.

On the Spiritual in Art

This was a book written by the Russian artist Kandinsky. In the book he illustrates the need for artists to guide others to high points in life through their art.

Crimean War

This was a conflict which arose over the control of territories of the declining Ottoman Empire, the "sick man of Europe". Russia was given control of the Orthodox Christian sites by the Ottoman Empire. This pissed off Napoleon III, who with England, declared war on Russia. France also threatened to attack the Ottoman Empire with its navy, if they were not given control of the Christian sites. The Ottoman Empire was forced to accept, and handed over control of the sites to France. This then infuriated Russia, and the war began, with many deaths to follow.

Why we are militant

This was a document written by Emmeline Pankhurst (leader of the WSPU) that attempted to explain why the women of her organization would sometimes destroy things in order to get attention, and they did this all because they wanted the right to vote. Pankhurst asserted that men had achieved so many reforms because they've always used violence; if women wanted rights, they'd have to be violent as well.

New Imperialism

This was a form of more aggressive imperialism that was somewhat influenced by Social Darwinism and "The White Man's Burden". It consisted of few settlers, little obvious economic advantage and was aggressively promoted.

"Fortress peace"

This was a phrase Germany used to sort of unite its people, whether they were advocating the war or not. Basically, it said that everyone in the "castle" (Germany) understood that the "castle" was being attacked, so they needed to put aside their differences and stand together to fight their common enemy.

Tirpitz Plan

This was a plan developed to build up the German navy in order to challenge Britain's dominance of the seas, and in turn, challenge Britain's imperial strength. This also involved a propaganda campaign that would convince the German people that this plan was good for Germany; this propaganda involved pro navy speeches, campaigns, pamphlets, and school demonstrations.

Weltpolitik

This was a policy developed by the German kaiser Wilhelm II because he wanted Germany to be an influential global power, like Great Britain. Weltpolitik also played to the nationalist move in the upper classes. A key example of this nationalism was the Pan German League, which promoted German expansion. Wilhelm II hoped that Weltpolitik would sort of make other powerful nations (such as Great Britain and France) fear Germany and take them seriously, but it didn't really work.

Syllabus of Errors

This was a series of ideas and beliefs which the Pope Pius IX and the Catholic Church believed to be in clear error. It was a radical document and a clear reference to the new Italian state.

Blood and Iron Speech

This was a speech delivered by then Prime Minister Bismarck to the Prussian Chamber of Deputies. In the speech he condemned the revolutions of 1848-49 and said that it was not through speeches and majority decisions that problems will be resolved, this was the mistake of 1848. He claimed that "blood and iron" would resolve the issues of their day. In other words his was a call for the use of military power to achieve the goals of Prussia and Germany.

Black Hand

This was a terrorist organization founded in 1911 that carried out assassinations and terrorist attacks to strike at Austrian interests and promote Serbian nationalism and independence. The man who killed Franz Ferdinand, Gavrilo Princip, was a member of the Black Hand.

Entente Cordiale

This was a treaty signed between Great Britain and France to end the colonial rivalry in Africa (because things had almost led to war in 1898 because of the Fashoda Affair). This treaty also made the British and French militaries have informal talks about what would happen in the case of a European land war. By 1907, Russia had joined the Entente as well.

Herero War

This was a war between the Herero people of Southwest Africa and the British. In the 1890s, the Herero people rose up against the British because the British were committing acts of murder, rape, and cattle theft against the Herero and Nama peoples. The Herero were driven into the eastern part of the area. A German general named von Trotha then basically refused to take prisoners and shot any Herero trying to return from the desert because they were starving and dying of thirst.

Boer War

This was a war from 1899 - 1902 in South Africa, where the Dutch settlers were known as "Boers". The British set up their own colony after (known as Cape Colony), and this caused some of the Boers to trek inwards of the continent and set up the Transvaal and Orange Free State. During the war, the Boer's wives and children were put in concentration camps. The British ultimately won the Boer War and the Boers were forced to settle for peace in 1902. After the war, the British created the apartheid system.

Rite of Spring

This was a work of music composed by Igor Stravinsky. It was performed in Paris in 1913 and was supposed to depict scenes from pagan Russia in the celebration of the coming spring. In the dancing, a sacrifice was shown and the choreography was very strange and had movements that weren't very pretty. The performance was a fiasco and everyone hated it. In 1913, European avant-gardes like Stravinsky were celebrating primitivism with notions of violence and sacrifice.

Realpolitik

This was an ideology promoted during the process of German unification by Otto von Bismarck. It was a policy of realism based on the premise that moral values have no place in questions of national security or national defense. In other words a country can resort to any means necessary, if the defense or security of the nation is in jeopardy. Bismarck used this ideology as an excuse for the wars that took place while he was Prime Minister. He believed they were necessary for the successful unification of the German states. Essentially realpolitik led to the unification of Germany.

"Christianity and Commerce"

This was how David Livingstone described the era of lots of missionary activity, while simultaneously trying to increase the amount of new technology and trade. Europe was trying to bring its culture to the rest of the world, which usually mean converting non-Christians into Christians.

Zionism

This was just described above, but Zionism was the movement for Jews to acquire their own homeland in Palestine.

"Blank check"

This was one of the events of the July Crisis in 1914. Here, Germany sent a diplomat to Austria and he assured Austria that the German Kaiser Wilhelm II would back Austria in case things led to war. Also, if Austria and Serbia went to war, Germany wanted to fight Russia RIGHT THEN instead of several years from then.

Triple Alliance

This was originally Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. However, after Germany and Austria-Hungary's relationship with Russia lapsed around 1890, Russia dropped out. Then, the Triple Alliance became Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.

Psychoanalysis

This was the method that Freud developed to get repressed memories to surface through hypnosis or "free association". In free association, he basically just let the patient talk a lot, and sooner or later, they will go back to the original problem that is bothering them. Once this memory was released or exposed, the symptoms would be relieved.

Domestic Ideology

This was the product of the late 18th century and a rise of the new middle classes. In the new middle classes, it was normal for the men to work outside the home, while the women worked inside the home. In the home, women were seen as working in a "sphere of virtue". On the other hand, men were seen as "unruly beasts" as well as "bearers of reason."

Florence Nightingale

This woman was the daughter of a wealthy family that took the radical step of becoming a nurse (which outraged her parents, since nurses were usually seen as coming from the lower classes). Nurses were usually seen as not good people, since they also were sometimes prostituted for their patients. Nightingale changed this during the Crimean War. Using her money and political connections, she worked to improve the medical conditions of the soldiers. After going home, she worked to raise the standards of nurses (legitimate training, nurses being seen as professionals). However, she wasn't an advocate of equal rights.

Pius IX

Was Pope during the Victorian Era, obviously he was in England. He was called to defend the position of the church, which had been deteriorated with the theories proposed by Darwin on the evolution and origins of man. Pius IX convened the First Vatican Council which decreed papal infallibility. He was hostile to the new Italian state under Victor Emmanuel, because it had taken many territories previously under papal control.

Camillo di Cavour

Was a fundamental figure in the Italian unification process of 1860. He was the prime minister of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, and was eventually the first prime minister of Italy, following the unification. He was known for being a very smart and expedient politician, as well as an Italian patriot. He was a promoter of the liberal causes, and of civil progress which could only be achieved with the unification of the people of Italy.

Mazzini

We read "Duties of Man" by Mazzini. He was an Italian politician and one of the most active members in the process of Italian Unification. In his "Duties of Man" he explains that all citizens of a country are brothers and sisters, regardless of their exact geographic location, and for this reason they must all have a common goal. He was referring to the situation in Italy before the unification. Italy was divided into many states, governed by foreign powers. He called to get rid of the foreigners and to give Italy back to the Italians.

Paris Commune

Working and middle class Parisians were mad about the conditions of Paris and the siege and surrounding of the city by the Prussian army. The siege forced citizens to eat cats and dogs in order to survive. When the monarchists won majority in the N.A. election and an uprising followed which replaced the government with members of the National Guard. The Guard was a citizen's militia made of Parisians from the working classes. The Commune was described by Marx as a proletarian/communist government. After 2 months of the Commune, Adolphe Thiers sought to recapture the city by bombarding it and killing around 20,000 Parisians in what was a violent end to the revolution.

"The White Man's Burden"

Written by Rudyard Kipling describing imperialism where white men bring civilization to savages. A concept with the foundation of Social Darwinism that lead to the belief of European superiority. It states that it is "The White Man's Burden" to colonize undeveloped countries and rule over uncivilized people.

Liberalism

belief in unrestricted economic freedom and no government interference in the economy. Also believed in liberty, equality and individual freedoms. It saw traditions and natural law as irrational. Utility, which emphasises the happiness of individuals, became the central ethical value of all liberalism.

Modernism

in its broadest definition, is modern thought, character, or practice. More specifically, the term describes the modernist movement in the arts, its set of cultural tendencies and associated cultural movements, originally arising from wide-scale and far-reaching changes to Western society in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In particular the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by the horror of World War I, were among the factors that shaped Modernism. In art, Modernism explicitly rejects the ideology of realism and makes use of the works of the past, through the application of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision and parody in new forms. Modernism also rejects the lingering certainty of Enlightenment thinking, as well as the idea of a compassionate, all-powerful Creator.

Mass politics

is a political order resting on the emergence of mass political parties. The emergence of mass politics generally associated with the rise of mass society coinciding with the Industrial Revolution. Mass politics was essentially the inclusion of the masses in the political process. There was a major rise in this from 1880 to 1914. This was when the vote in Europe was expanded to all men and in some countries even some women were allowed to vote.

First Industrial Revolution

was a period from 1750 to 1850 where changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the social, economic and cultural conditions of the times. It began in Great Britain, then subsequently spread throughout Western Europe, North America, Japan, and eventually the rest of the world.

John Hobson

was an advocate for creating markets in the colonies. i. expectations of profits, ii. search for economic security in a time when free trade in question (in wake of 1873 Depression). However, problems with theory: colonies provide few markets, little immediate profit.