200

domination of labor by capital

"To operate all this machinery and to move the cotton through the factory, manufacturers hired hundreds of workers, most of them children and women. And while not all workers arrived at the factory gates voluntarily and received wages, the majority did. Significance: another important institutional innovation of industrial capitalism. Outside the slave plantations of the Americas, capitalists for the first time organized, supervised, and dominated the production process" Capital was required to start the manufacturing process, and people could send their women and children to work→ tied with the expansion of railroads and iron industry Capitalist and statesmen had their interests in getting rich represented- so the legal and social system represented this Changes to the countryside produced large groups of landless proletariat who were forced to sell their labor to survive, and did so without being physically coerced

Delhi Sultanate

(1206-1526) was a Muslim sultanate based mostly in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years (1206-1526). The regime strengthened the cultural diversity and tolerance that were a hallmark of the indian social order, which allowed it to bring about political integration without forcing cultural homogeneity. Significance: The sultanate is noted for being one of the few states to repel an attack by the Mongol Empire, and enthroned one of the few female rulers in Islamic history, Razia Sultana, who reigned from 1236 to 1240. During and in the Delhi Sultanate, there was a synthesis of Indian civilization with that of Islamic civilization, and the further integration of the Indian subcontinent with a growing world system and wider international networks spanning large parts of Afro-Eurasia, which had a significant impact on Indian culture and society, as well as the wider world. Definition Land-bound Turkish Muslim regime of northern India (1206-1526) Significance Strengthened cultural diversity and brought political integration Tolerant of Indian society and culture The strongholds they built to defend their conquests evolved into prosperous cities Brought Islam to India One of the core peripheries or semi peripheries of 13th century world system Most powerful and enduring of the Turkish muslim regimes in northern India Rulers brought political integration but also strengthened the cultural diversity and tolerance that were already a hallmark of the indian social order But the sultans did not force their subjects to convert, so that south asia never became an islamic dominant country The rulers did what muslim rulers did with christian and jewish communities: they collected the jiyza tax and permitted communities to worship as they saw fit and to administer their own communal law These scholars and saints in turn attracted followers, who enjoyed the benefits of membership in a community of believers Most powerful turkish muslim regime, the delhi sultanate, had rulers who brought political integration but also strengthened the cultural diversity and tolerance that were already present in the indian social order Turks (and military slaves), afghans, and persian speaking men from present day iran afghan and uzbek Politically very turbulent Islamic rule in india is very different that in different parts of asia due to the fact that india has a massive population that are not muslim; islamic rule is more like a military intervention than a conquering

qing dynasty

(1644-1911 CE), the last imperial dynasty of China which was overthrown by revolutionaries; was ruled by the Manchu people: began to isolate themselves from Western culture, seriously weakened by the Opium Wars. Social hierarchies based off of age, gender and kin made family the bedrock of social organization Forged tributary relations with Korea, Vietnam, Burma, and Nepal and its territorial expansion reached far Minority Manchu rule over China that incorporated new territories, experienced substantial population growth, and sustained significant economic growth. Significance: The Qing Dynasty was the final imperial dynasty in China, lasting from 1644 to 1912. It was an era noted for its initial prosperity and tumultuous final years, and for being only the second time that China was not ruled by the Han people.

Mfecane Movement

..The Mfecane movement was a series of political revolts that took place in southern Africa in the 1800s caused by the expansionist methods of King Shaka and the Zulu people. It started in areas where growing populations were straining the land resources. This movement of people caused many tribes to try to dominate those in new territories, leading to widespread chaos and warfare among indigenous ethnic communities. This caused certain groups, such as the Matebele, the Mfengu, and the Makololo to be consolidated, and it led to the creation of new states such as the modern Lesotho. The aggression and brutality c of the revolts forged by the warrior-state drove out populations and necessitated the shift away from small clan communities to the creation of large, central monarchies in central South Africa. This rearrange the map of Africa. Not a religious movement, but an appeal to tradition was seen as states sought communal solidarity and the role of "big men" in stateless societies..

war capitalism

3 Main Components: Imperial expansion, Expropriation of land, Slavery. The use of force, violence, and coercion to enter the global commercial network. Colonizers like Great Britain depended upon cotton imports gathered and prepared for manufacturing through the vicious coercion of forced labor. Africa, Europe, Asia, Americas - commercial web Division between inside and outside: different rules/laws for domestic and international trade Most significant consequence: world is developing from a Multi-polar world to Eurocentric Rise of state capacity- gained the power to accumulate capital and lays foundation for economic rise a system centering on slavery, exploitation, imperial expansion, armed trade, and the assertion of sovereignty over people and land by capitalists, that europeans used to secure and increase economic growth for their country and-or country. Encompasses the era (16-19th cent.) when colonizers like Great Britain depended upon cotton imports gathered and prepared for manufacturing through the vicious coercion of forced labor. Significance: facilitated Europe's rise by collecting capitalists into Europe as well as forming European subjugation network all around the globe. War Capitalism paved the way for European colonialism and Capitalism to grow under the driven force of European merchants and governments. The sufficient military force enabled Europe's influence over the global trading system and the ability to alter it and eventually, monopolize it. Relied on the capacity of rich and powerful european nations to divide the world into an inside and an outside The inside followed rules while the outside was characterized by imperial domination, expropriation of vast territories, decimation of indigenous people, theft of their resources, enslavement, and the domination of vast tracts of land by private capitalist with little effective oversight by the european state There was an unfathomable suffering but it transformed a multipolar world to a unipolar one Nourished secondary sectors of the economy like finance, insurance, and shipping sectors as well as the government functions like credit, money, and national defense→ began as "advanced industrial techniques and commercial practices Laid the foundation for industrial capitalism land appropriation, slavery and expansion - coexisted for awhile with industrial capitalism, which tended to replace slavery with wage labor, land appropriation/expansion with trade treaty, had to give its way completely to industrial capitalism by 1860. War capitalism had an unprecedented transformative potential. At the root of the emergence of the modern world of sustained economic growth, it created unprecedented suffering, but also a consequential transofrmation of the organizaxtion of economic space: a multipolar world became increasingly unipolar Imperial expansion, slavery, and land expropriations- war capitalism/ laid the foundations for the still small and technologically backwards domestic cotton industry in Europe Based on force and coercion Based on expelling indiegnous populations As long as there is money pouring in, war capitalism can always expand Where is the money coming from? The UK and the capitalists that are funding it Without both war and industrial capitalism, industrial revolution could not happen

liberalism

A belief that government can and should achieve justice and equality of opportunity. Political and social theory that advocates representative government, free trade, and freedom of speech and religion Liberals feared that powerful states would become corrupt or tyrannical and held that the proper role of government was to foster civil liberties and promote legal equality Fought the reactionaries that wanted to restore power to kings and nobles Neither group dominated fully is a political and moral philosophy based on liberty and equality. Liberalism became a distinct movement in the Age of Enlightenment, when it became popular among Western philosophers and economists. Historical Significance: Liberalism sought to replace the norms of hereditary privilege, state religion, absolute monarchy, the divine right of kings and traditional conservatism with representative democracy and the rule of law. Liberals also ended mercantilist policies, royal monopolies and other barriers to trade, instead promoting free markets. The view from 1992 End of cold war Liberal democracy marks the endpoint of human sociocultural development Focus on free trade and globalization as unstoppable trend of world economy consequence of industrial revolution

encomienda

A grant of authority over a population of Amerindians in the Spanish colonies. It provided the grant holder with a supply of cheap labor and periodic payments of goods by the Amerindians. It obliged the grant holder to Christianize the Amerindians. was a method by which the Spanish crown rewarded colonial settlers by entrusting them with a group of natives whom they would civilize and convert to Christianity, in return for gifts in the form of labor, taxes, or goods as tribute. Significance: heavy depopulation of Indians from brutality and disease leading into African slaves becoming a new labor force. Labor needs Encomienda: grant by spanish crown of right to labor of indigenous population- specific number of people for specific period (in decline by 1550s) The spanish experimented with institutions of colonial rule over local populations on the caribbean island that they renamed hispaniola The crown systemized grants (encomiendas) to the conquistadors for control over indian labor, and a rich class of encomendaros arose who enjoyed the fruits of the system The model of granting favored settlers the right to coerce indian labor endured Both the crown and the encomenderos benefited from the extractive economy because of a tax paid on resources taken Those favored individuals could demand labor from their lands indian inhabitants- for mines, estates, and public works (new world)

indian national congress

A movement and political party founded in 1885 to demand greater Indian participation in government. Its membership was middle class, and its demands were modest until World War I. Led after 1920 by Mohandas K. Gandhi, appealing to the poor. a political party that advocated for greater Indian representation in colonial institutions, criticized government economic policies and encouraged industrialization. Significance: they represented the modernizing elite of india who were educated in the western countries and came back to the colonies with ideas and beliefs of an alternative. It highlights one of the avenues of anti-imperialism where one works to gain influence and power over current state institutions to displace colonial power instead of a violent overthrow or revolution. India as example •Indian National Congress founded in 1885. Indian founders were generally from an elite social stratum, and initially took a modern position of trying to gain more influence within existing British administration. •A more radical position soon emerged, urging either total non-cooperation with British authorities, or even violence. Connected to economic boycott of non-Indian goods. •Like Germany and Italy, India had never been a single state on a national basis. India was far more diverse than these new European nation-states. On what basis could its people be brought together as a nation? •Question of "communalism." First, to what extent had British exacerbated tensions between religions as part of a divide-and-rule strategy? Diverging viewpoints, even among Hindus, over how far Indian nationalism should align itself with a specifically Hindu nationalism. Creation of an Indian National Muslim League (1906) to defend political interests of Muslims.

manila

Capital of the Spanish Philippines and a major multicultural trade city that already had a population of more than 40,000 by 1600. When the Spanish saw how much Portugal was making on Asian trade, they decided to venture into Asian waters In 1571, the Spaniard capture Manila in the Philippines and made it their colonial capital Traded silver for porcelain and silk As Spanish ships circled the globe from New World to China and from China back to Europem the world became commercially interconnected Spanish colonized the Philippines once seeing the success of the Portuguese in Asia (in the form of China). Manila became their colonial capital and trade with China was established through the port. Ships from Spain's American colonies would transport -across the Atlantic- silver over to Manila (demanded by the Chinese) in exchange for porcelain and silk for European consumers, the mining elites. This is where we see the world commercially interconnecting, silver was the commodity that made this occur. (pg. 472)

protestant reformation

A religious movement of the 16th century that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the creation of Protestant churches. A movement devoted to returning to ancient sources- biblical scriptures, some scholars and believers had despaired of the catholic church's ability to satisfy their longings for deeper, more individualistic religious experience. Martin Luther, used his knowledge of the bible to criticize the churches ideas and practices with his 95 theses 3 beliefs. 1: belief that faith alone saves. 2: belief that the scriptures alone hold the key to Christian truths. 3: believe in priesthood of all people Moved by corrupt practices in the church Caused a wave of Christian reformation across the country and made people more skeptical of the Vatican Overall, it strengthened the English, French, and Dutch while weakening the Holy Roman Empire was a major 16th century European movement aimed initially at reforming the beliefs and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Its religious aspects were supplemented by ambitious political rulers who wanted to extend their power and control at the expense of the Church. Significance: The massive turmoil that the Reformation caused had a lasting impact on European politics. Soon after the Catholic Church deemed Martin Luther a "protestant," Europe became divided along confessional, as well as territorial, lines. The religious turmoil of the period led to warfare within most states and between many. The protestant reformation in europe began as a movement devoted to returning to ancient sources- in this case, bible When luther and his followers ceased the right to read and interpret the bible in a new way, they paved the way for a protestant reformation that split christendom for good His answer was cultural: european economic success derived from features of the protestant reformation which generated a new form of capitalist who felt a calling or duty to accumulate profit Not saying that being a protestant is the reason for this rationality; rather the protestant ethos brought on by the reformation is the cause for the economic implications Very complicated cultural development Huge impact on how european powers compete with the rest of the world; separation of europe into protestants and catholics 95 theses launches a schism in european catholic world Corrupt, practices that have turned away from god The church is tied up in money

serfdom

A type of labor commonly used in feudal systems in which the laborers work the land in return for protection but they are bound to the land and are not allowed to leave or to pursue a new occupation. Peasants farmed the land and paid fees to be protected and governed by lords. They were unfree slaves, but not chattel slaves. This was common in medieval Europe as well as in Russia until the mid 19th century. They were 'bound to the land' which means their persons and the duty they owed their lord were tied to the lord owning the land. Serfdom was ended in Europe after the Black Death made it impossible to keep laborers bound to the land. Serfdom remained alive in Russia long after the Black Death, however- it wasn't until Russia's defeat in the Crimean war in the 1800s sparked a series of major reforms that Russia finally decided to abolish serfdom. In both Europe and Russia, even after serfdom was discontinued the feudal system had lasting impacts on the social and political structures of the regions.

shift to the atlantic

Abu-Lughod: Two rival sea powers, Venice and Genoa had different geographical advantages. Venice on Italy's east coast had the easiest access to the eastern Mediterranean and connection to the North Sea, while Genoa was on the west coast and had a freer hand in the western Mediterranean which permitted the expansion into the Atlantic. The shift to the Atlantic eventually led to a total transformation of the larger system, European navigators sailed down the coast of Africa and westward to the Americas discovering new routes Abu-Lughod shows how, once the shorter overland trade routes to the East had been rendered unusable by Mongol fragmentation, the Portuguese made a virtue of necessity and developed the longer sea-route around Africa. In doing so, they also changed the nature of the trade relationships, substituting domination for the co-operation which Abu-Lughod believes characterized the earlier system. The final shift to an Atlantic-based hegemony took place, she argues, with the incorporation of the New World by the Spanish. when trading began to shift west, the scales of influence tipping to Europe. This shift probably occurred in the 1490s when the spanish conquered the iberian peninsula. The freedom of the Gibraltar Strait combined with advances in naval military technology and the discovery of christopher columbus set off a chain of exploration of the new world. Significance: As prospects grew, Europe was no longer the periphery and the atlantic connection to the new world became much more profitable - hence the trade shift to the atlantic. The shift to the Atlantic allowed the connection between Europe and Asia. The frequent economic exchanges made the world system at the time more integrated than ever. European shift to the Atlantic had begun even before closing of 15th century when the voyages of Columbus and de game signaled a decisive break from the past Venice Easiest access to eastern Mediterranean Transalpine connections ran thru today's Austria and Germany Poorly situated to explore Atlantic Genoa On west coast Freer hand in western Mediterranean Genoa had to find a solution to eastern trade question- eventually led to its triumph in next world system Provided the windfalls of wealth that were eventually spun into industrial gold

aztec empire

Central American empire constructed by the Mexica and expanded greatly during the fifteenth century during the reigns of Itzcoatl and Motecuzoma I. In mesoamerica, the ascendant Mexicas had created an empire called "Aztec" which expanded through the central valley of mexico to incorporate neighboring peoples United numerous small, independent states under a single monarch who ruled with the help of counselors, military leaders, and priests By the late 15th century, they had 25 million people Marriage of men and women from different villages solidified alliances and created clan-like networks Aztec rule has been described by scholars as "hegemonic" or "indirect". The Aztecs left rulers of conquered cities in power so long as they agreed to pay semi-annual tribute to the Alliance, as well as supply military forces when needed for the Aztec war efforts. In return, the imperial authority offered protection and political stability, and facilitated an integrated economic network of diverse lands and peoples who had significant local autonomy. United numerous small, independent states under a single monarch who ruled with the help of counselors, military leaders and priests The empires constant wars and conquests deprived it of stability Aztecs subjugated their neighbors, feeding off of plunder and then forcing subject peoples to pay tribute of crops, gold, silver, textiles and other goods that financed aztec grandeur Crucial to spanish conquest was their alliance, negotiated through translators, with moctezuma's enemies

jesuits

Also known as the Society of Jesus; founded by Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) as a teaching and missionary order to resist the spread of Protestantism. I a brotherhood of priests dedicated to the revival of the Catholic church who opened missions as far as South and North America, India, Japan, and China. Participated in the counter reformation to combat the protestant reformation Religious order founded by Ignatius Loyola to counter the inroads of the Protestant Reformation; the Jesuits, or the Society of Jesus, were active in politics, education, and missionary work. Dedicated to the revival of the catholic church Jesuits: catholic missionaries in china Challenge of a mission to region in which europeans have no political power Strategy formulated by a group of jesuits, of whom most famous is matto ricci Focus on accomodation: emphasis on compatibility of christianity and confucianism Focus on attracting potential converts through demonstrations of scientific and secular learning Some success: by end of ming perhaps 150,000 converts, including some high officials Jesuit priests (including some chinese priests) are virtually sole cultural intermediaries between china and europe Success of jesuit mission to china By late ming, jesuit missionaries had persuaded ming government of their expertise in calendar making and astronomy, fields then dominated by islamic astronomy that had reached china in mongol yuan period They were permitted to reside permanently in beijing, and to hold official positions Particularly under the qing, jesuits came into personal contact with emperors. They not only dealt with astronomy, but handled a range of commissiong involving art, medicine, architecture, cartography and other fields Failure of jesuit mission Provoked opposition of other catholic missionary orders, especially spanish missionary orders based in phillipines and trying to extend mission to fujian province These missionaries felt that ricci had compromised too far with confucian elitem and had obscured important features of christianity At the same time, many confucian officials were suspicious of ricci, claiming that he was misrepresenting the closeness of his own tradition to confucianism During "rites controversy," papacy sent mission to china to reject ricci's policies. This angered kangxi emperor, who supported ricci's interpretation Kangxi's son, the yongzheng emperor, outlawed christianity in china. Not as harshly enforced as similar ban in japan, small communities survived, but number of converts remained small East asia to 1750

credit

An arrangement to receive cash, goods, or services now and to pay for them in the future. Abu-Lughod mentions that some important trade cities in the 14th century world system started inventing and utilizing the idea of credit, but credit was first widely used in Liverpool. credit was an aspect of capitalism that allowed transactions to occur without the physical exchange of capital. As people became more and more specialized, trust and credit had to be inserted into the capitalist system in order to smooth out the supply chain. If successful, this system of credit allowed for more efficient economies because merchants could make economic ventures without having physical capital.

boxer uprising

Anti foreign movements in china in the late 19th century. Chinese peasant movement that opposed foreign influence, especially that of christian missionaries. The movement flourished especially where natural disasters and harsh economic conditions spread hardships. Put down when boxers were put down by an army composed mostly of japanese, russians, british french and americans. Revealed widespread political opposition to westernization and the willingness of local disaffected populations to resist western programs. The main consequence of the Boxer Rebellion in 1900-01 was that China was greatly weakened and controlled to an even greater extent by the western imperial powers. Those empires did, however, decide as a result of the rebellion that attempting to make China a colony was probably a bad idea..

dona marina

Aztec woman who became an interpreter for Hernando Cortes during his conquest of the Aztec empire was a Nahua woman from the Mexican Gulf Coast, who played a key role in the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, acting as an interpreter, advisor, and intermediary for the Spanish conquistador, Hernán Cortés. She was one of 20 women slaves given to the Spaniards by the natives of Tabasco in 1519.[1] Later, she gave birth to Cortés's first son, Martín, who is considered one of the first Mestizos (people of mixed European and indigenous American ancestry). Served as an interpreter and informer for cortes When the expedtiion arrived at present day veracruz, cortez acquired two translators- one dona marina Gift from rival of the aztecs Became cortes lover Revealed aztec plots against the tiny spanish force Hernan cortes and dona marina His translator and mistress Son was one of the first mixed race children in the americas Seen as a betrayer to some By the age of 16, she was sold by her family- was incredibly talented in language acquisition

industrial capitalism

Based on advances in technology to mass produce. Industrial capitalism refers to an economic and social system in which trade, industry and capital are privately controlled and operated for a profit. This is the dominant economic system in the United States and the developed world. War capitalism naturally lead to this by providing increased state capacity which allowed industrial capitalism to flourish Enabled by war capitalism, industrial capitalism created powerful new structures and reforms that institutionalized capitalism - the economic system that seeks to ever increase in profit and volume. Significance: After the 1780s, a growing number of states took on economic reforms and built infrastructure that eventually allowed for the emergence of new forms of integration of labor, territory, markets, and capital in parts of the world that were, in the mid-nineteenth century, still subject to some of the harshest regimes of war capitalism ever invented. Complicit in industrial capitalism as well is the deindustrialization of the colonies and the country-side (made possible by building on the efforts of war capitalism through violence and coercion) which occurred simultaneously to rapid industrialization in Europe and tipped the scale further to Europe's side. Industrialization relied on the amasses capital, the willing encouragement of the state, and past network of merchants and planners Use capital not to enslave labor but organize workers so that they would work on machines Focus was on innovation to reduce labor cost → Profits were to be made by increasing the productivity of human labor Voluntarily worked in exchange for wages, organizing labor around factories State power became less viable as it amplified → market lived within regulations, contracts, and laws Legally, bureaucratically, infrastructurally, and militarily create the conditions that allowed for long term capital investment, the mobilization of labor, expanding domestic and foreign markets, protections of national industries The war capitalism - land appropriation, slavery and expansion - coexisted for awhile with industrial capitalism, which tended to replace slavery with wage labor, land appropriation/expansion with trade treaty, had to give its way completely to industrial capitalism by 1860. The culmination of completion of industrial capitalism - which immediately preceded by industrial revolution in many countries - has brought about a major conflict between manufacturers and raw-material producers (slave owners) in the U.S., namely civil war during 1861-1865.

child labor

Child labor was very popular in the industrial revolution because children were paid approximately half of what adults were after going through several months of unpaid work to "learn the trade." Children were also more obedient, less reluctant to mundane jobs and easier to punish. Many children were forced to work to supplement their parents income. Child labor laws began to increase in the late 19th and early 20th centuries because of how dangerous factories were. Although they were more expensive than slave labor, they represented another cheap labor source that allowed British cotton to continue to be extremely cheap. This represented one way in which manufacturers in this period attempted to keep production as cheap as possible.

liverpool

City in England and one of the country's largest ports. The first major rail line linked Liverpool to Manchester in 1830. This is where "industrial capitalism and war capitalism met." This port was significant because it concentrated all core functions of the global cotton trade. It was the epicenter of the globe-spanning empire- when prices rose in Liverpool, they rose all across the world. It served as a connecting point and accumulate massive amounts of wealth from this role. News from Liverpool would affect decisions all around the world regarding policy, land, labor and price. It was not specialized for any kind of production, rather it participated in trading, shipping, financing and manufacturing.

creoles

Descendents of Spanish-born but born in Latin America; resented inferior social, political, economic status. As there were few European women compared to men, more partnerships with indingenous women naturally followed. The resulting children between the two demographics, especially Spanish men with Central American women, often became ostriscized from both groups. persons of full blooded European descents who were born in Spanish American colonies. Significance: Creoles led a revolution against European monarchs, ended 300 years of colonial rules.

free trade

Domestic and international trade unencumbered by tariff barriers, quotas, and fees There is not evidence of much free trade as many countries imposed tariffs either on themselves or other countries in order to help the state of their own economy. Although usually considered a core component of Capitlism this has been questioned more in recent years. The view from 1992 End of cold war Liberal democracy marks the endpoint of human sociocultural development Focus on free trade and globalization as unstoppable trend of world economy Proponents of free trade emerge as critics of mercantilism

protectionism

Economic policy of shielding an economy from imports. Eventually led to European protectionism against foreign cotton Protectionist measures did not help the domestic woolen and linen industry, but did spur domestic cotton manufacture As merchants in Europe gained wealth from long distance trade, they could increasingly demand protections from a govt that increasingly demanded on extracting revenue from them Even though england was buy and selling cotton like never before, their wool and cotton industries pressured the government to protect them from upstart cotton manufacturers in general and indian produced cotton in particular 10% duties were placed in imports from india, outlawed importing printed cotton, and then criminalized the importation of indian cotton all together All to help domestic cotton manufacturing in its infancy The only used domestic markets, but captured other markets to sell india cotton to-primarily to africa and the americas

inca empire

Empire in Peru. conquered by Pizarro, who began an empire for the Spanish in 1535. Base in the valley of Cuzco in the AndesEncompassed a population of 4 to 6 million internally split, lacking a clear inheritance system, the empire suffered repeated convulsions Spaniard exploited their broken government Empire of Quechaspeaking rulers in the Andean Valley of Cuzco that encompassed a population of 4 to 6 million. The Incas lacked a clear inheritance system, causing an internal split that Pizzaro's forces exploited in 1533. Significance: was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. political and administrative structure "was the most sophisticated found among native peoples" in the Americas First, it meant that europeans had their way with the human and material wealth of the americas. second it gave europeans a market for their own products- goods that found little favor in afro eurasia. Finally, it opened a new frontier that the europeans could colonize as staple producing provinces

enclosure

Enclosures were the movement by which landowners took control of rural lands that were formerly shared by peasant farmers and considered to be common property serving local needs. Landowners would acquire this land and subsequently begin planting new crops with the aim of selling the products to distant cities. They commercialized the countryside by adapting practices that accelerated crop production, such as crop rotation. This begana in England, where Enclosure Acts were passed in the 18th century. This signaled a shift away from peasant agriculture towards more commercial crop production and supported urbanization and industrialization as formerly rural peasants began to move into cities where they could find work more easily in industrial jobs than they could in the countryside.

atlantic system

Europe --> Africa (guns, rum) Africa --> Americas (slaves) "middle passage" Americas --> Europe (sugar, tobacco, coffee, sliver) New world conditions in the late 16th(development of Americas) century allowed this when previously impossible (16th-19th): New system of trade and expansion that linked Europe, Africa, and the Americas. It emerged in the wake of European Voyages across the atlantic ocean. Significance: the Atlantic system allowed the frequent slave trade by Europeans. Africa supplying labor, the americas land and minerals, and europeans the technology and military power to hold the system together In time, the wealth flows to europe and the slave based development of the americas would alter the world balance of power The atlantic system deepened the region's internal divides in europe

absolute monarchy

Form of government where one body, usually the monarch, controls the right to tax, judge, make war, and coin money. The term enlightened absolutists was often used to refer to state monarchies in seventeenth and eighteenth century Europe European believe in the "divine right of kings" Caused much discourse between successors form of government where one body, usually the monarch, controls the right to tax, judge, make war, and coin money. The term enlightened absolutists was often used to refer to state monarchies in seventeenth and eighteenth-century Europe. Significance: Under supreme monarchy, rulers can rule by "divine right"; it was an important component of 17th Century Europe, especially during Louis XIV's reign as absolute monarch of France. Form of government where one body, usually the monarch, controls the right to tax, judge, make war and coin money. The term enlightened absolutists was often used to refer to state monarchies in 17th and 18th century europe

anglo-boer war

Fought between 1899 and 1902 over the continued independence of Boer republics; resulted in British victory, but began the process of decolonization for whites in South Africa The most devastating anti colonial uprising in South Africa (1899-1902). Significance: called into question the mission of European imperialism in Africa. With news, photographs and correspondence, the horrors of the war instigated a public backlash against imperialist actions in africa. But it served as fodder for other european states to use against each other to cast their own countries imperialism in a better light - "at least we weren't doing XZY"

the american civil war

Fought from 1861 to 1865; first application of Industrial Revolution to warfare; resulted in abolition of slavery in the United States and reunification of North and South. Before the civil war, cotton was 61% of all US exports Britain was reliant on the US gold cotton Caused a "cotton famine" were exports to Europe nearly seized during the war Because of the abolition of slavery that followed, the whole global system of cotton was completely rearranged Fought from 1861 to 1865; first application of Industrial Revolution to warfare; resulted in abolition of slavery in the United States and reunification of North and South.

maize

Grains, the crops that the settled agrarian communities across the Americans cultivated along with legumes (beans) and tubers (potatoes) In the columbian exchange, Indians taught Europeans how to grow potatoes and corn, crops that would become staples all across Afro-Eurasia In communities that consumed large quantities of meat, it became the main product to feed livestock Corn gave communities of cultivators the caloric energy to change their forest landscape, expanding the arable areas In some of these regions, clans emerged to dominate the political scene and allowed them to be more densely populated Corn - from south america that became one of the staple crops that was in the columbian exchange. As corn began to migrate to africa and europe it had a profound effect on the population growth as it was more filling and nutritious. Add date and significance

making of a periphery

Great Britain attempted throughout all of the 18th century to undermine local cotton manufacturers through the use of war capitalism. It continued to find new territories, obtain more slaves and capital, making cotton as cheap as possible. Other local cotton manufacturers were not able to compete and they were pushed to the periphery. Model of recreating the global countryside. Economic/political/cultural power is spatially distributed between dominant core regions, and more marginal or dependent semi-peripheral regions and peripheral regions. Great Britain was able to maintain status as a hegemon, it also signifies the work that went in to Europe being the center. It was not just that they had a special quality but rather that they had to work immensely hard to push competitors out. Also proved just how effective war capitalism could be. Thus, according to proponents of the core-periphery model, the appearance that capitalism is developing traditional and backward societies by locating enterprises in underdeveloped regions masks the structural relationship by which capital develops and prospers at the expense (or progressive underdevelopment) of non-capitalist economies.

chartered companies

Groups of private investors who paid an annual fee to France and England in exchange for a monopoly over trade to the West Indies colonies. firms that were awarded monopoly trading rights over vast areas by European monarchs (e.g. Virginia Company, Dutch East India Company) Significance: chartered companies like the Dutch East India Company were powerful both economically and politically and had huge influence on international trades and developments of colonies This assertion of private political power by a state chartered company over distant territories was a revolutionary reconceptualization of economic might Firms that were awarded monopoly trading rights over vast areas by european monarchs (virginia company, dutch east india company) Colonies were supposed to provide wealth for their mother countries according to mercantilism Saw the worlds wealth as fixed, meaning that any one countrys wealth came at the expense of other countries Required an alliance between the state and its merchants Mercantilists understood economics and politics as interdependent, with the merchant needing the monarch to protect his interets and the monarch relying on the merchants trade to enrich the states treasury Chartered companies The most visible examples of the collaboration between the state and the merchant classes European monarchs awarded these firms monopoly trading rights over vast areas

tokugawa shogunate

Hereditary military administration founded in 1603 that ruled Japan while keeping the emperor as a figurehead. Moved capital to Edo(Tokyo) Toppled in 1868 by reformers who felt that Japan should adopt, not reject, Western influencers Villages paid taxes to the daimyos, who transferred resources to the seat of shogunate authority Attempted to ban christian converts as Chinese missionaries were swelling japanese ranks and causing internal discord/ were intolerant of other religions Shogunate restricted European traders to trade under ports in Edo's direct rule Expelled all european competitors Trade with China and Korea flourished Hereditary military administration founded in 1603 that ruled Japan while keeping the emperor as a figurehead; it was toppled in 1868 by reformers who felt that Japan should adopt, not reject, western influences. Significance: Japan ended its isolationist foreign policy called sakoku and modernized from a feudal shogunate to the Meiji government. The implementation of the tokugawa shogunate allowed Japan to be recognized as a civilized eastern nation by the European powers. Hereditary military administration founded in 1603 that ruled japan while keeping the emperor as a figurehead; it was toppled in 1868 by reformers that felt that japan should accept, not reject, western influences In 1603 the tokugawa shogunate is founded, a stable blend of centralized annd feudal administration Tokugawa Try to abolish all christianity in japan, take harsh measures to do so Tokugawa Japan had a largely agricultural economy

ecological imperialism

Historians' term for the spoliation of western natural resources through excessive hunting, logging, mining, and grazing. a theory that European settlers were successful in colonization of other regions because of their accidental or deliberate introduction of animals, plants, and disease leading to major shifts in the ecology of the colonized areas and to population collapses in the endemic peoples. The many pathogens they carried with them adversely affected the native populations of North America, Australia, and Africa, and were far more destructive than weaponry: it is estimated that disease wiped out up to 90 percent of indigenous people in some locations. Over ensuing centuries, the flora and fauna of the americas took on an increasingly european appearance- a process that one historian has called ecological imperialism Sheep and cattle stomping on agriculture Clearing rainforests for sugar plantations

abolition of atlantic slave trade

In the late 18th century, abolitionists condemned slave trading as immoral and organized themselves to ensure its end. One by one, european powers banned the trade. Britain then sent naval forces to enforce the ban off the coast of west africa and to pressure the brazilians to cease importing slaves. Some illegal slave trading continued, but slave ships were harassed by british squadrons. Rescued africans were repatriated to sierra leone or liberia. The abolition of the atlantic slave trade compelled imperial powers to transition to economic models that relied less on slavery. However, oppression of labor took on different forms and continued to exist. After abolishing the trade, europe began to promote commerce with africa to stimulate their economy so that they were able to buy european arms and luxury goods.

cotton rush

In the time during and after the Cotton Famine, England rushed to find other suppliers of cotton to support their industry and their need. This led to an increase in England's colonial efforts and eventually using India as a substitute for American-grown cotton

natural selection

Term coined by darwin in the mid 19th century whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring. Believed to be the main process that brings about evolution- went against christianity. Survival of the fittest. People started to apply this theory to humans. Social darwinism legitimized the suffering of the underclass in industrial society. This became a justification for european expansion- europeans were fit to expand and dominate other peoples. Became a justification for european imperialism. Europeans believed that they had developed more than africans and asians. Led to biological pseudo-science: adaptation of darwins findings to contemporary world. Also justified unequal treatment of women, the working class, criminals, etc.

proletariat

Karl marx's term for the exploited class- the mass of workers who do not own the means of production. Class of wage earners in an economic society whose only progression of significant material value is their labor. THese people did not share in rising prosperity that capitalists monopolized. Marx was confident that the clashes between proletariat and capitalists would end in colossal transformation of human society and would usher in a new world of true liberty, equality and fraternity. These people would give up the way that human life had been organized for centuries for this new system. Generally this force was not fully proletariat but went back and forth between the countryside and cities when they were in need of work. Created rhythms that factories had difficulty maintaining. It also created a dependence on the state for manufacturers who needed help convincing people to move into this new way of living. Prior to this wage labor had not existed, it was a complete reorganization of labor. Cotton manufacturing rested on this new set of people and it was the key building block to industrial capitalism. The ideas forged by marx led to proletariat revolutions in industrialized countries of europe. The proletariat class was the key to the communist manifesto which went on to influence the world order in the 20th century with communist movements.

self-strengthening movement

Late 19th century movements in china to counter the challenges of the west. Following defeat by british in opium wars. Due to vast internal devastation of taiping and other concurrent rebellions. Reformist bureaucrats sought to adapt elements of western learning but keep core chinese culture intact. New ventures included arsenals, shipyards, coal mines, a steamship company and new schools for learning foreign ways and technologies. Attempt to keep culture but adapt foreign ways.

taiping rebellion

Massive rebellion or total civil war in china that was waged from 1850-1864 between the established Manchu led qing dynasty and the taiping heavenly kingdom. Far greater threat to the qing than the opium war. Came as a result of the qing's inability to curb foreign influence. Their inability to do so led to rebellions that demanded change and looked to restore chinas greatness. Drew heavily on rural and subordinated class and promised a new era of economic and social justice. Proponents had an allegiance to christianity- against confucius ideas. Partly inspired by protestant missionary literature, but did not seek contact with europeans. Develops numerous reforms but few are fully implemented. Despite capturing several major cities and reaching massive size, the rebellion was unsuccessful and was quelled with the fall of its capital. Qing is able to survive because it retains the loyalty of chinese scholar-officials, who build and deploy powerful armies. After the rebellion these scholars remain loyal, but gain far more autonomy than their predecessors. Despite being dissolved still created widespread desire to adjust chinese society and government that inspired further peasant uprisings.

cartaz/pass system

Portuguese system of regulating trade in the Indian ocean. Local ships bought licenses from the Portuguese and paid customs duties in return for protection from pirates and rival states. Cartaz (plural cartazes, in Portuguese) was a naval trade license or pass issued by the Portuguese in the Indian ocean during the sixteenth century (circa 1502-1750). The "cartazes" licensing system was created in 1502 to control and enforce the Portuguese trade monopoly over a wide area in the Indian Ocean, taking advantage of local commerce: the cartaz was issued by the Portuguese at a low cost, granting merchant ships protection against pirates and rival states, which then abounded in these seas. However its main purpose was to ensure that merchants paid the tax in Portuguese trading posts, directing them to the feitorias in Goa, Malacca and Ormuz, guaranteeing its monopoly on the spice trade and other products.

plantation agriculture

Production system based on a large estate owned by an individual, family, or corporation and organized to produce a cash crop. Almost all plantations were established within the tropics; in recent decades, many have been divided into smaller holdings or reorganized as cooperatives. Focused on production of cash crops such as tobacco, sugar cane, and cotton. Allowed Europe extremely cheap coerced labor that caused it to grow exponentially. Europe Portugal creates a trading empire in the indian ocean and south china sea Spain and portgual establish colonies in the americas, discover silver, and establish export oriented plantation economies As the balance of power in europe shifts, the protestant reformation breaks out in northern and western europe, splitting the catholic church Trade in african captives fueld the atlantic slave trade, which furnishes labor for european plantations in the americas Northeastern brazil became first great sugar plantation colony System controlled by europe Products consumed by and profits earned by north america and europe Labor force mostly from africa Some native americans, especially in south america Agriculture organized into large scale capitalist plantations. Capitalist but with feudal features, control of working hours, legal jurisdiction, etc Plantations supplied distant markets with cash crops: sugar, later coffee and cotton Plantation complex required huge labor inputs in both growing and processing stages Absence of native population High casualty rates in tropical lowlands and also highlands Recovery in 18th century but low population in 17th and 18th century Native americans enslaved but considered subjects Labor force- primarily slaves- predominantly from africa Economy of americas Prosperity based on mineral extractions (primarily silver) and increasingly large scale export agriculture on plantations Radical shift in demographics Partly enormous decline in indigenous population, though still majority of population in spanish empire Partly turn toward enslaving africans as basis for plantation agriculture After seizing islands along the western african coast, the portugues introduced sugarcane cultivation on large plantations and exploited slave labor from the african mainland The madeira, canary and cape verde archipelagos in particular became labs for plantation agriculture, for their rainfall and fertile soils made them ideally suited for growing sugarcane Because sugar was labor intensive, a ready supply of slave labor enabled portugal and spain to built sizeable plantations in their first formal colonies These islands saw the beginnings of a system of plantation agriculture built on slavery that would travel across the atlantic in the following century Spain and portgual establish colonies in the americas, discover silver, and establish export oriented plantation economies

the thirty years war

Protestant rebellion against the Holy Roman Empire ends with peace of westpahlia(1618-48) A series of European wars that were partially a Catholic-Protestant religious conflict. It was primarily a batlte between France and their rivals the Hapsburg's, rulers of the Holy Roman Empire. Bid for independence by the dutch from spain also Began as a struggle between protestants and catholics which became a war for preeminence in Europe Transformed war making Gunpowder, cannons, and handguns became standardized Changed the ranks of soldiers Costs of war began to soar Conflict began between protestants and Catholics in Germany that escalated into a general European war fought against the unity and power of the Holy Roman Empire. Significance: The Thirty Years' War, from 1618-1648, represented a major turning point in European history due to the consequences of the war which include the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia, the destruction of Germany, and France becoming the dominant power in Europe. 1500-1650 Catholic and protestant schism 30 years war Not a happy time by any means

epidemic disease

Rapid spread of infectious disease to a large group of people in a given population within a short period of time, usually two weeks or less. Spread to the Natives by european colonists, such as plague, chicken pox, cholera, influenza, typhoid, etc. Natives had no immunity to these foreign diseases, was the main agent that killed off so many of them Spaniards brought over diseases such as Smallpox, typhus, influenza, measles, etc. which wiped out entire populations. Significance: It made native populations easier to conquer because there were less people to invade. In essence it was a weapon that the Spanish had at their disposal accidentally.

cotton famine

Shortage of cotton around the world that started after the american civil war. The abolition of slavery in the united states made the production of cotton much more expensive. Major shortage of cotton in britain. Caused europe to turn back to old rural areas to produce cotton in europe rather than relying on american cotton. Significant because it connected rural areas with cities with railroads and shifted the sources of raw cotton back to europe/the global countryside.

asante kingdom

State located in present day ghana founded at the end of the 17th century. Grew in power due to its access to gold and its involvement in the slave trade. As some african merchants and warlords sold other africans, their commercial success enabled them to consolidate political power and grow wealthy. Wealth was used to acquire firearms to raid nearby communities. The trading networks had african trade barter. Huge involvement in the slave trade with portugal and other european nations.

putting out systems

System of merchant capitalists "putting out" raw materials to cottage workers who made them into finished goods and returned them to the merchants. This system was fully developed in england. Merchants would put out material to rural workers who would then put out the finished product to others. In this system, work is contracted by a central agent to subcontractors who complete the work in off site facilities, either in their own homes or in workshops with multiple craftsmen. This system existed prior to the industrial revolution. This was no longer competitive when factories started because they could pay less for the labor as well as have everything done in one place. The people who took part in the putting out system were usually no longer financially stable and would have to move to cities or send a family member to those factories to survive.

strikes

Tensions built from the first strike in 1870 until a huge strike wave broke out in 1905 Workers took part in walkouts, would leave cotton mills in protest Strikes and unionisation raised labour costs, improved working conditions, and shortened workdays in America Broke out again in 1917, central role in the Great Depression Began as soon as industrial capitalism started in the late 18th century with workers wrecking machines, walking out of work and various other forms of protests. The work in factories was often difficult dirty and dangerous which lead to many uprisings as to the conditions. Significance: Exploited the relationship of government and industry and put pressure on the state to regulate factories. Though efforts were small the eventually gained traction and pressured industries into higher wages and better conditions.

mamluk egypt

The Mamluks were enslaved soldiers that were originally enslaved as bodyguards of the Abbasid caliphs of the Islamic empire. Over time, these slave soldiers became a powerful military knightly caste in various societies that were controlled by Muslim rulers due to the reliance the regions had built on them for defense from the Mongols and the crusades. Mamluk factions seized the sultanate centered on Egypt and Syria and controlled it as the Mamluk Sultanate from the 1200s to the 1500s. They regulated trade between the Middle East and Asia. They stopped the Western advance into Syria by the Mongols in 1261. The transformation into a garrison state allowed Egypt and Syria to regain and then preserve their territorial independence, but at a great cost to economic development and commercial vitality. Expulsion of crusader states by the Mamluks forced European traders out onto islands in the Mediterranean and made it so they only had access to two functional routes to Asia.

debt bondage

The act of people pledging themselves as servants in exchange for money for passage, and are subsequently paid too little to regain their freedom. The farmers were asked to pay taxes to the government in cash. Due to this the farmers went to the money lenders who gave them cash but with high interest rates.

columbian exchange

The columbian exchange was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, diseases, technology, and ideas between the americas, west africa, and europe in the 15th and 16th centuries following columbus's voyages from the spanish and portugal empire conquests. This was significant because it changed lives and landscapes on both sides of the ocean. It brought diseases to the new world that essentially wiped out natives. It started the exchange of slaves on a broad scale. It brought new foods to europe. Very one sided in that only europe benefited. Also had huge impact on asia- silver flows benefited asia much more than europe, but it brought europeans into global trade. Created a truly global economy, but europeans are not sole or even primary beneficiaries of silver flows from the columbian exchange.

silver flows

The global silver trade between the Americas and Europe from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries was a spillover of the Columbian Exchange which had a profound effect on the world economy. Significance: silver trade to mark the beginning of a genuinely global economy. In addition to the global economic changes the silver trade engendered, it also put into motion a wide array of political transformations in the early modern era. But what did foreign buyers have to trade with the chinese? The answer was silver, which had become essential to the ming monetary system Ming consumers and traders mistrusted anything other than silver or gold for commercial dealings The ming had developed a commercial fleet, which enabled their merchants to ship goods to manila in exchange for silver (as well as firearms, sugar, potatoes and tobacco) Despite official attempts to control trade, china became the final repository for much of the world's silver for roughly two hundred years This influx fueled china's phenomenal economic expansion New world silver also bought europeans greater access to chinas coveted goods

yangzi delta

The longest river in china and asia. This was an economically prosperous part of china. According to pomeranz, the delta was a booming place for industrialization and the like. Kenneth pomeranz argues that after 1750, the economies of the yangzi delta and great britain experienced a great divergence, wherein the great britain economy experiencing rapid, industrialized economic growth and the economy of the yangzi delta stagnating. There was not a corresponding increase in population growth because there were not a lot of people migrating to the center from the periphery of china. Coming against the limit of industrializing, the yangzi delta declined in population and influence throughout the years. Chinese did not move to factories and hence got a slow start in textile production.

sugar

The ming had developed a commercial fleet, which enabled their merchants to ship goods to manila in exchange for silver (as well as firearms, sugar, potatoes and tobacco) After seizing islands along the western african coast, the portugues introduced sugarcane cultivation on large plantations and exploited slave labor from the african mainland The madeira, canary and cape verde archipelagos in particular became labs for plantation agriculture, for their rainfall and fertile soils made them ideally suited for growing sugarcane Because sugar was labor intensive, a ready supply of slave labor enabled portugal and spain to built sizeable plantations in their first formal colonies These islands saw the beginnings of a system of plantation agriculture built on slavery that would travel across the atlantic in the following century On the islands of the west indies, the spanish chopped down lush tropical rainfforests to make way for sugar plantations African slaves became the solution to this labor problem. What had worked for the portuguese on sugarcan plantations on atlantic islands now found application in brazilian plantations Sugar emerged as the most valuable export from the americas By the 18th century, its production required continuous and enormous transfers of labor from africa, and its value surpassed that of silver as an export from the americas to europe Model of settlement relied on the transatlantic flows of slaves The transatlantic slave trade began modestly in support of one commodity- sugar As european demand for sugar increased, the slave trade expanded Portuguese established sugar plantations worked by African slaves—the first examples of slave-powered plantations. Significance: the Transatlantic slaving arose to supply sugar plantations with labor.

Wallerstein's "'modern' world system"

The modern world system that emerged in the centuries following the 16th century became organized hierarchically according to different modes of production Capitalist, semi feudal, precapitalist Roughly coterminous w a specific geographic distribution Capitalist core hegemon (nw Europe) Agrarian semiperiphery in eastern and Southern Europe Periphery everywhere else Wallerstein argues that the modern world system - one that was euro-centric started in the 1500s and is different from world-economies and empires. Abu-Lughod takes a step back and argues that a world system existed before Wallerstein's theory - just one that didn't have a center. Significance: it is important to not dismiss the fact that the world can come together without a hegemonic center such as Europe and the US. Wallerstein's modern world system is also very eurocentric and does not consider other parts of the world and their advances and connections. However, it could also be said that through violence and coercion, Europe brought together a true interconnected system spanning the globe beginning in the 16th century, whose structures of inequality favoring western countries continues to this day.

song china

The most extensive, populous and technologically advanced region of the medieval world was china dynasty in china that focus on civil rule and had many economic and political successes. Significance: demonstrated that in the time period, China was probably the most advanced civilization in terms of statecraft and nation building. For over three centuries during the Song dynasty (960-1279) China experienced sustained growth in per capita income and population, structural change in the economy with paper money, and increased pace of technological innovation with gunpowder, paper, and the compass. Song China also implemented civil service examination system which tested to merit rather than heritage. Was heavily Confucian society. The most extensive, technologically advanced, and populous region of the medieval world from its long history of state organization, intellectual sophistication, and efficient peasant production A lot of their trade was private and not recorded officially Their improvement of expansion of economic development came from hydraulics Population increase, rapid urbanization stimulated by industrial developments and growing of maritime trade Center of their economy moved into south china where they could grow rice instead of grains Went through a scientific revolution that would be ahead of europe for centuries to come: paper/printing, iron and steel, weapons like bombs, guns, cannons, shipbuilding and navigation techniques, and exporting silk and porcelain Compass Monopoly over silk- and requires a lot of rural workers whose daily proximity was essential one of Chinese dynasty during 960-1279. Dynasty followed by Mongol empire(Yuan), after Tang dynasty. Most commercialized economy (cash transaction) and modernized bureaucratic system based on meritocracy by contemporary standards. The most advanced level of science and technological development in the world. (Spinning machine which emerged in Europe only in 18c, paper, textile, iron, compass, etc.) Due to a long history of state organization, intellectual sophistication,and efficient peasant production Achieved highest level of premodern achievement during the song period Reversal of china's positions led to the demise of the world system that had been developing in the 13th and 14th centuries; reshaping into the eurocentered modern world system Song dynasty Expansionary phase of economic development Virtual revolution in agriculture Long distance trade and industry Hydraulics Most sophisticated agriculture in the world Turkic and mongolian tribes continued to threaten her northern frontiers Population increased on southern parts Active integration with world markets Paper and printing Iron and steel Weaponry First to invent gunpowder, guns and cannons Shipbuilding Had it not been dismantled, the chinese navy would have proved a formidable enemy capable of rendering portuguese ships and guns powerless Navigational techniques Compass Manufactured exports Shift from silk to porcelain relates to shift from northern to southern population concentration- ships for trade Commercial success due to strong agrarian base First paper money Built on tang institutions by expanding a central bureacracy of scholars/officials chosen through civil service examinations Taxes paid to neighbors to attempt to maintain peace bc they had a weak army Resources, population, foreign trade, diplomatic relations Recalling how the maritime-oriented song dynasty had been overrun by invaders from the north The first modern period in chinese history Economic modernity: commercialized economy, rise of cash transactions Backbone of the song economy is agriculture People move to the south because of the climate that allows for rice agriculture Rice farming is productive but labor intensive Agricultural manuals: people write down the best processes for farming and techniques New varieties, including drought resistant and early ripening champa (central vietnamese rice) Northern farmers grew millet, wheat, and sorghum Population exploded, facilitated by the shift to rice agriculture Northern song economic integration was greatly aided by canals, especially that connecting rich region around mouth of yangzi river with capital kaifeng Industrial development Mining, smelting, manufacturing of various metals (esp iron) Use of coal- elsewhere centuries later Output of iron comparable to what europe achieved only in 1700 Song monetary economy Exponentially greater amount of coins that were possessed in other countries per person Introduced paper currency for the first time; doesnt replace coinage but is used in major transactions Paper currency doesnt take off in other parts of the world- other parts of the world didnt have nearly the amount of paper production or printing methods Political modernity: government in hands of professional bureaucrats recruited using meritocratic, impartial examination system Scholar bureaucrats were basis of Song administration Ran examinations around the country to choose who enters the government The examinations were constructed to be as fair and as equal as possible Song officials never has problematic officials Examinations are given on who has most learned the morals and teachings of the confucian teachings All song bureaucrats were confucian How to pay for the song military becomes a huge debate within the bureaucracy Some believed that the state should intervene in the economy with laws and practices that will help ordinary people Those officials are very much opposed by those who believe that the government should have absolutely no role in the govt; any money for the government meant less in the hands of the people Rice cultivation Rice, labor intensive: to prepare fields, especially transplant seedlings and weed, harvest, thresh and husk Agricultural manuals re: best cultivation techniques. Flooding of paddy added nutrients and reduced need for fertilizer. High seed to yield ratio and transportation ease other advantages New varieties, including drought resistant and early ripening champa (central vietnam) rice Northern farmers grew millet, wheat, and sorghum Northern song economic integration greatly aided by canals, especially that connecting rich region around mouth of yangzi river with capital kaifeng Industrial development Mining, smelting and manufacture of various metals and minerals: iron, steel, copper, tin, lead, mercury, etc Use of coal- elsewhere centuries later Output of iron comparable to what europe achieved only in 1700-11th century produced Creation of national market and development of a money economy Increasing collection of taxes in cash rather than kind Growth of intensified agriculture Rise of cities Development of cheap and safe river and canal transportation Greater circulation of goods Increase in population More coins in circulation Development of paper currency Three great invventions Printing, gunpowder and the magnet. These three have changed the whole face and stage of things throughout the world No empire, no star, seems to have exerted greater power and influence in human affairs than these three mechanical discoveries Science and technology By end of 11th century, coal burning blast furnaces; produced twice as much pig iron as england did at the height of the industrial revolution Coal output reached 150,000 tons and per capita income was estimated to be more 5x europe Source of sophisticated textiles 13th century: water powered spinning machine producing linen thread similar to europe's 1700 one Post song: key inventions included smallpox inoculation, the spindle wheel , bronze type printing, gunpowder, the trebucht and bombs, lacquer and pasteurization of wine, sand clocks, rockets and rocket launchers, wallpaper and toilet paper, and ginning machine Cultural and social developments Era of cultural brilliance in poetry, prose, painting, calligraphy and ceramics

mughal empire

The mughal empire was a vigorous, centralized muslim state that exercised dominion over most of india from 1526-1857. This was one of Islams greatest regimes, with their strength resting on their military power. This was one of the largest and richest agricultural economies in the world at the time in terms of available acreage and climate. It consolidated Islam in south asia and spread muslim arts and culture as well as the faith. This was also one of the largest manufacturing empires in the world with its prominence in textile production. It had a favorable balance of trade with all major trading areas of the world, as its ruler was very skilled in the art of making alliances through favors and intermarriage. Contained some of the world's most successful and sophisticated merchants and benefited from commercial expansion in the indian ocean. During the 16th century they benefited greatly from trade with europe. During the breakup of the empire, both the english and french began to get involved in regional politics and eventually controlled much of the region in the mid 1800s.

pan movements

The pan movements were forged by groups that sought to link people across state boundaries based on ethnic or religious identities. This was a push for the rearrangement of borders in order to unite dispersed communities and a movement by political leaders to push aside political differences to unite in opposition of european incursions. This was a new idea of how to organize society. These movements were framed as an attempt to build fraternity and solidarity, but they also served as a justification for expansions, imperialist tendencies, and/or a justification for opposition to Western imperialism. Some examples were Pan-Slavism, Pan-Islamism, and Pan-Asianism. Russia was Pan-Slav, so they believed that their country had a duty to protect and rule all slavic people. This had the effect of leading Russia to enter World War 1 in order to maintain their slavic connection with Austria-Hungary and to try to absorb the areas of Eastern Europe under its common rule.

inner colonizations

The process of capitalist to turn thousands/millions of people to proletarians The domination and colonization by capital of more territoires and social relations Repression of working class through legal structures to improve their lives in any way

enlightenment

The spreading of faith in reason and universal rights and laws primarily in the 18th century. Expansion of literacy, the spread of critical thinkng and the declines of religious persecution. Stemmed out of all of the religious violence of the thirty years war. European politics, philosophy, science and communications were radically disoriented during the course of this movement. Led to the american revolution and american independence because they formed the philosophical basis for americas claim that it should have more freedom.

the french revolution

This revolution that began in the late 1700s. Before the revolution, france was marked by a strong heritage of feudalism. Because of this heritage and the social structure that existed because of it, the nobles and the church were the only people in power so it was extremely difficult to effect reforms within the country. It was caused by unhappiness with the absolute rule or royalty, nobility, and church. After the french monarchy enters bankruptcy, given urgent need to make economic and political changes. People wanted power like americans had gained in their revolution. This gathered the order of subjects or estates, those being the church, nobility and the commoners. The commoners or the third estate assert that they are collectively the nation and hold sovereignty. They create the national assembly and refuse to accept royal orders. Abolish nobility and radically reform the church. Also led to the declaration on the rights of women.

trade union

Trade unions were organized groups of workers that revolted in protest of the harsh conditions of cotton mills. These arose as early as the 1790s. An increase in unionization in the late 1800s and early 1900s in North America and Europe forced capitalists and countries to increase wages, decrease work hours, reduce child labor and mitigate dangerous working conditions. They were illegal and weak at first, but slowly gained power and influence until they made actual changes. This represented a way in which workers were able to exploit the nationalization of labor by the state as a way in which to push for their demands. They began using the political process and holding office to then put pressure on factories to improve conditions. They reversed the system to work in their favor. In this way, they used the power of the state that had brought them to this condition in the first place. Made wage labor more expensive.

Zheng He's voyages

Zheng He was a eunuch admiral for the Ming empire. His maritime exploration crossed the Indian Ocean and south china sea from 1405-1431. The ships he used were significantly larger than any military ships around the world. These voyages were of diplomatic and political nature to increase number of tributaries and to make the Ming emperor the nominal overlord of the Indian ocean; these voyages were not for exploration, conquest or economics/trade. If a community refused to pay tribute, the Zheng fleet would attack it. The Ming showed its might to establish tributary relation with southeast asia, indian ocean ports, the persian gulf, and the east coast of africa. His voyages led China to become the superpower of the Indian ocean in the 15th century. This was the last large scale maritime ventures by Ming China, as military threats from the north led Ming officials to recall how the maritime oriented Song was overrun by invaders. They subsequently withdrew support and instead devoted their energies to overland ventures and defense. This abrupt withdrawal of imperial support led to the decline of Chinese naval power and opened the way for newcomers and rivals.

opium war

a conflict between Britain and China, lasting from 1839 to 1842, over Britain's opium trade in China. Began when the Qing Dynasty in China decided that there trade and relationship with Britain, particularly the opium trade was too harmful and closed ports and threw shipments of opium in the ocean. Britain fought and won the Opium War(and the second a little more than 10 years later) which severely crippled the Qing dynasty, lowering China considerabley as a world power. War fought between the British and Qing China over British trade in opium; resulted in the granting to the British the right to trade in five different ports and the ceding of Hong Kong to the British. British East India Company establishes monopoly on production of opium within its Indian territories. Because opium is illegal in China, EIC auctions opium in Calcutta, it is shipped to China by private traders (British and Indian) Qing attempts to prevent opium smuggling are largely unsuccessful. Volume of opium exported to China greatly increased after 1820. In 1838, Daoguang emperor approves stronger measures against foreign opium traders. These are enforced by Lin Zexu. In response to his policies, British government decides to start war with China: (First) Opium War, 1840-1842. Qing government concern with opium was two-fold. First, seen as harmful to health. Particularly concerned about opium smoking by officials, members of the imperial family, and members of the military. Second, concern about economic effects of the outflow of silver. First silver trade deficit in Chinese history. Less silver drives up cost of silver in copper coins, making it harder for people to pay taxes. Qing in decline Death of qianlong emperor coincides with upsurge in unrest. Many reformers officials and advisors emerge, but their reforms are based on earlier precedents Many qing officials believe falling into decline Looking back into earlier chinese dynasties After 1800, protestant missionaries begin to make extensive translations into chinese, both religious and secular. These have limited influence before the opium war 1800- secular learning Defeat in opium war leads to greater interest in outside world, particularly geography, but not yet widespread sense that urgent changes are needed. Foreigners limited to five treaty ports on south coast; no foreign ambassadors in beijing; economic influence of foreign trade still quite limited Defeat in opium war in 1842 By britain Greater interest in the outside world

crusades

a series of religious conflicts of western Christian kingdoms to reclaim the Holy Land in the 11th-13th century but also include motives to fight back Islam and plunder middle eastern riches. Significance: showed how powerful the Catholic Church became in the middle ages, displayed how Europeans developed intellectually through the transition of ideas from the East, and we learn how animosity started between Christians, Muslims, and Jews. Facilitated European trading with the Middle and Eastern worlds as well as exposing Europeans to this other continent a very specific idea of the Other. Furthermore, ideas exchanged through these opened channels as well. The intellectual development from the exchanges of ideas combined with the prominence of Christianity created an identity that tied "Europe" together (against others). Definition A wave of attacks against Islam by western Europeans, 11th-13th c. In response to the expansion of Islam 5 Crusades total Significance Long term effect: hardened Muslim feelings against the Franks of the West After the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire, the only institution that had any legitimacy/unity was religion. Europe was fragmented into self-sufficient feudal territories- fragmented by was becoming more integrated. End of 11th cent- first crusades from NW europe to Islamic holy lands marching over land to constantinople to palestine 12-13th century-recapture of palestine → the constant deployment of troops helped to solidify the competitive alliance between northern and southern europe establishing regular trading channels coming out of italian city states and going to NW europe- connecting to the established route to the middle east+india+china → crusades failed but it reintegrated europe into the world after becoming detached with the fall of rome Troops transported on italian ships Came back with all these riches from the orient By the fourth crusade- they had a hard time getting enough people to go or paying for the passage over Crusades brought west and east into admittedly antagonistic but nevertheless permanent involvement with one another Even after the crusades thrust a european threat into their arab heartland, muslim attitudes towards europeans remained condescending at best and aghast at worst; europeans were in awe and admiration Crusades led to heightened trade that allowed europe in the 12th and 13th centuries to finally attach itself to the ongoing world system 11th century Started by french warriors trying to free jerusalem from muslim rule Society of crusaders was more open to women and lower class people than in europe French attacks on the middle east had long term effect of hardening muslim feelings against the franks and the millions of non western christians who had previously lived peacefully in egypt and syria Religious vitality Provide services to the crusaders Growing self confidence New weapons: crossbow Italian peninsula becomes the site of europe's greatest prosperity Strengthened monarchy New trade; new knowledge Crusades are a failed conquest; europeans end up leaving the middle eastern states they were looking to occupy However, crusades and mongolian empire still had major impacts This need for a citizen militia may have been one of the reasons the governments of the Italian port states were both more democratic and more directly involved in economic ventures than was the case in either France or Flanders Crusades extended European power into the Arab world where cotton grew naturally Northern Italy thrived for 2 reasons: vibrant wool production gave them skilled workers, capital rich merchants, and expertise in long distance trade; easy access to raw cotton from Mediterranean due to the crusades

genoa

an independent Italian city state. one of the most important ports on the Mediterranean, competitor of Venice. Significance: 1) Unique market freedom at the time allowed private businesses to thrive and developed advanced technological innovations. 2) Played pivotal roles in linking the European economy to that of the East. 3) Genoa was an important sea port In the late 15th century Genoa began looking west for better trading opportunities. Genoa established commercial relation with Spain and Portugal and was considered one of Italy's greatest mercantile powers. Link between NW europe and Middle eastern system At the end of the 11th cent gained de facto independence from E. roman empire and made its own "association of citizens" Answered the pope's call for the first crusades West coast of italy and west Ship building was financed privately and regulated and facilitated by the state Bigger ships and improved navigation techniques Both- developed complex ways to finance the long-distance trade, distribute the risk, and debt, commercial shipping was the way they got into the market rather than actually making anything Trade permeate the entire society and had group ownership of thing s Naval and merchant power Italian city that served as a link between europe and the orient By the end of the 11th century, had established a self ruled compagna, an association of citizens under the authority of six and later ten consuls elected for three year terms Italy had urban settlement thru the dark ages but was still a poor peripheral region until the time of the dark ages Eagerly pursued battle and crusades Helped crusaders attack palestine, received one third of the city as a reward After italians got wrecked by byzantine greeks, genoa was able to reestablish a port in byzantine 5 years later when the situation had normalized Was passed in power by venice when they overtook constantinople and became champion of northeastern trade Need for citizen militia was the reason the governments of the two port states were more democratic and more directly involved in economic ventures than in either france or flanders Individual citizens were more involved than the state in direct investment Origins- nobility derived from a landowning class that came from the hinterlands, tended to perpetuate old battles in the new arena, moving from rural military conflict to modern urban cut throat competition in business and government Family feuds Loans to the commune were actually purchases of shares in a given revenue producing state function Even more people had invested on ships in sea with a sort of lottery In 1380 genoa falls to venetians Individualistic genoa was poorly positioned to mobilize communal wealth to create a safety net for its merchants, whereas the state in venice had always provided subsidies and insurance to its merchants through the provision of collective goods Genoa's routes were not useful during the second half of the thirteenth century Failure to recover from the black death and eventual naval defeat at the hands of venice was equally genoa's weakness and venice's strength Genoa was losing her commercial empire to other european competitions or to central asian events far beyond her control Lessons There were three routes to worldwide relevance- genoa and venice chose commercial shipper, transferring goods from where they are produced and plentiful to markets where they are needed Black death- volume of trade decreased and cities that played the role of the middleman were affected most It was the inability of the italian marine states to determine what would happen in regions far beyond their control that ultimately aborted their bid for hegemony over a world system that had formed but then dissolved On west coast genoas success in next world system: Freer hand in western Mediterranean Genoa had to find a solution to eastern trade question- eventually led to its triumph in next world system Provided the windfalls of wealth that were eventually spun into industrial gold

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brokers

independent firms or individuals whose principal function is to bring buyers and sellers together to make sales did not take possession of the cotton but they charged a commission for organizing trades between important merchants and manufacturers. They provided a more direct connection between merchants and manufacturers. Had knowledge of the different types of cotton certain manufacturers would need They were able to become specialized in certain types of cotton. Significance: Developed the ideas of samples and a system in which different grades of cotton were to be labeled. Allowed manufacturers and merchants to specialize aka division of labor which leads to more efficiency and growth. Also created a new class of business people. Changed the way cotton was sold. a person who buys and sells goods or assets for others. Merchants had t specialize in their specific aspect of trade because the buying and selling of cotton at different levels was becoming more and more complex, focusing on a specific region Most importantly getting enough raw cotton to the manufacturers They made their money brokering tades between importing merchants and manufacturers- giving them a more direct connection to the things they wanted Changed the way cotton was bought and sold → all a commodity Increased the standards on cotton production

sufism

mystical Islamic belief and practice in which Muslims seek to find the truth of divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God. It consists of a variety of mystical paths that are designed to ascertain the nature of humanity and of God and to facilitate the experience of the presence of divine love and wisdom in the world. Significance: By educating the masses and deepening the spiritual concerns of the Muslims, Sufism has played an important role in the formation of Muslim society. Opposed to the dry casuistry of the lawyer-divines, the mystics nevertheless scrupulously observed the commands of the divine law. Mystic islam the emphasized the personal union with god Under the first mughal emperor when bengal broke away from Delhi turned to this (and other religions) that opened the Mughal empire up to being a great islamic empire and renouncing the caste system Building on the indian traditions of religious and cultural tolerance

venice

one of the most important port-cities in the Mediterranean - rivalry with Genoa that pushed trading to develop. Significance: Transformed the banking system, innovating financial tools such as bookkeeping, loans, credit to which Abu-Lughod mentions they most resembled a precursor to capitalist society. Built up shipbuilding industry, port of international trade. Their significance was also as middlemen between Europe and Central Asia, they played a large part in the fall of Constantinople affecting trade routes. Their advances in trade and the control in the Mediterranean meant advances in sailing and furthering the development of technology between the Afro-Eurasia region. Crucial link across the mediterranean- keeping alive contacts and knowledge with the easter portion of the Holy roman empire-byzantium Link between NW europe and Middle eastern system Firmly attached to byzantium- with certain advantages with the protections and access to byzantium ports plus special charter and exemption from toll throughout the entire empire Eastern basin of the mediterranean Gained control of passage to egypt making it the dominant control of the spices/goods coming from asia State capitalism with a strong subcomponent of individual enterprise Wealth accumulated by elites At the end of the black death were able to establish a monopoly over mediterranean routes Through crusades, venice and genoa connect europe to asia naval and merchant power Italian city that served as a link between europe and the orient New town, but one with urban roots Italy had urban settlement thru the dark ages, but was still a poor peripheral region until the time of the crusades Venice came to the rescue of a byzantine fleet and was rewarded with a special charter and given full trading priveleges and exemptions from tolls throughout the empire; having gained the ability to expand trade in the levant she was reluctant to risk her ships and reputation to follow the first crusade After the byzantine greeks ****ed on the italians, the situation normalized 5 years later and venice reestablished a port in pera However the underlying competition festered for several decades until venice succeeded in adding constantinople to its growing empire, displacing both its greek and genoese rivals for northeastern trade This, added to her continuing egyptian connection, made venice the dominant force controlling european access to the spices and silks of asia 13th century period of venetian efflorescence at home Initial construction of the venice facility for shipbuilding signaled that trade had become some central to the economic base of the marine cities that it needed more than individual entrepeneurs- it had to involve the state and eventually the entire populace Ships became larger and more maneuverable Need for citizen militia was the reason the governments of the two port states were more democratic and more directly involved in economic ventures than in either france or flanders In venice the arrangements were close to state capitalism with a strong subcomponent of individual enterprise Bc of origins: was a new city that did not import its elites from the hinterlands but developed it indigenously; less fractured from inter family feuds and competitive struggles that plagued italian city states including genoa Forced loans Method of capital pooling called fraterna was favored in venice even after genoa had moved beyond it One brother would handle family business and the other would travel to ports to sell goods and make purchases for the return trip Almost everyone had invested in ships at sea 6th century- founded by migrants, remained attached to byzantine empire 11th century- gained privelege to trade throughout byzantine empire Venice and Genoa had very different geographic natural advantages Venice- Easiest access to eastern Mediterranean, Transalpine connections ran thru today's Austria and Germany , Poorly situated to explore Atlantic Individualistic Genoa was poorly positioned to mobilize communal wealth to create a safety net for its merchants, whereas the state in Venice had always provided subsidies and insurance to its merchants through the provision of collective goods (ports, vessels or defensive arms) Genoa's natural zone was the western Mediterranean and Atlantic; captured zone was Constantinople, Black Sea, overland route through Central Asia. Neither of these routes was useful during the second half of the 14th century Failure to recover from Black Death and eventual naval defeat at the hands of Venice was equally Genoa's weakness and Venice's strength. Genoa was losing her commercial empire to other European competitions or to central Asian events far beyond her control Venice's ability to insert itself into and eventually dominate Mediterranean trade was crucial to northern Italy's success, and was a harbinger of the wedge that European states and capitalists would later drive into the heart of ancient cotton centers

the woman question

the debate over the role of women in society. In the nineteenth century, women remained legally inferior, economically dependent, and largely defined by family and household roles. Many women still aspired to the ideal of femininity popularized by writers and poets. As the chief family wage earners, men worked outside the home, while women were left with the care of the family, for which they were paid nothing. In lower classes, the need for supplemental income drove women to do sweatwork the complicated politics of domesticity where women are seeking for more rights as citizens and calling for change to society and family structures and navigate apparent advances to the statuses and standards of living for women in Asia and Africa afforded by colonial rule. Significance: the "question" has roots in the 19th century and is still a pressing matter. It was not only women in colonies that had to deal with claims of improvements, but women in western countries as well. It has been historically used to delegitimize the demands of activists. Furthermore, the view of women having improvements under colonial rule is also tied to Western-centric view that imperialism is a "civilization" project that brought those under colonial rule to a better place in the world. And it was false because the construct of women being at home and in the domestic sphere is a global one and not limited to the colonies or the western countries.

marxism

the political and economic theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, later developed by their followers to form the basis for the theory and practice of communism. Historical significance: class conflict arises in capitalist societies due to contradictions between the material interests of the oppressed proletariat—a class of wage labourers employed to produce goods and services—and the bourgeoisie—the ruling class that owns the means of production and extract their wealth through appropriation of the surplus product (profit) produced by the proletariat. This class struggle that is commonly expressed as the revolt of a society's productive forces against its relations of production, results in a period of short-term crises as the bourgeoisie struggle to manage the intensifying alienation of labor experienced by the proletariat, albeit with varying degrees of class consciousness. •The "Labor Question": Living and working conditions for industrial workers becomes pressing social and political question in much of Europe. Range of responses: Government-mandated social programs; worker self-organization through unions; various forms of Socialism, ranging from Christian Socialism to revolutionary Marxism. Definition Condemned capitalism and predicted the emergence of a socialist order featuring equality, liberty, and fraternity under a dictatorship of the proletariat (working class) Karl Marx Saw history as moving towards communism Significance Emerged as the most famous socialist belief system during the 19th century. Saw all of history as the story of class struggle. "Scientific socialism" was rooted in a materialistic theory of history: what mattered in history were the production of material goods and the ways in which society was organized into classes of producers and exploiters Capitalist exploitation of the wage worker was only the latest, and worst, version of class conflict In industrialized societies, capitalists owned the means of production and exploited the wage workers History moved through stages: feudalism to capitalism, to socialism, and eventually to communism Called to workers to unite and overthrow capitalism. Formed my Karl Marx Emerged as the most famous socialist belief system during the 19th century. Saw all of history as the story of class struggle. Karl marx History can be understood through the lens of historical materialism Every time and place has dominant mode of production (determined by labor, means of production, and relations of production, such as laws) Everyone belongs to a class based on their relationship to this mode of production The interests of the classes clash with each other because of their conflicting interests. As the mode of production shifts, so do class relations Saw that capitalism was bound to destroy itself Believed that economic relations are fundamental, everything else is superstructure Economic shifts are the foundation of historical movement Something like the protestant reformation had to be understood in terms of economic situations, not as a cause of the economic state (contrasted w/ karl polanyi) In his view, capitalism had recently replaced feudalism, but would in turn be replaced by socialism

Feudalism

was a combination of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of structuring society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour. Significance: the Nobles became responsible for the protection of their vassals and serfs. The manor became an agricultural estate operated by the lord and worked by the peasants who sustained the land and drove the economy. In short, Feudalism guided European life during the Middle Ages. Each peasant toiled under the authority of a lord, who controlled every detail of their life Arose during the 1000-1300 because there was no successor to the Roman Empire there was intense localization Territory united them under a shared sense of place in the world Each local lord in charge of collecting taxes, imposed forced labor, and became the unchallenged rulers of society -in western and northern europe, peasants toiled under the authority of a lord -fueled a commercial transformation -> drew europe into the rest of global trading networks -eastern europe offered freedom from feudalism -the black plague and mongols undermined the feudal order, made massive revolts happen against lords who failed to protect them from marauding military bands -labor shortages made it impossible to keep peasants tied to the soil -left a legacy of political fragmentation and enshrined priveleges which made the consolidation of a unified christian europe even more difficult to achieve -ruler delegates many functions to subordinates, who in turn owe duties to the ruler -for the ruler this required a fairly small and cheap central state. Comes at a price of limited authority and control - evolves into a complex state with multiple levels of government in conflict over their mutual duties and obligations -precapitalist

nation-state rebellion of 1857 (india)

was a major uprising in India during 1857-58 against the rule of the British East India Company, known in India and Pakistan as War of Independence, which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown. Historical Significance: The Revolt of 1857 was an extremely important event in Indian history. It was mere a product of Sepoy but was accumulated grievances of the people against the Company's administration and of their dislike for the foreign regime. Indian uprising against the East India Trading Company to bring religious purification, an egalitarian society, and local and communal solidarity without the interference of British rule. The Reason for the revolt was the introduction of the greased cartridges which hurt both Hindu and Muslim sentiments. Rebellion of India against the East INdia COmpany Born out of opposition to colonial domination Popular uprising with strong support from the lower orders of Indian society Rebels appealed to bonds of local and communal solidarity, invoked religious sentiments, and reimagined traditional hierarchies in egalitarian terms Did so to pose alternatives to British rule and deepened involvement of India in a network of capitalist relationships Revolt turned from a limited military mutiny into a widespread civil rebellion that involved peasants, artisans, day laborers, and religious leaders Through the East India Company into crisis In 1858, british parliament abolished company rule and the company itself and transferred responsibility for governing India to the crown British worked to turn India into a modern colonial state and economy

black death

was one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 75 to 200 million people in Eurasia and peaking in Europe from 1347 to 1351. Significance: The plague created a series of religious, social and economic upheavals, which had profound effects on the course of European history. Also allowed for the Ming dynasty to take control of China as the Yuan dynasty fell to the plague. Definition Disease that spread throughout Eurasia between the 13th and 15th centuries Peaked in mid 14th century Killed 25-50% of populations; 75-200 million people Significance Contributed to the fall of the Mongol Empire Disruption and falling populations weakened political structures → prompted state-rebuilding efforts Compounded previous lesser misfortunes in europe such as high public debt, low crop yield, the abandonment of communal rule for dictatorship Population densities did not recover for 200 years Spread out of inner asia 14th century with death ranging 25-65% Spread from pastoral communities to agricultural communities thanks to climate change and then from china to the rest of the world by land and sea that all lead to italian ports Devastation in population and food production→ collapse, rapid inflation, work stoppages, and interest Afterwards allowing the states to rebuild by forming dynasties and consolidating their power Populations had to migrate from the countryside- less demand for the items that were being made In europe Started in about 1346 and overcrowded and unsanitary cities hit the hardest killing ⅔ of europe in less than 10 years and return sporadically Debauchery and personal spirituality for answers Christianity no longer appealed to a lot of people bc the clergy was living it up and did nothing to stop it→ blamed sinners and jews Weakened feudalism Failure to recover from the black death and eventual naval defeat at the hands of venice was equally genoa's weakness and venice's strength Black death- volume of trade decreased and cities that played the role of the middleman were affected most Mid century depression Heightened trade first half of 14th century; economic collapse following bubonic plague of mid century Disease was transmitted to Europe by rats aboard a Venetian galley One indicator: physical changes in port cities Reduction in size of convoys, however this had started before the arrival of the plague, which shows that the epidemiological explanation accounted for only a portion of this decline Argued that Black Death was preceded in Europe by a series of lesser misfortunes of various kinds which suggests something was seriously wrong with the economy Black Death- volume of trade decreased and cities that played he role of the middleman were affected most One of the most important systemic changes was the bubonic plague in the mid 14th century Reemphasis on agricultural production Drop in the rate of urbanization Symptoms of the fact that participants were no longer able to create a surplus of money Temporary drop in the overall volume and value of trade, particularly long distance trade English peasants revolt- fueled by post plague labor shortages, serfs demanded the freedom to move about Areas had become dependent- often shared successes or failures One of the most important systemic changes was the bubonic plague in the mid 14th century Reemphasis on agricultural production Drop in the rate of urbanization Symptoms of the fact that participants were no longer able to create a surplus of money Temporary drop in the overall volume and value of trade, particularly long distance trade Reaches europe from black sea around 1346 Europe one of the hardest hit parts of eurasia Loses between ⅓ and ⅔ of the popluation Cities have higher death rates Huge economic impact Land without labor loses value; grain loses value with less demand Landowners need to compete for labor Older system of serfdom, which tied peasants to the land, replaced by more favorable terms for peasants Feudal impacts- feudal lords dont have people to work their land, their land is now worthless If you survive the plague, your work abilities are very valuable After the black death, you have more freedom of who you work for, where you want to work Shift to cash economy Takes until 1500 or later for population to recover Microbial exchanges eg spread of bubonic plague