2 India 6th Century onwards

Nandas

The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga refers to the conquest of Kalinga by the Nandas According to the Buddhist tradition, Mahapadma Nanda ruled about ten years. He was succeeded by his eight sons, who ruled successively. The last Nanda ruler was Dhana Nanda

Mauryan Administration Provincial and Local Administration

The Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces with their capitals at Taxila, Ujjain, Suvarnagiri and Kalinga. The provincial governors were mostly appointed from the members of royal family. They were responsible the maintenance of law and order and collection of taxes for the empire. The district administration was under the charge of Rajukas

Mauryan Administration Army

The Mauryan army was well organized and it was under the control of Senapati. The salaries were paid in cash

Visakadatta's Mudrarakshasa

The Mudrarakshasa written by Visakadatta is a drama in Sanskrit. Although written during the Gupta period, it describes how Chandragupta with the assistance of Kautilya overthrew the Nandas. It also gives a picture on the socio-economic condition under the Mauryas.

Mauryan Art and Architecture Stupas

The best example is the famous Sanchi stupa with massive dimensions. It was originally built with bricks but later enlarged after the time of Asoka

Avanti

The capital of Avanti was Ujjain. The most important ruler of this kingdom was Pradyota. He became powerful by marrying Vasavadatta, the daughter of Udayana. He patronized Buddhism. The successors of Pradyota were weak and later this kingdom was taken over by the rulers of Magadha.

Mauryan Art and Architecture Caves

The caves presented to the Ajivikas by Asoka and his son Dasaratha remain important heritage of the Mauryas. Their interior walls are polished like mirror. These were meant to be residences of monks. The caves at Barabar hills near Bodh Gaya are wonderful pieces of Mauryan architecture.

Udayin

The immediate successor of Ajatasatru He laid the foundation of the new capital at Pataliputra situated at the confluence of the two rivers, the Ganges and the Son. Udayin's successors were weak rulers and hence Magadha was captured by Saisunaga. Thus the Haryanka dynasty came to an end and the Saisunaga dynasty came to power.

Mauryan Art and Architecture

The monuments before the period of Asoka were mostly made of wood and therefore perished. The use of stone started from the time of Asoka.

Effects of Alexander's invasion

The routes opened by him and his naval explorations increased the existing facilities for trade between India and West

Effects of the Persian Invasion

The use of the Kharoshti script, a form of Iranian writing became popular in northwestern India and some of Asoka's edicts were written in that script The very idea of issuing edicts by Asoka and the wording used in the edicts are traced to Iranian influence

Alexander's Invasion of India (327-325 B.C.)

The writings of Greek authors like Herodotus about the fabulous wealth of India attracted Alexander his interest in geographical enquiry and love of natural history urged him to undertake an invasion of India. He believed that on the eastern side of India there was the continuation of the sea, according the geographical knowledge of his period On the eve of his invasion, there were a number of small kingdoms in northwestern India. The leading kings were Ambhi of Taxila, the ruler of Abhisara and Porus who ruled the region between the rivers of Jhelum and Chenab.

Asoka the Great (273 - 232 B.C.)

There was an interval of four years between Asoka's accession to the throne (273 B.C.) and his actual coronation (269 B.C.). Therefore, it appears from the available evidence that there was a struggle for the throne after Bindusara's death. The Ceylonese Chronicles, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa state that Asoka captured power after killing his 99 brothers including the his elder brother Susima. The youngest brother Tissa was spared. But according to Taranatha of Tibet, Asoka killed only six of his brothers.

Kautilya's Arthasastra

This book in Sanskrit was written by Kautilya, a contemporary of Chandragupta Maurya. Kautilya was also called 'Indian Machiavelli'. The manuscript of Arthasastra was first discovered by R. Shama Sastri in 1904. it can be divided into three parts: the first deals with the king and his council and the departments of government; the second with civil and criminal law; and the third with diplomacy and war.

Mauryan Administration Department of Commerce and Industry

This department had controlled the retail and wholesale prices of goods and tried to ensure their steady supply through its officers called Adyakshas.

fourth Buddhist Council

was convened in Kashmir by Kanishka under the chairmanship of Vasumitra. Asvagosha participated in this council. The new school of Buddhism called Mahayana Buddhism came into existence during this council. The Buddhism preached by the Buddha and propagated by Asoka was known as Hinayana

third Buddhist Council

251 BCE was held at Pataliputra under the patronage of Asoka. Moggaliputta Tissa presided over it. The final version of Tripitakas was completed in this council. The Council proceeded to recite the scriptures once more, adding to the canon Moggaliputta Tissa's own book, the Kathavatthu, a discussion of various dissenting Buddhist views now contained in the Theravāda Abhidhamma Pitaka.

Saisunaga dynasty

After Saisunaga, the mighty empire began to collapse. His successor was Kakavarman or Kalasoka Kalasoka was killed by the founder of the Nanda dynasty

Retreat of Alexander

Alexander continued his march as far as the river Beas encountering opposition from the local tribes. he could not do so because his soldiers refused to fight. He divided the whole territory from the Indus to the Beas into three provinces and put them under his governors. On his way he reached Babylon where he fell seriously ill and died in 323 B.C.

Mauryan Administration Central Government

Although Kautilya the foremost political theorist of ancient India supported the monarchial form of government, he did not stand for royal absolutism. He advocated that the king should take the advice of his ministry in running the administration. Therefore, a council of ministers called Mantriparishad assisted the king

Asoka and Buddhism

Asoka embraced Buddhism under the influence of Buddhist monk, Upagupta. He sent a mission to Sri Lanka under his son Mahendra and daughter Sangamitra who planted there the branch of the original Bodhi tree

Later Mauryas

Asoka's death in 232 B.C. was followed by the division of the Mauryan Empire into two parts - western and eastern. The western part was ruled by Kunala, son of Asoka and the eastern part by Dasaratha, one of the grand sons of Asoka. Due to the Bactrian invasions, the western part of the empire collapsed. The eastern part was intact under Samprati successor of Dasaratha. The last Mauryan king was Brihatratha, who was assassinated by Pushyamitra Sunga.

Extent of Asoka's Empire

Asoka's inscriptions mention the southernmost kingdoms Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras - as border-states. Therefore these states remained outside the Mauryan Empire. According to Rajatarangini, Kashmir was a part of the Mauryan Empire. Nepal was also within the Mauryan empire.

Mauryan Art and Architecture Pillars

Asokan pillars with inscriptions were found in places like Delhi, Allahabad, Rummindai, Sanchi and Saranath. Their tops were crowned with figures of animals like lion, elephant and bull. The Saranath pillar with four lions standing back to back is the most magnificent.

Kosala

Ayodhya was the capital of Kosala. King Prasenajit was its famous ruler. He was highly educated. His position was further strengthened by the matrimonial alliance with Magadha. His sister was married to Bimbisara and Kasi was given to her as dowry. Subsequently there was a dispute with Ajatasatru. After the end of the conflict, Prasenajit married the daughter of Bimbisara. After the death of this powerful king, Kosala became part of the Magadha

Bindusara (298 - 273 B.C.)

Bindusara was called by the Greeks as "Amitragatha" meaning slayer of enemies. He is said to have conquered the Deccan up to Mysore. Taranatha, the Tibetan monk states that Bindusara conquered 16 states comprising 'the land between the two seas'. The Sangam Tamil literature also confirms the Mauryan invasion of the far south. Therefore, it can be said that the Mauryan Empire under Bindusara extended up to Mysore. Bindusara received Deimachus as ambassador from the Syrian king Antiochus I. Bindusara wrote to Antiochus I asking for sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist. The latter sent all but a sophist because the Greek law prohibited sending a sophist. Bindusara supported the Ajivikas, a religious sect. Bindusara appointed his son Asoka as the governor of Ujjain.

Spread of Buddhism

Buddha had two kinds of disciples - monks (bhikshus) and lay worshippers (upasikas). The monks were organized into the Sangha for the purpose of spreading his teachings. The membership was open to all persons, male or female and without any caste restrictions. There was a special code for nuns restricting their residence and movement.

Svetambaras (whiteclad) Jain

By the end of the fourth century B.C., there was a serious famine in the Ganges valley. Many Jain monks led by Bhadrabagu and Chandragupta Maurya came to Sravana Belgola in Karnataka

Cyrus (558 - 530 B.C)

Cyrus the Great was the greatest conqueror of the Achaemenian Empire He was the first conqueror who led an expedition and entered into India. He captured the Gandhara region. All Indian tribes to the west of the Indus river submitted to him and paid tribute. His son Cambyses had no time to pay attention towards India.

Darius I (522 - 486 B.C.)

Darius I, the grandson of Cyrus, conquered the Indus valley in 518 B.C. and annexed the Punjab and Sindh. This region became the 20th Satrapy of his empire It was the most fertile and populous province of the Achaemenian Empire. Darius sent a naval expedition under Skylas to explore the Indus

Spread of Jainism

He admitted both men and women in the Sangha, which consisted of both monks and lay followers. Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela of Kalinga and the royal dynasties of south India such as the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas patronized Jainism.

Xerxes (465-456 B.C.)

He deployed Indian infantry and cavalry to Greece to fight his opponents. But they retreated after Xerxes faced a defeat in Greece. After this failure, the Achaemenians could not follow a forward policy in India. However, the Indian province was still under their control. Darius III enlisted Indian soldiers to fight against Alexander in 330 B.C. It is evident that the control of Persians slackened on the eve of Alexander's invasion of India

Ajatasatru (494 - 462 B.C.)

He fought against Kosala and Vaisali. His won a great success against a formidable confederacy led by the Lichchavis of Vaisali It was at this time that Ajatasatru realised the strategic importance of the small village, Pataligrama (future Pataliputra). He fortified it to serve as a convenient base of operations against Vaisali embraced Buddhism. He is said to have met Gautama Buddha. This scene is also depicted in the sculptures of Barhut.

Bimbisara (546 - 494 B.C.)

He married Kosaladevi, sister of Prasenajit. Bimbisara married Chellana, a princess of the Licchavi family of Vaisali. This matrimonial alliance secured for him the safety of the northern frontier Bimbisara was a contemporary of both Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama Buddha

Chandragupta Maurya (322 - 298 B.C.)

He, at the young age of 25, captured Pataliputra from the last ruler of the Nanda dynasty, Dhanananda. In this task he was assisted by Kautilya In 305 B.C., he marched against Selukas Niketar, who was Alexander's General controlling the northwestern India. Chandragupta Maurya defeated him and a treaty was signed. By this treaty, Selukas Niketar ceded the trans-Indus territories - namely Aria, Arakosia and Gedrosia - to the Mauryan Empire. He also gave his daughter in marriage to the Mauryan prince. Chandragupta made a gift of 500 elephants to Selukas. Megasthenes was sent to the Mauryan court as Greek ambassador Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life

Battle of Hydaspes

In 327 B.C. Alexander crossed the Hindukush Mountains and spent nearly ten months in fighting with the tribes. He crossed the Indus in February 326 B.C. with the help of the bridge of boats. He was warmly received by Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila. From there Alexander sent a message to Porus to submit. But Porus refused and decided to fight against Alexander Then Alexander marched from Taxila to the banks of the river Hydaspes (Jhelum). On the other side of the river he saw the vast army of Porus Although Porus had a strong army, he lost the battle. Alexander was impressed by the courage and heroism of this Indian prince, treated him generously and reinstated him on his throne

Magadha

It had a fertile soil. The iron ores in the hills near Rajgir and copper and iron deposits near Gaya added to its natural assets. Her location at the centre of the highways of trade of those days contributed to her wealth. Rajagriha was the capital of Magadha. During the reign of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the prosperity of Magadha reached its zenith.

Mauryan Administration Judicial and Police Departments

Kautilya mentions the existence of both civil and criminal courts. The chief justice of the Supreme Court at the capital was called Dharmathikarin. There were also subordinate courts at the provincial capitals and districts under Amatyas

Mauryan Empire Sources

Kautilya's Arthasastra Visakadatta's Mudrarakshasa Megasthenes' Indica Puranas and the Buddhist literature such as Jatakas provide information on the Mauryas. The Ceylonese Chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa throw light on the role Asoka in spreading Buddhism in Sri Lanka.

Spread of Buddhism

Kings like Prasenajit of Kosala and Bimbisara and Ajatasatru of Magadha accepted his doctrines and became his disciples visited places like Benares, Rajagriha, Sravasti, Vaisali, Nalanda and Pataligrama.

Megasthenes' Indica

Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador in the court of Chandragupta Maurya. His book Indica has survived only in fragments. Yet, his account gives details about the Mauryan administration, particularly the administration of the capital city of Pataliputra and also the military organization

Mauryan Administration Revenue Department

Samharta, the chief of the Revenue Department, was in charge of the collection of all revenues of the empire The revenues came from land, irrigation, customs, shop tax, ferry tax, forests, mines and pastures, license fee from craftsmen, and fines collected in the law courts

important disciples of Buddha

Sariputta, Moggallanna, Ananda, Kassapa and Upali.

Digambaras (Sky-clad or Naked) Jain

Those who stayed back in north India were led by a monk named Sthulabahu who changed the code of conduct for the monks

Vardhamana Mahavira 539- 467 B.C

born at Vaisali parents Siddhartha and Trisala He married Yasoda and gave birth to a daughter At the age of 30 he became an ascetic and wandered In the 13th year of his penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala Gnana

Gautama Buddha (567- 487 B.C.)

born in Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu. parents Suddodhana of the Sakya clan and Mayadevi. As his mother died at child birth, he was brought up by his aunt Prajapati Gautami. At the age of 16 he married Yasodhara and gave birth to a son, Rahula He left home at the age of 29 in search of Truth. He wandered for 7 years and met several teachers but could not get enlightenment. At last, he sat under a bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya and did intense penance, after which he got Enlightenment (Nirvana) at the age of thirty five. He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Benares and for the next 45 years he led the life of a preacher. He died at the age of 80 at Kusinagara.

Sixteen Mahajanapadas

from Buddhist literature Anguttara Nikaya Anga, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Asmaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kambhoja. Finally in the mid 6th century B.C., only four kingdoms - Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha survived.

fabulous wealth of the Nandas

referred to in the Tamil Sangam work Ahananuru by the poet Mamulanar. The flourishing state of agriculture in the Nanda dominions and the general prosperity of the country The oppressive way of tax collection by Dhana Nanda was resented by the people. Taking advantage of this, Chandragupta Maurya and Kautilya initiated a popular movement against the Nanda rule. It was during this time that Alexander invaded India.

first Jain Council

was convened at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu, the leader of the Digambaras, in the beginning of the 3rd century B.C.

second Buddhist Council

was convened at Vaisali around 383 B.C. About 100 or 110 years after the Buddha's Nirvana, a monk called Yasa, when visiting Vesālī, noticed a number of lax practices among the local monks under Kalasoka

first Buddhist Council

was held at Rajagraha under the chairmanship of Mahakasapa immediately after the death of Buddha under the patronage of king Ajatashatru Its purpose was to maintain the purity of the teachings of the Buddha The Suttas were recited by Ananda, and the Vinaya was recited by Upali

second Jain Council

was held at Valabhi, Saurashtra in 5th century A.D. The final compilation of Jain literature called Twelve Angas was completed in this council

Vatsa

was situated on the banks of the river Yamuna. Its capital was Kausambi near modern Allahabad. Its most popular ruler was Udayana. He strengthened his position by entering into matrimonial alliances with Avanti, Anga and Magadha. After his death, Vatsa was annexed to the Avanti kingdom